Compaction of Soil:

Definition, Principle and

Effect
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In this article we will discuss about:- 1.

Introduction to the Compaction of Soils 2.
Definition of Compaction 3. Principle 4. Effect
5. Factors 6. Method.

Introduction to the Compaction of Soils:

Soil is used as a construction material for

constructing embankments and subgrades.
Embankments are constructed to raise the
ground level above the existing level up to the
formation level to support buildings, roads, or
railways or other structures and also to retain
water as in the case of earth dams or canal
banks. Subgrades are constructed to provide
support to the roads as a base to withstand the
traffic loads.
The stability and durability of the embankments
and subgrades depends on the improvement of
shear strength of the soil as well as the
restriction of settlements or deformation within
permissible limits. The strength and defor­-
mation characteristics of embankments and
subgrades depend directly on the density of the
soil.

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The higher the density, the higher is the

strength and lesser is the settlement under
loads. The seepage of water through embank­-
ments and subgrades acts to reduce the
strength due to its erosive nature. Higher
density will result in reduced permeability of the
soil, thereby reducing the seepage of water.

Densification of soils during construction of

embankments and subgrades is achieved by
compaction. Higher density of embankments
and subgrades is achieved by compacting the
soil by rollers usually in layers, known as lifts.

Definition of Compaction:

Compaction is the artificial and mechanical

process of decreasing the volume of the soil
rapidly by the expulsion of air voids in the soil
resulting in the increase in density.

Densification of soil also occurs naturally due to

consolidation of foundation soils by expulsion
of pore water due to loads from the structure.
This is a rather long-term process compared to
compaction.

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The difference between compaction and

consolidation is given below:

Compaction:

1. Artificial process caused by mechanical

means such as rollers.

2. Decrease in volume and increase in the

density of soil occurs by expulsion of air from
the voids.

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3. Compaction occurs in partially saturated

soils.

4. Compaction is completed within minutes-and

hence is a short-term process.

5. Compaction is effective in well-graded soils

containing gravel and sand, and to a less extent
in silts and clays.

6. Compaction is caused by short-term dynamic

load, which are removed after compaction.

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Compaction:
1. Natural process caused by stresses due to
foundations or superstructures.

2. Decrease in volume and increase in the

density occurs by expulsion of pore water from
the voids.

3. Consolidation takes place in fully saturated

soils.

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4. Consolidation takes several months to years

and hence is a long-term process.

5. Consolidation although in principle occurs in

all soils but is significant for clayey soils from
engineering point of view due to consequent
long-term settlements.

6. Consolidation is caused by long-term static

loads, which continue to exist after the
completion of consolidation.

Principle of Compaction:

The principle of compaction was developed by

R. R. Proctor in 1933 during construction of
earth dams in California. The objective of
compaction is to achieve maximum possible
dry density of the compacted soil. The water
content used for compaction controls the dry
density achieved. Figure 12.1 shows the
variation of the dry density with water content.
At low water content, the soil is stiff and the
particles offer resistance to come closer,
resulting in low dry density. As the water
content is increased, water forms a lubricating
film around particles causing them to be
compacted to a closer state of contact resulting
in higher dry density. The dry density increases
with increase in the water content until
maximum dry density (MDD) is reached.

At this stage, the soil particles come to the

closest possible state of contact. On increase of
water content beyond optimum moisture
content (OMC), the volume of soil does not
decrease further by compaction and water
starts to occupy additional space causing an
increase in the volume of voids and the total
volume, and resulting in a decrease in dry
density.
The water content at which the dry density is
maximum after compaction is known as
optimum moisture content or optimum water
content. In general, water equal to OMC is
added in the field for effective compaction,
except in some specific cases. Compactive
effort or compaction energy also controls the
effectiveness of compaction. Higher the
compactive effort, higher will be the dry density
achieved for the same soil.

The type of soil and its gradation and plasticity

characteristics also influence the degree of
compaction achieved. Coarse-grained soils can
be compacted to a higher dry density than fine-
grained soils. Cohesionless soils can be
similarly compacted to a higher dry density
than cohesive soils. A well-graded soil is
compacted more effectively as compared to a
poorly graded soil. Addition of fines to a
coarse-grained soil, by an amount just required
to fill the existing voids, greatly enhances the
dry density.

For the compaction of a given soil, the sample

of soil is compacted in the laboratory applying
standard compaction energy at different water
contents. The dry density of the compacted soil
at each of the water con­tent is determined and
a graph is plotted with the water content on the
x-axis and the dry density on the y-axis.
The water content corresponding to maximum
dry density is determined, which gives optimum
water content. For the compaction of soil in the
field, water equal to OMC, or less (dry of OMC)
or more (wet of OMC) water is used depending
on the objective of compaction and type of
construction. Same compaction energy per unit
volume of soil, as used in the laboratory
compaction test, is used to compact the soil in
the field.

The following are some of the objectives of

compaction:

i. Increase the shear strength of soil.

ii. Decrease the undesirable settlement of

structures.

iii. Control undesirable volume change.

iv. Decrease permeability of soil.

v. Increase the bearing capacity of foundations.

vi. Increase the stability of slopes.

Effect of Compaction on Engineering Properties of the

Soil:

Compaction improves the strength and

deformation characteristics of the soil,
improving their stability and durability. Lambe
(1958) found that the properties of soil after
compaction depend on the soil structure, which,
in turn, is influenced by the type of soil, amount
of water relative to OMC, and the compaction
energy applied.

The effect of compaction is discussed on the

following soil properties:

1. Soil Structure:

Soil compacted at the water content less than

OMC (dry of optimum) will have flocculent
structure with edge-to-face particle
arrangement, irrespective of method of
compaction. The structure of soils compacted
at water content greater than OMC (wet of
optimum) depends on the magnitude of the
shear strain. Soils compacted wet of optimum,
which undergo relatively small shear strain
during compaction, will have flocculent
structure. Soils compacted wet of optimum,
which undergo large shear strains during
compaction, usually have a dispersed structure
with face-to-face (oriented) particle
arrangement.

The degree of orientation of soil particles

increases gradually with increase in water
content and the soil still possesses a
flocculated structure up to the OMC. The
orientation of particles increases more rapidly
with increase in water content for soils
compacted wet of optimum.

Increase of compaction energy increases the

orientation of soil particles even at the same
water content.

2. Shear Strength:

Soils compacted dry of optimum have more

shear strength than those compacted wet of
optimum. The cohesion and friction angle are
both higher for soils compacted dry of
optimum. Thus, the Mohr-Coulomb strength
envelope is steeper for soils compacted dry of
optimum and also lies above that of soils com­-
pacted wet of optimum. However, the difference
in shear strength of soils compacted dry and
wet of optimum decreases when the compacted
soils are fully saturated.

It may be noted that soils with a flocculent

structure possess more shear strength. This is
because the attrac­tive forces are predominant
in flocculent structure and also because the soil
offers higher resistance to deforma­tion due to
particle interference in edge-to-face particle
arrangement existing in flocculent structure.

On the other hand, repulsive forces are

predominant in soils with dispersive structure
resulting in lower shear strength. The particle
interference and hence the resistance to
deformation is also less in dispersed struc­ture,
which has relatively oriented particle
arrangement.

Saturation of compacted soils increases the

repulsive forces, causing a decrease in shear
strength.

3. Pore Water Pressure:

As the water content is less for soils compacted

dry of optimum, there is zero or negligible pore
water pressure (due to discrete and local
pockets of saturation). Soils compacted wet of
optimum show higher pore water pressure,
which reduces the effective stress and frictional
component of shear strength.

4. Stress-Strain Relationship:

Soils compacted dry of optimum possess a

steeper stress-strain relationship compared to
those compacted wet of optimum.
Consequently, the deformation and settlement
are less for soils compacted dry of optimum,
and show relatively sudden and brittle failure.
Soils compacted wet of optimum show large
strains and settlements and the failure is
gradual and plastic.

5. Compressibility:

Soils compacted dry of optimum are less

compressible due to their flocculent structure
and greater particle interference and resistance
to deformation. Soils compacted wet of
optimum are initially less compressible at low
stresses due to their dispersed structure and
predominance of repulsive forces.
However, when the stresses are increased
further to overcome the repulsive forces, such
soils show high compressibility resulting in
large deformation. The face-to-face particle
arrangement in dispersed structure of such
soils also offers less resistance to deformation
and increases the compression.

6. Shrinkage:

Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of soil

due to the evaporation of water. Soil compacted
dry of optimum undergoes less shrinkage due
to random particle arrangement and particle
interference that offers more resistance to
deformation. Shrinkage is more for soils
compacted wet of optimum due to dispersed
structure and lesser particle interference and
resistance to deformation.

7. Swelling:

A clay soil compacted dry of optimum has more

water deficiency and large void ratio and hence
imbibes more water resulting in larger swelling,
compared to the soil at the same dry density
compacted wet of optimum.

8. Permeability:

Soils compacted at low water content possess

low dry density and large void ratio and hence
are more permeable. With increase in water
content dry of optimum, the dry density
increases and void ratio decreases causing a
decrease in permeability.

Thus, permeability of soils compacted dry of

optimum decreases with increase in water
content. Permeability is minimum at or slightly
above the OMC. With further increase in water
content, permeability slightly increases due to
decrease in dry density. However, permeability
of soils compacted wet of optimum is always
much less than those compacted dry of
optimum.

Factors Affecting Compaction:

The MDD achievable by the compaction

depends on the following factors:

1. Water content.

2. Type of soil and its gradation.

3. Gradation of Soil

4. Compaction energy.

5. Method of compaction.

1. Effect of Water Content:

Increase of water content used for compaction

increases the dry density initially until the dry
density reaches its maximum. After reaching
MDD, further increase in the water content
decreases the dry density.

2. Type of Soil:
The type of soil used for compaction primarily
decides MDD achievable by the compaction.
Figure 12.8 shows the compaction curves for
different types of soil.

Coarse-grained soils can be compacted to a

higher dry density than fine-grained soils.
Cohesive soils usually have high air voids
content. The void ratio of cohesive soils
increases with increase in plasticity index. Thus,
coarse­-grained soils have higher MDD and
lower OMC than fine-grained soil. The MDD
decreases and OMC increases for low plastic
silt, high plastic silt, and high plastic clay.

3. Gradation of Soil:

For a given soil, a well-graded soil has higher

MDD and lower OMC then a poorly graded soil.
This is because a well-graded soil contains
particles of all sizes and the finer size particles
fill the void space between the coarser particles
resulting in lower air voids and higher MDD.
Addition of small amount of fines to a coarse-
grained soil increases its MDD for the same
reason. However, when the amount of fines
added is more than that needed to fill the voids
of coarse-grained soil, the MDD again
decreases.

4. Compaction Energy

The compaction energy applied to the soil

during compaction has a significant influence
on the MDD. In general, the higher the
compaction energy or compactive effort, the
higher will be the MDD and lower will be the
OMC. This is the reason why the subgrades of
airfield pavements are compacted using heavy
compaction. Thus, the com­paction curve of a
modified Proctor test, which uses more
compactive effort on the soil, is above and to
the left of that of standard Proctor test or IS
light compaction test as shown in Fig. 12.9.
The increase in dry density due to the increase
in compactive effort is more at water content
less than OMC (dry of optimum) than that on
the wet of optimum.

It may be noted that the increase in compactive

effort does not go on increasing the MDD
indefinitely. When compactive effort is
increased in equal increment, the increment in
MDD becomes smaller and smaller with each
increment of compactive effort. Finally, a stage
is reached where further increase of
compactive effort does not bring any significant
increase in MDD.

Care should be taken to see that the

compactive effort does not cause a stress on
the soil particles beyond their crushing
strength, in which case the higher compactive
effort crushes the individual particles, causing a
reduction in MDD in some soils.

The line joining the peak points of different

compaction curves of the soil compacted with
different compactive effort is known as line of
optimums and is roughly parallel to the ZAVL.

Method of Compaction:

Compaction of soils in the field can be done by

a variety of compaction equipment.

The following are the different actions or effects

of various compaction equipment on soils:
1. Static compaction – smooth wheel rollers.

2. Kneading compaction – sheep’s foot rollers.

3. Vibration compaction – vibratory rollers.

4. Tamping – tampers.

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