Sentence

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATES:

Every sentence is made up of two basic parts: the subject and the predicate.
The SUBJECT of the sentence tells us whom or what the sentence is about.
The PREDICATE of the sentence tells something about the subject. It tells us something about the
subject such us what the subject did, or what happened to it.

Subject (Who or What ) Predicate (Did or What Happened)

Arthur has a good memory.

My friends will be here soon.

Several hornets buzzed around the table.

The new bus driver seems friendly.

Simple Subjects and Predicates

Every sentence contains a few key words that make up its basic framework.
The key word in the subject of a sentence is called the simple subject. It is usually a noun or pronoun
that represents the main topic of the sentence.
The key word in the predicate of a sentence is the simple is the verb.

Simple Subject Simple predicate (Verb)è

The dirty eraser smudged the paper.
A narrow hall led to the kitchen.

The actors in a play often wear make-up.

SUBJECT IN UNUSUAL POSITIONS:

To find the subject in a sentence with unusual word order, first find the verb which will show action or
state of being. Then ask who or what before the verb. The answer will be the subject.
1.The subject of a sentence usually comes before the verb. sometimes, though, part or all of the verb
comes before the subject.

Sentences beginning with there or here and where often reverse the order of subject and verb.
- There are my books. (Books is the subject; are is the verb.)
- Here is the entrance. (Entrance is the subject; is is the verb.)
-There may be some questions. (Questions is the subject; may be is the verb.)
2.Questions: Part of the verb in question may come before the subject.
- Did Tim sign the list? (Tim is the subject; Did sign is the verb)

- Will you be at the picnic? (You is the subject; will be is the verb.)
3.Sentences beginning with phrases or other words that are not the subject:
- In hot weather we eat outside. (We is the subject; eat is the verb.)
- Through the door strolled Barb. (Barb is the subject; strolled is the verb.)
4.Sentences giving commands or making requests: The subject is not given. The subject is always you.
You said to be understood:

- Help me with this package. (You is the subject of help.)

- Please watch carefully. (You is the subject of watch.)

COMPOUND SUBJECTS:
Compound subject joined by and require a plural verb.

Example:
- Boston and Philadelphia are two of our oldest cities.
- The porcupine and the spiny anteater protect themselves well.

When the parts of a compound subject are joined by or, or nor, the verb agrees with the subject
nearer to the verb.

Example:
- Neither the pools nor the beach is open.
- Neither the beach nor the pools are open.
- The tubes or the antenna needs attention.
- The antenna or the tubes need attention.

SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT:

The subject and the verb of a sentence should agree in number, i.e., a plural subject takes a plural verb
and a singular subject takes a singular verb.
The subject and the verb of a sentence should agree in number, i.e., a plural subject takes a plural verb
and a singular subject takes a singular verb.

Singular Plural

Ann laughs. Children laung

She laughs They laugh

Tom rides. Tourists ride

He rides They rides

It whines puppies whine

Englin Whines They whine

The subject of a verb is never found in a prepositional phrase. Watch out for phrases that lie between
the verb and the subject.Example:

One of the wheels is loose.

The slices of cake look too small.

Phrases beginning with the words with, together with, including, as well as, and in addition to are not
part of the subject.Example:

Peanut butter, as well as peanuts, is popular.

Peanuts, in addition to peanut butter, sell well.

RULES FOR SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT:

1. When two singular subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb is singular.
Example: Neither Jim nor Mary appreciates this music.
2. When two plural subject are joined by or or nor, the verb is plural.
Example: Violinists or guitarists appreciate this music.
3. When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor, the verb must agree with the
subject immediately following or or nor.

Example: Neither the violinists nor the guitarist appreciates this music.
4. Two or more subject joined by and require a plural verb.
Example: The violinist and the guitarist appreciate this music.
5. Singular indefinite pronouns (e.g., each, nobody, someone, somebody, everyone, anyone ), require a
singular verb.
Example: Everyone appreciates this music.
Neither one of them appreciates this music.
6. Collective nouns that represent a group of people or things
(e.g., committee, board, faculty, staff, group, family), require a singular verb.
Example: The group appreciates this music.
The faculty appreciates this music.
KINDS OF SENTENCES

There are four different kinds of sentences. Each serves a different purpose:
1. A DECLARATIVE sentence makes a statement. It ends with a period.

Miami is usually warm.

2. An INTERROGATIVE sentence asks a question. It ends with a question mark.
Did you pay a deposit?

3. An IMPERATIVE sentence tells someone to do something. It ends with a period.

Please shut the window.

4. An EXCLAMATORY sentence expresses strong emotion. It ends with an exclamation mark.

What a close call you had!
Sometime a sentence is imperative in one situation but exclamatory in another situation.
Types of Sentences

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound Complex Sentence

A SIMPLE sentence contains one subject and one predicate. However, the parts of the simple
sentence may be compound.
Example:
The plane landed and moved down the runway. (The verb is compound, but both
verbs share the same subject, plane.)
A COMPOUND sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined together. The simple
sentences should be closely related in thought.The parts of a compound sentence may be joined by a
coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, or, but, yet, so) or by a semicolon(;). Example:
- Glenda ran very fast, and the coach was pleased.
-The food must be good, or this restaurant wouldn't be so popular.
- Johnny and his sister took in another stray; they now have three cats and two dogs.

All of the parts of the sentence may be compound.

Compound subject:
Heat and humidity bother Gordon.
Compound verb:
The engine starts and stops.
Compound predicate:
Martha dislikes the plan and told Ben.

Compound object:
Karen measured the floor and the walls.

Compound predicate word: The speech was long and dull.

PUNCTUATING COMPOUND SENTENCES:

In compound sentences, a comma generally used before the coordinating conjunction.
Example:

- The city had it worst winter in 1967, and it also had its hottest summer that year.
- The wire looks delicate, but it is very strong.
- Did you read the contract first, or did you just sign it?
Instead of a conjunction and a comma, a semicolon (;) is sometimes used to separate the main ideas in a
compound sentence.Example:

- The state had its worst winter in 1967; it also had its hottest summer that year.

- The wire looks delicate; it is not.

A comma is not used with compound subjects, predicates, or other compound parts.
The comma is not necessary in every short compound sentences.
Example:
Either Robin leaves or I leave.
Ann plays and Jon keeps score

COMPOUND PREDICATE OR COMPOUND SENTENCE?

A compound predicate is two predicates or more within one simple sentence. Each predicate contains a
verb. At least one verb is completed by an object or predicate word.Example:

Jody ordered a double hamburger but couldn't finish it.

To tell the difference between a compound sentence and a simple sentence with a compound predicate,
look for the verbs. If both verbs have the same subject, the sentence is a simple sentence. If each verb
has a different subject, the sentence is compound.Example:
-Darryl looked under the couch and found his other shoe. (This simple sentence has a compound
predicate. Both verbs, looked and found, have the same subject, Darryl.)
- Sandy found some coral, and her brother collected shells. (This is a compound sentence. The verb
found has Sandy for its subject, the verb collected has brother for its subject.)
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

A main clause (subject and a verb) complete thought , is a clause that can be a sentence by itself. A
clause that cannot stand by itself is a subordinate clause.
The subordinate clause can act as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A complex sentence expresses only
one main idea and one or more ideas that depend on the main idea.Example:
After the plane landed, the pilot spoke to the passengers. (After the plane landed is an adverb clause
modifyingthe word spok e.)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

As I walked home, it started to rain.

When the bell rang, Jeremy got up.

Words that subordinate, or make dependent, the groups of words they introduce are subordinating
conjunctions. These wards are often used as subordinating conjunctions:
after, as long as, if, so that,unless, whenever, although, as though, in order that, than, until,where as,
because, though, whatever, wherever, as if, before, since, till, when,while. .

Some of the words in the list above can be used in other ways. They are subordinating conjunctions only
when they introduce clauses.
Subordinate clauses can also be introduced by other words.
that, who, whom, whose, which, why, what, whoever, whomever, how

Note:

The different structures of sentences, whether simple, compound, or complex, can affect the meaning,
emphasis, and clarity of the sentence.

A simple sentence is straightforward and concise, expressing a single idea or thought. It is useful for
emphasizing a point or making a clear statement.

A compound sentence combines two or more independent clauses, which can be used to show the
relationship between two ideas. It can create a sense of balance, contrast, or progression between the
ideas.

A complex sentence can add more depth and complexity to a sentence by including a dependent clause
that modifies the independent clause. It can be used to show cause-and-effect relationships, express
conditions or concessions, or provide additional information.
Overall, the choice of sentence structure can help to convey the intended meaning and tone of the
sentence. By using different structures, a writer can vary the pace, emphasis, and complexity of their
writing to engage the reader and create a more effective and compelling piece of writing.

Verb

A Verb is a word that tells or asserts something about a person or thing or a subject of a sentence.

A Verb may tell us—

(1) What a person or thing does

(2) What is done to a person or thing

Transitive and intransitive verb

A Transitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action which passes over from the doer or Subject to an
object.
An Intransitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action which does not pass over to an object, or which
expresses a state or being.

1. The boy kicks the football.

2. The boy laughs loudly.

Tense

One of the most important functions of the verb is to indicate the time at which an action takes place,
whether someone or something is doing something, was doing something or will do something. This is
expressed by tense and in many languages this is marked by inflection.

There are several tenses in English. The major ones are present tense, past tense and future test, but
there are other categories relating to these.

Tense Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

Present S+ V(s/es)+O+PMTR S+am/is/are + Ving S+has/have+ V3 S+has/have +been+

Ving

Past S+ V2+ O+PMTR Was/were+ Ving had+V3 had+been+ Ving

Future will+V1 will be +Ving Will+have+V3 Will+have+been+

Ving
  Regular and Irregular Verb

PHRASES AND CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject.

A simple sentence is a clause because it has a verb and a subject. To understand the complex sentence,
you must first know about clauses.

A phrase is a group of words that does not have both subject and a verb. A phrase such as walking down
the road is not a clause.

Compound sentences contain two or more clauses. That is, compound sentences contain two or more
groups of words with a subject and a verb. Each of the clauses in a compound sentence can be a
sentence by itself.
Clauses that can be sentences by themselves are called main clauses. A clause that cannot stand by itself
as a sentence is called a subordinate clause.
As and when are subordinating conjunctions. They subordinate, or make dependent, the groups of
words they introduce.
Look at the following groups or words:
As I walked home

When the bell rang

Neither group of words above expresses a complete thought, although each group becomes a complete
sentence.
Sometimes you may have trouble deciding whether a group of words is a phrase or a clause. Just
remember that a clause has a subject and a verb. A phrase does not.
Example:
- After entering the contest, Jim got nervous. (The italicized words are a phrase. There is no subject.)
- After he entered the contest, Jim got nervous. (This time the group of words contains both a
subject and a verb. It is a clause.)
There are three kinds of subordinate clauses(A clauses that cannot stand by itself as a sentences):
- Adverb clause

- Adjective clause

- Noun clause
1. ADVERB CLAUSES:
An adverb clause is a subordinate clause used as an adverb.
Example:

- Toby put the letter where Earl would see it.

- Billie coughed as she ran.

- Set those boxes wherever there is room.

- The senator spoke until he was hoarse.

Adverbs, adverb phrases, and adverb clauses tell how, when, where, or to what extent about the words

2. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES:
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun.
Example:

- Midnight is the time when the bells are rung. (The adjective clause modifies time.)

- Camp David is one place where the President relaxes. (The adjective clause modifies place.)
Adjective, adjective phrases, and adjective clauses tell what kind, how many or which one.
Adjective clauses often begin with where, when, who, whom, and whose.
Who, whom, and whose relate the clause to the noun or pronoun it modifies. They are called relative
pronouns. The adjective clause beginning with these words is sometimes called a relative clause. That
and which may also be relative pronouns.Who, whom, whose, that, and which are relative pronouns
which have three functions:
- They introduce adjective clauses.
- They relate the adjective clause to a word in the main clause.

- Within the adjective clause, they act as the subject, object, or predicate pronoun of the verb.
- They may also be the object of a preposition in the clause.Example:

- Norman Mingo is the artist who first drew Alfred E. Neuman. (The adjective clause modifies artist.
Who is the subject of drew within the clause.)
- Betsy is the person whom we were discussing. (The adjective clause modifies person. Whom is the
direct object of were discussing within the clause.)
3. NOUN CLAUSES:
A noun clause is a clause used as a noun in a sentence. The noun clause can be used in any way that a
noun is used. Noun clauses can be used as subjects, objects of verbs, predicate words after linking verbs,
and objects of preposition. Noun clauses do not modify anything because nouns are not modifiers.
Subject: What Andy likes best is math.

Direct Object: Jamie said that she knew some French.

Predicate noun: The explanation is that Tony lost on purpose.
Object of preposition: Bet a second opinion from whomever you wish.
Many noun clauses are introduced by that and what. Other words that can introduce noun clauses
include whatever, whomever, who, whose, whom, where, when, why and how.

THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAYS TO WRITE LIVELY, POWERFUL AND ENGAGING SENTENCES ARE:
1. Choose NOUNS Over Adjectives. Adjectives are indispensable to speech, but there is not one that can
replace even the weakest noun. Nouns are where the information is. They're the names of people,
places and things the readers want most to know about.
2. Choose VERBS Over Adverbs. Verbs are where the action is. They're the ones that give good writing
its power. You preserve energy in a sentence every time you eliminate an adverb or replace it and the
verb it assists with a stronger verb. Consider the difference between "John went quickly to the
photocopy machine" and "John rushed to the photocopy machine." The word "rushed" is doing more
than twice the work of "went" and "quickly."
3. Choose PLAIN WORDS Over Fancy Ones. Let you ear be your guide. If you wouldn't say the word,
you're probably better off not writing. For a clean, economical sentences, omit unnecessary words and
complicated expressions. Avoid beginning a series of sentences with the same word such as: the, he,
then and there. Never start a sentence with a contrasting words such as: because , but or in spite of.
4. Choose SPECIFIC WORDS Over General Ones. One of the surest ways to hold any reader's attention is
to be specific. The more specific you are, the sharper the pictures you create in your readers' minds, and
the better they remember what you've said. Instead of telling your reader, "I'll call you next week,"
consider "Joan, I'll call you next Thursday afternoon. "Avoid generalization or oversimplifications. When
writing, use positive, clear statements.
5. Choose SHORT SENTENCES Over Long Sentences. Especially if the information is complicated. A
sentence with more than 17 words is too long, but there is no sure-fire rule governing the length of
sentences. A sentence should be as short or as long as is necessary to express a complete thought. Short
sentences are easier to read. On the other hand, beware of lining up too many short sentences in a row.
If all your sentences are approximately the same length, you're putting your reader to sleep. Vary the
length of your sentences the same way you would vary the length of your paragraphs, it is a subtle way
to keep your reader awake. A good sentence contains a single complete thought that is made lively and
clear with details. However, use only those details that are related to the main idea of the sentence.
Omit unrelated details that interrupt the main idea of a sentence.

6. Construct Sentences In PARALLEL FORMS. Parallelism means using the same grammatical structure for
all items in a sentence that have the same function. Parallelism not only holds sentences together, it
adds emphasis, provides flow, expresses thoughts more clearly, makes reading more pleasurable, takes
up less space and makes what we say easy to remember. This is why so many famous quotations are in
parallel forms: Example:

- I came, I saw, I conquered.

- A penny saved is a penny earned.

- Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
Faulty parallelism occurs when the second or successive items in a parallel series do not fit the pattern
established by the first item.Example:
- Eating is time-consuming, expensive, and it makes you fat.
The proper construction for this sentence should be:
- Eating is time-consuming, expensive and fattening.
Correct faulty parallelism by putting all the related ideas into the same grammatical form.

7.Write In The SAME TENCE. If you begin writing in one tense, stay in that tense. If you have to change,
consider beginning a new paragraph every time you shift tenses. A new paragraph alerts the reader that
a change may be coming , and helps your reader understand your message more clearly.
8.Choose Your WRITING TONE. Writing, like conversation, has tone. The tone is not what you say but
how you say it.
The tone of your writing and speaking voices expresses the attitude you have toward your subject. Tone
can be personal or impersonal, formal or informal, positive or negative. The way in which you handle the
tone of your voice in your writing plays an important role in determining your reader's reaction to what
you have to say. The more natural the tone of your writing voice, the more appealing your message will
be. Remember that such phrases as: "this is to inform you, this is to advise you, it is to be noted, etc."
are superflous and arrogant.
9.Avoid a SUCCESSION OF LOOSE SENTENCES: Loose sentences of a particular type: those consisting of
two clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative such as: and, but, who, which, when,
where and while. Writing too many loose sentences will take away from the writing effectiveness;
however, avoid sentences too compact and periodic. An occasional loose sentence prevent the style
from becoming too formal and gives the readers a certain relief.

10. Choose the ACTIVE VOICE. Most of the time active voice is shorter, simpler, clearer, more direct and
easier to understand than passive voice.
Active voice moves readers along, while passive voice slows them down.
Passive voice is the language of irresponsibility. Its purpose is to mislead, distort and disguise. Very
rarely will a company announce in the active voice,

"We made a mistake." Almost always, the company will state: "An error was found."

Apparently, it was lying in the hall and somebody happened to trip over it!!!!There are reasons for using
passive voice constructions. Most of the time, however, they are unnecessary.
Example:

Passive: The street was crossed by the chicken.

Active: The chicken crossed the street.
Active voice puts the chicken and the road where they belong.

To discover passive voice, look for the word "by". If there was a verb in front of the word
"by", you may have written something in the passive voice. See if it sounds better to change it to active.
Almost everything we say is in the active voice.
11. Write PROPER, CLEAR AND COMPLETE SENTENCES that do not include the following types of
sentences:

A sentence FRAGMENT: is an uncompleted sentence. It does not express a complete thought. In a

fragment, wither the subject or the verb is missing. The reader may wonder who or what? Or the reader
may wonder what happened? or what about it?

Fragment:
Kristy McNichol and another actress. (What about them? The verb is missing.)
Sentence:
Kristy NcNichol and another actress signed autographs.
Fragment:

Stamped off the field. (Who stomped off the field? The subject is missing.)
Sentence:
Laurie stomped off the field.
Fragment:
In a small town. (Both the subject and verb are missing.)
Sentence:

Ralph lived in a small town.

Another type of fragment results from incorrect punctuation. A sentence ends with a punctuation mark.
A new sentence begins with a capital letter. Sometimes a writer uses an end mark and a capital letter
too soon. The result is a sentence fragment.
Fragment:

Carin steadied the raft. With one hand.

Sentence:
Carin steadied the raft with one hand.

PADDED Sentences: Well-written sentences use no more words than are necessary. Padded sentences
contain useless words and phrases that hide the main idea. The following expressions often pad a
sentence.

as a matter of fact as per because of the fact that the point is due to the fact that
the reason is my feeling is on account of the fact that the thing is you see I'am trying to say is what I
think is you know
A RUN-ON sentence: is two or more sentences improperly joined as one.A run-on joins two ideas that
should be separate. The resulting sentence is confusing because the reader needs a signal at the end of
each complete thought.
Sentences must be written separately, or they must be separated by a semicolon, or they must be joined
by a conjunction ("and," "but," "nor").
Example:
Run-on: Mike was a poet he was also a critic.
Correct: Mike was a poet; he was also a critic.
Run-on: Jones played his best game of the season he scored ten points.
Correct: Jones played his best game of the season. He scored ten points.
Often a run-on sentence results from using a comma instead of a period.
Example:
Run-on: The car was rusty, its engine was broken.
Correct: The car was rusty. It engine was broken.
12.Write an OPENING SENTENCE. Consider writing it last. Once you have what you want to say on paper,
go back and write an opening sentence that is short, clear, simple, easy to understand, grabs the
reader's attention and makes the reader want to keep reading.
13.Write an effective CONCLUDING SENTENCE. Second in importance only to the opening sentence is a
good opportunity to induce some action on the part of the reader is by writing an effective concluding
sentence.
14.Use HEADING, LISTS, TABLES and GRAPHS. Concrete language and personal details are two way of
being specific, but nothing helps the images these words create in our minds as much as a good heading,
list, table or graph.
Lists serve the same function as headings. They draw the reader's eyes onto the page and can suggest
that there are a finite number of points to consider.