energies

Article
Studies of Energy Consumption by a City Bus
Powered by a Hybrid Energy Storage System
in Variable Road Conditions
Andrzej Łebkowski
Department of Ship Automation, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland Morska St. 83, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland;
[email protected]




Received: 1 February 2019; Accepted: 7 March 2019; Published: 12 March 2019


Abstract: This article analyzes various configurations of Hybrid Energy Storage Systems consisting of
batteries only, combinations of batteries and supercapacitors, and supercapacitors only. For the presented
configurations, mathematical models that were used in research in terms of energy consumption and
carbon dioxide emissions were developed, employing a 12-m city bus as a test bed. The tests were
carried out using standard test cycles for heavy vehicles as well as routes developed on the basis of actual
road conditions. The obtained test results confirmed that the lowest energy consumption is characterized
by the system supplied exclusively by batteries (855 Wh/km), followed by a hybrid system of a large
battery with a small supercapacitor (941 Wh/km), a hybrid system with a large supercapacitor and
a small battery pack (1087 Wh/km), and finally a system with a supercapacitor only (1091 Wh/km).
In comparison with the conventional diesel power system (3967 Wh/km), the CO2 emission reductions
ranged from 27% to 43%, depending on the source of electrical energy.

Keywords: electric bus; electric vehicles; hybrid energy storage system

1. Introduction
The emerging weather anomalies around the world [1], being the result of climate change, are
an impulse for decision-makers to limit the emission of toxic gases generated in the transport sector.
One such action was the signing of the Katowice climate package in December 2018 obligating transport
sectors to reduce carbon dioxide emissions [2–4]. At the same time, there is an emergence of legislation
on exhaust emissions [5], which affects the prices of energy resources and electricity, and thus has an
impact on the development of technology. One of the technologies with the largest pro-climate potential
that currently can meet the stringent regulations regarding exhaust emissions in road transport is the
technology associated with electric drive. The potential application of electric drive technology in
urban transport allows the reduction of substances and noise emissions, which are harmful for the
environment and human health, and which are generated in drive systems employing conventional
internal combustion engines. Bearing in mind the above, it is reasonable to take up the subject of
testing the energy consumption of electric buses with various propulsion system configurations and
for different operating conditions. The considerations should include technological aspects related to
the adopted configuration of the propulsion system in which, usually, the final element generating the
torque is an electric motor. The choice of a particular propulsion system technology is also influenced
by the climatic conditions in which the vehicle is operated, the vehicle’s loading condition, and the
driver’s driving style.
The topic of using different technologies in urban electric buses was undertaken by many engineers.
Initial research was related to the analysis of properties and the possibility of using mainly hybrid
propulsion systems [6–10] in city buses using internal combustion engines in series [11] or parallel

Energies 2019, 12, 951; doi:10.3390/en12050951 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 951 2 of 39

layouts [12] as well as hydraulic drive [13] and CNG powered systems [14]. With the introduction of
increasingly restrictive emissions standards for road transport, technological solutions based on purely
battery drive systems [15] and their variants using hybrid battery-capacitors systems [16–19], replaceable
energy store systems [20,21] or range extenders [22] are sought. In addition to the mentioned technologies,
research related to the use of photovoltaic panels [23] or hydrogen fuel cells [24,25] for city electric buses
was conducted. Research was also carried out using several electric motors in the drive system of a
bus [26,27]. A separate group of studies consisted of works aimed at the optimization of the electric
drive system [28–30] through the appropriate control of its components [31–35] or cooperating charging
infrastructures [36–40], including wireless charging systems [41,42]. A study [43] has proposed the use of
energy-saving guidelines for the regulation of electric bus traffic by determining the minimum number of
passengers and reducing the mass of batteries to a level that provides the necessary reserves of power.
An important aspect in the operation of electric vehicles is the possibility of using it in various
climatic conditions. Studies on this issue were mainly related to the use of appropriate devices such
as heat pumps [44,45], air conditioning systems, [46–48] and other systems [49] used to condition
elements of the electric drive system, driver’s cab, and passenger compartment. The last group of
publications offers analyses of the results obtained during the operation of urban electric buses under
real conditions [50–54].
In this work, the author presents the results of simulation studies of an electric drive system for a
city bus, with the possibility of powering it from one of four energy sources: a purely battery system,
a battery system with a small package of supercapacitors (SUPCAP), a layout with a large package of
supercapacitors and a small package of batteries, and a system with a large package of supercapacitors.
The proposed types of energy storage including Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS) can be used both
in newly built electric buses as well as in existing electric buses, e.g., in trolleybuses. The application of
energy storage in trolleybuses, which are powered from the traction network, increases their operability
and grants them the autonomy of moving away from this network and operation in its vicinity.
The behavior of the mentioned energy storage systems in powering the electric drive system of a
12-meter city bus was analyzed in various standard test cycles (SORT 1, SORT 2, SORT 3, MBC, OCBC,
UDDS-HD, BCDC), various road conditions related to changing speeds and road inclination variations
(Gdynia-Flat, Gdynia-Hills), and different temperatures and passenger loading percentage conditions.

2. Energy Storage System Configuration

Contemporary configurations of the drive systems of city buses can take many forms. The most
common are hybrid systems, which use different types of energy storage. One can meet solutions
using batteries (BEV—Battery Electric Vehicle) or Hybrid Energy Storage Systems (HESS), which
most often consists of various types of batteries or batteries coupled with supercapacitors. Generally,
engineering efforts are aimed at limiting emissions of exhaust gases that are harmful to health and
human life as well as urban architecture. They include nitrous oxides (NOx ), sulfur oxides (SOx ),
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), methane (CH4), volatile non-methane organic compounds
(NMVOC), and particulate matter (PM) and are accompanied with emissions of greenhouse gases of
which carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is the most well-known.
During the tests, four systems of electric energy storage, consisting of various configurations of
battery packs and/or supercapacitors, were analyzed. Figure 1a presents the configuration of the
propulsion system, which consists of a battery pack, an inverter controlling the operation of the electric
traction motor, a drive transmission system, and a DC/DC converter powering the on-board and
auxiliary devices. Figure 1b shows the configuration of the electric drive system, which was extended
relative to the layout of Figure 1a by the addition of a small bank of supercapacitors. Figure 1c
illustrates the configuration of an electric propulsion system similar to the one shown in Figure 1b but
in reversed proportions: The battery pack is small, while the main role of electricity storage is done by
a large supercapacitor pack. Finally, the fourth configuration is a system powered only from a large
bank of supercapacitors.
 Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 39

Figure 1b but in reversed proportions: The battery pack is small, while the main role of electricity
storage
Energies is done
2019, 12, 951by a large supercapacitor pack. Finally, the fourth configuration is a system powered
3 of 39
only from a large bank of supercapacitors.

Figure1.1. Drive system

Figure systemconfigurations
configurationsinintested electric
tested buses:
electric buses:(a) (a)
layout withwith
layout a large battery
a large pack,pack,
battery (b)
battery
(b) system
battery withwith
system a small bankbank
a small of supercapacitors, (c) layout
of supercapacitors, with awith
(c) layout supercapacitor bank and
a supercapacitor a
bank
small
and battery
a small pack,pack,
battery (d) layout withwith
(d) layout a large bank
a large bankofofsupercapacitors.
supercapacitors.BATT—Battery
BATT—BatteryPack;Pack;
EM—Electric Motor;
EM—Electric Motor; PE—Power
PE—Power Electronics;
Electronics; DC/DC—DC/DC
DC/DC—DC/DC Converter; Converter; AUX—Auxiliary
AUX—Auxiliaryand and
On-boardEquipment;
On-board Equipment;HS—Heating
HS—Heating System;
System; T—Transmission.

Currently,
Currently,there
thereareareseveral
severaltypes of lithium-ion
types of lithium-ion batteries available
batteries on theon
available market such assuch
the market Lithium as
Cobalt
Lithium Oxide (LiCoO
Cobalt 2 , abbreviation:
Oxide (LiCoO2, LCO), Lithium LCO),
abbreviation: Manganese OxideManganese
Lithium (LiMn2 O4 , abbreviation:
Oxide (LiMn LMO),
2O4,

Lithium NickelLMO),
abbreviation: Manganese Lithium Cobalt
Nickel Oxide (LiNiMnCoO
Manganese , abbreviation:
Cobalt 2Oxide (LiNiMnCoO NMC), and LithiumNMC),
2, abbreviation: Nickel
and Lithium
Cobalt NickelOxide
Aluminum Cobalt(LiNiCoAlO
Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO
2 , abbreviation: 2, abbreviation:
NCA). During the NCA). During
research thedue
[55], research
to the
[55],safety-related
best due to the best safety-related
parameters and aparameters
large number andofa charging
large number cycles,of two
charging
types cycles, two types
of batteries, Lithium of
batteries,
Iron Lithium
Phosphate Iron 4Phosphate
(LiFePO , abbreviation:(LiFePO LFP) 4, and
abbreviation: LFP) and
Lithium Titanate (LiLithium
Ti
4 5 12 O , Titanate
abbreviation:(Li4 Ti O 12,
LTO),
5

abbreviation:
which LTO), for
are considered whichuse are considered
in these types offor use in these
propulsion systems,typeswereof modeled.
propulsion systems, were
modeled.
The choice of the battery technology from the ones mentioned above has its justification in their
The choice
comparison, shownof the battery2.technology
in Figure Of the many from the of
types ones mentioned
batteries above has
mentioned, onlyits LFPjustification in their
and LTO batteries
comparison, shown in Figure 2. Of the many types of batteries mentioned,
have the highest fire safety level and a high number of charge cycles, at a minimum level of 3000 cycles. only LFP and LTO
batteries
In addition,have the highest
in selecting fire safety
a given type level and astorage
of energy high number
for makingof charge cycles,
up the HESS, at aitminimum
was assumed levelthatof
3000 cycles. In addition, in selecting a given type of energy storage for
the planned vehicle range will be about 100 km. The other criteria used in the design of energy store making up the HESS, it was
assumed
are that the planned
the availability of spacevehicleon-boardrange
thewill be about
vehicle 100 mass
and the km. The of aother
givencriteria
type ofused in the
battery, design
which hasofa
energy
direct store on
impact arethethepossibility
availability of spacethe
of limiting on-board the vehicle
space available and the mass
to passengers. As of a given
a result, twotype
hybrid of
battery, which has a direct impact on the possibility of limiting the space
energy stores were obtained: a large battery with a small supercapacitor with a mass ratio of 22%/78%, available to passengers. As
a result, twoand
respectively, hybrid energy
a stored storesratio
energy were ofobtained:
1%/99%, arespectively,
large batteryaswith wellaas small supercapacitor
a hybrid system with with a
large
mass ratio of 22%/78%,
supercapacitors and a small respectively,
battery packandwith a stored
a massenergy
ratioratio of 1%/99%,
of 64%/36%, respectively,
respectively, andasthewell as aof
ratio
hybrid system with large
energy of 8%/92%, respectively. supercapacitors and a small battery pack with a mass ratio of 64%/36%,
respectively, and the
An important ratio ofaffecting
element energy ofthe 8%/92%,
traction respectively.
parameters achieved by the electric city bus is a
An important element affecting the traction
thermal conditioning system, used both to maintain optimal temperatures parameters achieved by in thetheelectric
cabin of city
thebus is a
vehicle,
thermal conditioning system, used both to maintain optimal temperatures in the cabin of the vehicle,
where the passengers and driver reside, as well as to manage the temperatures achieved by the
where the passengers and driver reside, as well as to manage the temperatures achieved by the
elements of the electric drive system. For the considered electric bus drive configurations (Figure 1),
elements of the electric drive system. For the considered electric bus drive configurations (Figure 1),
two variants of the heating system were analyzed. The first one uses a liquid heating system with
two variants of the heating system were analyzed. The first one uses a liquid heating system with
electric heaters and conventional air conditioning, and the other uses a heat pump.
electric heaters and conventional air conditioning, and the other uses a heat pump.
Energies 2019,
Energies 12, x951
2019, 11, FOR PEER REVIEW 4 4ofof39
39

Figure 2. Performance properties of electrochemical cells: NCA—Lithium Nickel Cobalt

Figure 2. Performance properties of electrochemical cells: NCA—Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum
Aluminum Oxide, NMC—Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide, LFP—Lithium Iron Phosphate,
Oxide, NMC—Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide, LFP—Lithium Iron Phosphate,
LTO—Lithium Titanate.
LTO—Lithium Titanate.
The choice of a particular configuration of the electric drive system should depend on factors
The choice of a particular configuration of the electric drive system should depend on factors
affecting the parameters obtained by the vehicle, such as energy consumption and the achieved range.
affecting the parameters obtained by the vehicle, such as energy consumption and the achieved
The most important factors affecting the design of the electric drive system of the bus in terms of a
range. The most important factors affecting the design of the electric drive system of the bus in terms
particular location where it will be operated include the length of the daily route, the difference in
of a particular location where it will be operated include the length of the daily route, the difference
elevation on the route, the intensity of traffic on the route, hydrometeorological conditions (mainly air
in elevation on the route, the intensity of traffic on the route, hydrometeorological conditions
temperature), the number of passengers on board, the possibility of recharging the energy storage from
(mainly air temperature), the number of passengers on board, the possibility of recharging the
fast chargers during operation, the availability of infrastructure in a given area, and the load for the
energy storage from fast chargers during operation, the availability of infrastructure in a given area,
local electric power grid. In addition to the above-mentioned factors affecting the amount of energy
and the load for the local electric power grid. In addition to the above-mentioned factors affecting
consumed by the vehicle, the design process of the electric drive system should also take into account
the amount of energy consumed by the vehicle, the design process of the electric drive system
the properties and parameters (efficiency) of the electric drive system components, the location of the
should also take into account the properties and parameters (efficiency) of the electric drive system
individual elements affecting the working temperatures (roof, front, back, center) [56], the energy store
components, the location of the individual elements affecting the working temperatures (roof, front,
charging current (fast, normal), the thresholds of discharge and charge of the energy storage, and the
back, center) [56], the energy store charging current (fast, normal), the thresholds of discharge and
work schedule of the drive system (charging time, discharge time, idle periods).
charge of the energy storage, and the work schedule of the drive system (charging time, discharge
The parameters of the electric components of the bus drive system presented in Figure 1 are
time, idle periods).
shown in Table 1.
The parameters of the electric components of the bus drive system presented in Figure 1 are
shown in TableTable
1. 1. Parameters of components used in the drive systems shown in Figure 1.

Table 1. Parameters BEV

of components BEVin theBEV
used (LFP)
drive systemsSUPCAP
shown in Figure 1.
Parameter Unit SUPCAP Diesel
(LFP) (LTO) SUPCAP BEV (LFP)
BEV BEV BEV (LFP) SUPCAP
Body mass
Parameter (kg)
Unit 9800 9800 9800 9800 SUPCAP 9800 9800
Diesel
(LFP) (LTO) SUPCAP BEV (LFP)
Motor mass (kg) 300 300 300 300 300 1200
Body mass (kg) 9800 9800 9800 9800 9800 9800
Inverter mass (kg) 40 40 40 40 40 -
Motor mass (kg) 300 300 300 300 300 1200
Motor power (kW) 250 250 250 250 250 270
Inverter mass (kg) 40 40 40 40 40 -
Battery mass (kg) 1241 1625 1241 336 - -
Motor power (kW) 250 250 250 250 250 270
Battery energy (kWh) 120 120 120 38 - -
Battery mass (kg) 1241 1625 1241 336 - -
Battery energy (kWh)
275 1100 1 650
SUPCAP mass (kg) 120 - 120 - 120 38 - --
275
(5 pcs.) 1100 (20 pcs.) (30 pcs.)
1 650
SUPCAP
SUPCAPmass energy (kg)
(kWh) - - - - (5 pcs.) 0.7 (20 pcs.) 2.9 4.3 --
(30 pcs.)
Power electronics
SUPCAP energy mass (kWh)(kg) - 30 - 30 0.7 30 2.9 30 4.3 30 --
Electrical switching
Power electronics mass equip (kg)
(kg) 30 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 --
SUPCAP
Electrical Inverter
switching equip (kg) 50 -
(kg) 50 - 50 45 50 45 50 45 --
SUPCAP Gearbox
Inverter (kg)
(kg) - - - - 45 - 45 - 45 - 400-
Fuel
Gearboxtank (kg)
(kg) - - - - - - - - - - 350
400
Powertrain
Fuel tanktotal mass (kg)
(kg) - 1661 - 2045 - 1981 - 1901 - 2115 850
350
Vehicle total
Powertrain mass
total mass (kg) 1661
(kg) 11,461 204511,845 1981 11,781 1901 11,701 211511,915 11,750
850
Passengers
Vehicle mass
total mass (kg) 11,461
(kg) 5590 11,8455590 11,781 5590 11,701 5590 11,9155590 5590
11,750
Fully loaded vehicle
Passengers mass mass (kg) (kg) 5590 17,251 559017,635 5590 17,571 5590 17,491 559017,705 17,540
5590
Fully loaded GVWR
vehicle mass (kg) 17,251
(kg) 18,00017,635 18,00017,571 18,000 17,491 18,000 18,000
17,705 18,000
17,540
GVWR
The abbreviations (kg)table 18,000
used in the describe 18,000 18,000
energy storage consisting18,000
of: BEV (LFP)—LFP 18,000 18,000
cell packets; BEV
(LTO)—LTO
The cell packets;
abbreviations usedBEV
in (LFP)/SUPCAP—large
the table describe energy packets storage
of LFP cells and a small
consisting of:amount of supercapacitors;
BEV (LFP)—LFP cell
SUPCAP/BEV (LFP)—a large packet of supercapacitors and a small number of LFP cells; SUPCAP—supercapacitors
packets;
package; BEV (LTO)—LTO
Diesel—drive systemcell
withpackets; BEV (LFP)/SUPCAP—large packets of LFP cells and a small
a diesel engine.
amount of supercapacitors; SUPCAP/BEV (LFP)—a large packet of supercapacitors and a small
number of LFP cells; SUPCAP—supercapacitors package; Diesel—drive system with a diesel engine.
Energies 2019, 12, 951 5 of 39

3. Modeling
Figure 3 shows the forces acting on the bus body taken into account during modeling the
movement resistances of the electric bus during operation [57].

Figure 3. Forces acting on a moving electric drive bus.

In the simulation tests, the basic forces acting on the vehicle structure were used. These forces
are related to the motion resistance caused by the vehicle aerodynamic resistance FA , which is mainly
related to the geometric dimensions of the vehicle; the rolling resistance FR , which is dependent on tire
parameters and the surface on which the vehicle moves; and the resistance related to the transmission
of torque in the drive system FD . In addition to these, other forces must also be taken into account,
i.e., those associated with the gravitational force FGR (vehicle weight); vehicle normal force acting on
the ground FN ; sliding force FS ; force associated with vehicle inertia FIN , and the driving force FM
generated by the vehicle’s drive system. For a moving bus, the sum of forces acting on its body may be
described by means of the following:

F = FA + FR + FS + FI N + FD (1)

The aerodynamic resistance of the bus can be determined from the following dependence:

ρ · v2
FA = Cd · A· (2)
R

where Cd is the electric bus drag coefficient (-); A is the frontal area of the electric bus (m2 ); ρ is the
ambient air density (kg/m3 ); and v is the electric bus speed (m/s).
Rolling resistance can be determined on the basis of the following:
µR
FR = m· g· · cos(α) (3)
R

where m is the electric bus weight (kg); g is the standard gravity (m/s2 ); µR is the electric bus wheels
rolling resistance coefficient (m); R is the electric bus wheel radius (m); α is the road inclination (deg);
and a is the acceleration of the electric bus (m/s2 ).
The sliding force of the vehicle was calculated based on the following:

FS = m· g· sin(α) (4)

Resistance associated with the inertia forces caused by acceleration and braking of the vehicle
was determined based on the following:
FI N = m· a (5)

The bus structure also has the forces associated with transmitting the torque to the wheels and
the losses that are associated with it:
TDS · ωωDS
nDS
FD = (6)
R
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 39
Energies 2019, 12, 951 6 of 39
where 𝑇 is the torque at drive shafts at rated speed (Nm); 𝜔 is the average speed of wheel drive
shafts (rad/s); and 𝜔 is the nominal rotational speed of wheel drive shafts (rad/s).
whereTheTDSdrive
is thetorque
torque at drive shafts
generated by at rated
the speedmotor
electric (Nm); is theis source
ω DS the average speed
of the of wheel
driving drive
force FM
shafts (rad/s); and ω nDS is
transmitted by the differential the nominal rotational speed of wheel
and axle to the wheels of the vehicle:drive shafts (rad/s).
The drive torque generated by the electric motor is the source of the driving force FM transmitted
by the differential and axle to the wheels of the 𝑇vehicle:
∙𝑛
𝐹 (7)
𝑅
T ·n
FM = M D (7)
where 𝑇 is the torque produced by the electric motor R (Nm) and 𝑛 is the differential gear ratio (-).
On the basis of measurements recorded on real buses operating in traffic (Figure 4), both
where TM is the torque produced by the electric motor (Nm) and n D is the differential gear ratio (-).
conventional diesel and battery-powered, a simulation model of electric bus was developed. For the
On the basis of measurements recorded on real buses operating in traffic (Figure 4), both conventional
research being conducted, a very important fact is that the adopted vehicle model is the same for all
diesel and battery-powered, a simulation model of electric bus was developed. For the research being
configurations of the electric drive system. The parameters of the elements of the electric propulsion
conducted, a very important fact is that the adopted vehicle model is the same for all configurations of
system of the vehicle (power, mass) and the conditions of vehicle operation (temperature, loading
the electric drive system. The parameters of the elements of the electric propulsion system of the vehicle
condition, slope of the terrain) can change. In other words, for two identical vehicles operated in
(power, mass) and the conditions of vehicle operation (temperature, loading condition, slope of the terrain)
completely different environmental conditions, it is possible to obtain completely different test
can change. In other words, for two identical vehicles operated in completely different environmental
results.
conditions, it is possible to obtain completely different test results.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4. Comparison
Comparison of of parameters
parameters registered
registered during
during the
the operation
operation ofof the
the actual vehicle and a
modeled vehicle with the Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) energy store:
store: (a) vehicle speeds, (b) power of
energy store, and (c) total energy consumption.
consumption.

It is
It is therefore
thereforejustified
justifiedtoto
make an an
make objective attempt
objective to analyze
attempt the use
to analyze theofuse
various types oftypes
of various energy
of
storage in electric buses. The inspiration to undertake this type of research is the fact that a
energy storage in electric buses. The inspiration to undertake this type of research is the fact that a part of
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 39

part of the fleet of buses used in public transport in Gdynia are trolleybuses. Trolleybuses are a
variation of urban electric buses that are powered from a traction network stretched over the road.
The range
Energies of 951
2019, 12, operation of trolleybuses depends on this traction network, which is expensive 7 ofto
39
expand and maintain. The natural consequence of the city's development is the emergence of new
districts that require service through public transport. A cheaper and simpler procedure than
the fleet of
building newbuses usednetwork
traction in publicsegments
transportcould
in Gdynia
be to are
usetrolleybuses.
an electric busTrolleybuses
or to add aare a variation
battery pack
of urban electric buses that are powered from a traction network stretched
and/or supercapacitors to existing trolleybuses. It is possible to extend the functionality of over the road. The range
existing
of operation
solutions of trolleybuses
by using depends
hybrid electric on this
energy traction
storage network, which
in vehicles, which can
is expensive to expand
also be charged and
during
maintain. The natural consequence of the city’s development is the emergence of
operation. For this reason, the possibility of using batteries and supercapacitors in an electric bus new districts that
require
was service through public transport. A cheaper and simpler procedure than building new traction
tested.
network segments couldsoftware
The OpenModelica be to usewasan electric
used to bus
modelor to
theadd a battery
electric drivepack and/or
system supercapacitors
of a bus powered from to
existing trolleybuses. It is possible to extend the functionality of existing
various energy storage configurations. The developed mathematical model of the electric bus solutions by using hybrid
electric 5)
(Figure energy storage
reflects in vehicles,
the work which can
of subsystems andalso be charged
modules during
included operation.
in the Forvehicle
considered this reason,
as a
the possibility
whole, such as: of using batteries and supercapacitors in an electric bus was tested.
The OpenModelica software was used to model the electric drive system of a bus powered from
various
Theenergy
body of the vehicle
storage together with
configurations. the forces acting
The developed on it; model of the electric bus (Figure 5)
mathematical
reflects
Electric driveofsystem
the work consisting
subsystems of a synchronous
and modules included inmotor module, an
the considered inverter
vehicle as amodule, and as:
whole, such an
electric energy storage module;
• The body of the vehicle together with the forces acting on it;
• Power
Electrictransmission
drive systemsystem with differential;
consisting of a synchronous motor module, an inverter module, and an
 Vehicle route referencing
electric energy module, including support and control of acceleration and braking
storage module;
• pedals;
Power transmission system with differential;
• Vehicle for
Module route referencing
setting module,
temperature including
parameters support environment;
of the external and control of acceleration and
 braking pedals;
Module for determining the state of loading of the vehicle (number of passengers onboard);
• Module for setting temperature parameters of the external environment;
 Thermal conditioning system module for the electrical components of the propulsion system
• Module for determining the state of loading of the vehicle (number of passengers onboard);
and the passenger compartment, together with the ventilation system consisting mainly of the
• Thermal conditioning system module for the electrical components of the propulsion system and
heat pump module,
the passenger the valve
compartment, manifold
together with controlling the system
the ventilation flow ofconsisting
thermal mainly
energy,ofandthe heat
heat
exchangers;
pump module, the valve manifold controlling the flow of thermal energy, and heat exchangers;
• Module simulating
Module simulating the
the load
load of auxiliary
auxiliary on-board
on-board equipment
equipment (low-voltage
(low-voltage vehicle
vehicle installation,
installation,
vehicle lighting
vehicle lighting system,
system, passenger
passenger information
information system,
system, ticket
ticket validator
validator system,
system, power
power steering
steering
system support system, pneumatic braking support system, etc.).
system support system, pneumatic braking support system, etc.).

Figure 5.
Figure Implementation of
5. Implementation of the
the electric
electric bus
bus in
in OpenModelica.
OpenModelica.

In addition, the presented bus model includes auxiliary modules for energy measurement.
The vehicle body module models the mass of the vehicle itself, and the mass of passengers and
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 39
Energies 2019, 12, 951the
In addition, presented bus model includes auxiliary modules for energy measurement. 8The of 39
In addition, the presented bus model includes auxiliary modules for energy measurement. The
vehicle body module models the mass of the vehicle itself, and the mass of passengers and the
vehicle body module models the mass of the vehicle itself, and the mass of passengers and the
driver,
the as two
driver, interconnected masses engaged in a translational movement. The force transmitted by
driver, as as
twotwo interconnected
interconnected masses
masses engaged
engaged in aintranslational
a translational movement.
movement. TheThe force
force transmitted
transmitted by
the
by vehicle's
the drive
vehicle’s wheels
drive acts
wheels on
acts this
on modeled
this modeled massmassassembly,
assembly,which
whichis modeled
is modeled asasthe
theperfect
perfect
the vehicle's drive wheels acts on this modeled mass assembly, which is modeled as the perfect
wheel
wheel rolling without slip and driven by the torque coming from the differential module (Figure 6).
wheelrolling
rollingwithout
withoutslip
slipand
anddriven
drivenbybythe
thetorque
torquecoming
coming from
from the
the differential
differential module (Figure 6).

Figure
Figure 6.6.
Figure Modeling
Modelingofof
Modeling
6. forces
offorces acting
forcesacting onthe
actingon
on theelectric
the electricbus.
electric bus.
bus.

The
TheThe second
second
second source
source
source inin direct
direct
in reaction
directreaction with
reactionwith the
withthe mass
massofof
themass thebus
ofthe
the busare
bus aremovement
are movementresistances,
movement resistances,such
resistances, suchas
such as
as
aerodynamic
aerodynamic
aerodynamic resistance,
resistance,
resistance, rolling
rolling resistance
rollingresistance of the
resistanceofofthe bus
thebus wheels,
buswheels,
wheels,andand resistance
andresistance associated
resistanceassociated
associated withwith driving
with driving
driving
on
onon inclined
inclined
inclined sections
sectionsofof
sections the
ofthe road.
road.InIn
theroad. the
Inthe module
themodule characterizing
modulecharacterizing
characterizingthethebus
the busbodywork,
bus bodywork,aaavehicle
bodywork, vehiclemain
vehicle main
main
brake
brake
brake model
model
model was
was
was also
also
also included,
included,which
included, which
whichcan can be controlled
canbebecontrolled
controlledboth both
bothby by
bythe the
thespeedspeed controller
speedcontroller
controller locatedlocated
located in in
in the
the
the
motor motor
motor inverter
inverter
inverter module
module
module asas as well as
wellasasbybythe
well by
thebusthe bus
busroute route referencing
routereferencing
referencingmodule module
modulethat that
thatactivatesactivates
activatesthe
thebrake the brake
brake when
when
when
the
the bus the
bus busFigure
stops.
stops. stops.
Figure7 Figure 7 model
7 showsmodel
shows shows ofofmodel of thedescribing
themodule
the module module describing
describing thermal of
thermalproperties
thermal properties properties
of the of the
the passenger
passenger
passenger
compartment.
compartment. compartment.

Figure7.7.Modeling
Modeling of the
the thermal
thermal conditioning
conditioning system
system of the passenger compartment.
Figure
Figure 7. Modeling ofofthe thermal conditioning system ofofthe
thepassenger
passengercompartment.
compartment.
Energies 2019, 12, 951 9 of 39

In addition to the modules presented above, a model of a traction battery package was developed,
which reflects the operation of the energy storage depending on the type of batteries used, along with
the accompanying physical and chemical phenomena described by the appropriate characteristics
(increase of internal resistance at temperature drop, self-heating during operation). Three components
were used to model the battery pack: an adjustable voltage source block symbolizing the electromotive
force of the cells, which changes its value along with the battery State of Charge (SOC); a variable
resistance block that changes its value in accordance with temperature of the battery; and a heat
mass block describing the heat capacity of all cells configured in the battery pack. In addition,
the battery pack model allows cooperation with the thermal conditioning system via a heat port.
The supercapacitor bank is modeled in a similar way.
An element used to provide a route for the tested configuration of the electric bus drive system is the
vehicle route referencing module. This module has been configured to work with standardized [58–60]
ready-made files describing the test cycles used to estimate the energy consumption of the vehicle.
The testing standards were developed by various international agencies (EPA [60], DieselNet [61],
EU [62]) and accepted for use by the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations (WP.29) [63].
The content of the files shows the current value of the slope of the road and the elevation profile as a
function of the distance from the starting point or the speed at which the vehicle is to move on a given
section of the route.

4. Simulations Results
Simulation studies have been divided into three parts. In the first part of the test, standardized
procedures used to determine the energy consumption of vehicles were used to test six different
propulsion systems: BEV, BEV with HESS, and ICE. In the second part, simulation tests were carried
out for the systems presented in the first part. Tests employed two routes based on actual bus route
data with a length of about 100 km each. In the third part, the electric drive system powered by BEV
(LFP) was analyzed for various passenger load percentages, different ambient temperature conditions,
and the use of different temperature conditioning systems of the passenger compartment and drive
system components. For calculations related to the number of passengers, the weight of one passenger
was assumed to be 68 kg, and the driver’s weight of 150 kg was adopted.

4.1. Research on Energy Consumption Using Test Cycles WP.29

Six propulsion system configurations were tested in accordance with the contents of Table 1 and on the
basis of Figure 1. The first two configurations concern drive systems powered by the LFP and LTO battery
packages, respectively. In the next three configurations, HESS was used, consisting of supercapacitors
and batteries (SUPCAP-BEV (LFP), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP, SUPCAP). HESS systems, the majority of which
employ supercapacitors, were recharged during stopovers at bus stops. In the last system, a purely diesel
powered diesel engine was modeled. The tests were based on cycles (SORT 1, SORT 2, SORT 3, UDDS-HD,
OCBC, MBC, BCDC) used to estimate the energy consumption of trucks and buses.
The test routes SORT 1, SORT 2, and SORT 3 consist of defined road section lengths and the speed
with which these sections are to be travelled, as well as certain minimum acceleration values when
starting from standstill. On the other hand, the UDDS-HD, OCBC, MBC, and BCDC test routes have a
strictly defined speed profile. The effect of adopting certain speed profiles is the movement of vehicles
on the given route profiles with the same speed. In contrast, travel times for the SORT 1, SORT 2, and
SORT 3 routes, for which there are no restrictions in the form of certain speed values, may be different.
In the graphs showing the change of temperature values, the temperature of a given type of
battery pack in the propulsion system is marked with a continuous line while the supercapacitor
temperature is represented by the dotted line, excluding the SUPCAP system, where the temperature
of the supercapacitors was marked with a continuous line.
Energies 2019, 12, 951 10 of 39

Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 39

4.1.1. Energies
Bus Energy
2019, 11, Consumption Tests Using the SORT 1 Test
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 39
4.1.1. Bus Energy Consumption Tests Using the SORT 1 Test
The SORT 1 cycle (Heavy Urban) [64] models the behavior of a heavy vehicle, such as a bus, for
4.1.1.The
BusSORT
Energy Consumption
1 cycle Tests Using
(Heavy Urban) the SORT
[64] models 1 Test
the behavior
the intensity of road traffic in large cities. The average speed of ofathe
heavy vehicle, such as a bus, for
bus in this cycle is 12.1 km/h
the intensity
The SORT of road
1 traffic
cycle in
(Heavy large
Urban) cities.
[64]The average
models the speed
behaviorof the
of abus in this
heavy cyclesuch
vehicle, is 12.1
as km/h
bus,and
ahalts forstops
and results from the large number of stops during the tests due to the fact that the bus at
results
the intensity of road traffic in large cities. The average speed of the bus in this cycle is 12.1 km/h and
from the large number of stops during the tests due to the fact that the bus halts at stops and
and traffic
traffic lights. The
Themaximum
maximum speed in SORT 140iskm/h.
40 km/h. The length of the test route is and
0.52 km,
resultslights.
from the large number speed in SORT
of stops 1 isthe
during tests dueThe
to length
the factofthat
the the
test route
bus is 0.52
halts km,
at stops and
and the
the travel
travel time
time is about
is maximum 154.5
about 154.5speed s. During
s. During the tests,
the 1tests, the basic SORT 1 route was repeated four times.
traffic lights. The in SORT is 40 the basic
km/h. TheSORT
length 1 route
of the was repeated
test route four
is 0.52 times.
km, and
Figure 8 shows
Figure
the travel
the set
8 shows
time the
value
set value
is about
of the During
vehicle
154.5ofs.the vehicle speed
thespeed during
tests,during
theSORT
the
the basic
SORT111test.
SORT test.
route was repeated four times.
Figure 8 shows the set value of the vehicle speed during the SORT 1 test.

Figure8.8.SORT
Figure SORT 11 driving
driving cycle.
cycle.
Figure 8. SORT 1 driving cycle.
Figure
Figure 9 shows
9 shows thethe parametersobtained
parameters obtained by
by vehicles
vehiclesduring
duringthethe
SORT
SORT1 test, suchsuch
1 test, as speed,
as speed,
voltage
voltage and and
Figure current
9 shows
current on
on thethe DC-link,
the parameters power, SOC
obtainedSOC
DC-link, power, of energy
by vehicles stores,
during
of energy temperature
the SORT
stores, of energy
1 test, such
temperature stores, and
as speed,
of energy stores,
instantaneous
voltage and and total
current on energy
the consumption.
DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores, and
and instantaneous and total energy consumption.
instantaneous and total energy consumption.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

(c)
(c)

Figure 9. Cont.
Energies 2019, 12, 951 11 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 39

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Figure 9. SORT 1 results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage
Figure 9. SORT 1 results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage and
and Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of
Current on DC-link
Charge (%); (e)(V), (A); (c)
Battery & Motor/Engine
SUPCAP temperature Power (kW);
(°C); (d)
(f) Battery & SUPCAP
Instantaneous energyState of Charge (%);
consumption
(e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature ( ◦ C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total
(Wh/km); (g) Total energy usage (kWh).
energy usage (kWh).
The average distance traveled by the vehicle in this test was 2.6 km. Conducted tests using the
The
SORT average distance
1 test cycle traveled
confirmed by the vehicle
the assumption that itin this test
belongs wasof2.6
to one thekm.
mostConducted testscycles.
demanding test using the
SORTNevertheless,
1 test cycle confirmed the assumption
all vehicles have managed thethat it belongs
test route to one of the
and completed thetest.
most demanding test cycles.
Despite
Nevertheless, the smallhave
all vehicles difference
managed in the
the test
massroute
of tested vehicles—not
and completed exceeding 2% of total
the test.
mass—there were significant differences in energy consumption
Despite the small difference in the mass of tested vehicles—not exceeding resulting from
2%the properties
of total of
mass—there
were individual
significant components
differences of the electric drive
in energy system. From
consumption the presented
resulting from thecharacteristics,
properties the
of lowest
individual
energy consumption was recorded for a battery system consisting of LTO (967.8 Wh/km), followed
components of the electric drive system. From the presented characteristics, the lowest energy
by BEV (LFP) (990.5 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (1016.2 Wh/km), BEV (LFP) (1239.9 Wh/km),
consumption was recorded for a battery system consisting of LTO (967.8 Wh/km), followed by BEV
(LFP) (990.5 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (1016.2 Wh/km), BEV (LFP) (1239.9 Wh/km), SUPCAP-BEV
(LFP) (1000 Wh/km), SUPCAP (1239.9 Wh/km), and DIESEL (5793.2 Wh/km). In relation to the diesel
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 39
Energies 2019,12,
Energies2019, 11,951
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1212
ofof3939

system (LTO) by 83.3%, BEV (LFP) by 82.9%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 82.5%, SUPCAP -BEV (LFP) by
system (LTO) by 83.3%, BEV (LFP) by 82.9%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 82.5%, SUPCAP -BEV (LFP) by
78.6%, and SUPCAP by 78.6%.
power
78.6%,system,
and SUPCAP energy by
consumption
78.6%. was correspondingly lower for the BEV system (LTO) by 83.3%, BEV
From the presented results, a regenerative braking at the level of 30–40% was obtained for the
(LFP) From
by 82.9%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 82.5%, SUPCAP
the presented results, a regenerative braking-BEV at the(LFP)
levelbyof78.6%,
30–40% and
wasSUPCAP
obtained byfor
78.6%.
the
electric bus traveling at a low average speed. With the exception of the SUPCAP energy store
From
electric bus thetraveling
presented at results, a regenerative
a low average speed. braking
With the at exception
the level ofof30–40% was obtained
the SUPCAP energy for the
store
variant, relatively small changes in temperature have been recorded, which resulted from the short
electric bus traveling at a low average speed. With the exception of the SUPCAP
variant, relatively small changes in temperature have been recorded, which resulted from the short energy store variant,
time of their operation.
relatively small
time of their changes in temperature have been recorded, which resulted from the short time of
operation.
their operation.
4.1.2. Bus Energy Consumption Tests Using the SORT 2 Test
4.1.2. Bus Energy Consumption Tests Using the SORT 2 Test
4.1.2.The
BusSORT
Energy Consumption
2 cycle (Easy Urban) Tests[64]
Using the SORT
depicts traffic2 conditions
Test in cities.
The SORT 2 cycle (Easy Urban) [64] depicts traffic conditions in cities.
The SORT
The average speed(Easy
2 cycle of the bus in[64]
Urban) this cycle istraffic
18 km/h, and the maximum speed is 50 km/h. The
The average speed of the bus in thisdepicts
cycle is 18 km/h,conditions
and theinmaximum
cities. speed is 50 km/h. The
length of the
Theofaverage test route is 0.9 km, and the travel time is around 183.9 s. During the tests, 50thekm/h.
basic
length the test speed
route isof0.9thekm,
busand
in this cycle istime
the travel 18 km/h,
is around and183.9
the maximum
s. During the speed
tests,is the basic
route
The was looped
length four times. Figure 10 shows the value of the set 183.9
vehicle speed during the SORT 2
route was of the test
looped route
four times.is 0.9 km, 10
Figure andshows
the travel time is
the value of around
the set vehicle s. speed
During the tests,
during the the
SORTbasic
2
test.
route
test. was looped four times. Figure 10 shows the value of the set vehicle speed during the SORT 2 test.

Figure 10.
Figure
Figure 10. SORT
10. SORT 22 driving
drivingcycle.
driving cycle.
cycle.

Figure 11
Figure11
Figure presents
11presents the
presents the parameters
the parameters obtained by
parameters obtained
obtained by vehicles during
by vehicles
vehicles during the
duringthe SORT
SORT222test,
theSORT test,such
test, such
suchasas speed,
asspeed,
speed,
voltage and
voltage and
voltage current on
and current on the
onthe DC-link, power,
the DC-link, power,SOC
SOC
SOCof energy
of energy stores,
stores,
of energy temperature
temperature
stores, of energy
of energy
temperature stores, and
stores,stores,
of energy and
instantaneous
instantaneous
and and total
andand
instantaneous energy
totaltotal
energy consumption.
energy consumption.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

Figure 11. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 13 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 39

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Figure 11. SORT 2 results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage
Figure 11. SORT 2 results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage and
and Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of
Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge (%);
Charge (%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature (°C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption
(e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature (◦ C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total
(Wh/km); (g) Total energy usage (kWh).
energy usage (kWh).
Energies 2019, 12, 951 14 of 39

The average distance traveled by the vehicle in this test was 4.6 km. From the presented
characteristics, the lowest energy consumption was recorded for a battery system based on LTO (841.2
Wh/km), followed
Energies 2019, 11,by BEV
x FOR PEER(LFP)
REVIEW (870.6 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (893.3 Wh/km), SUPCAP-BEV 14 of 39
(LFP) (1030.6 Wh/km), SUPCAP
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
(1041.5 Wh/km), and DIESEL (4703.3 Wh/km). In relation to the diesel
14 of 39
(841.2 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (870.6 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (893.3 Wh/km),
power system, energy consumption was correspondingly lower for the BEV system (LTO) by 82.1%, BEV
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) (1030.6 Wh/km), SUPCAP (1041.5 Wh/km), and DIESEL (4703.3 Wh/km). In
(LFP) by(841.2
81.5%, Wh/km), followed by BEV
BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (LFP) SUPCAP-BEV
by 81%, (870.6 Wh/km),(LFP) BEV by(LFP)-SUPCAP (893.3 Wh/km),
78.1%, and SUPCAP
relation to the diesel power system, energy consumption was correspondingly lower for the BEV
by 77.9%.
TheSUPCAP-BEV
SORT family (LFP)
of (1030.6
tests has Wh/km),
a gentle SUPCAP
speed (1041.5 Wh/km),
characteristic forand DIESEL
both (4703.3 Wh/km).
acceleration
system (LTO) by 82.1%, BEV (LFP) by 81.5%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 81%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by and In
braking. This
relation to the diesel power system, energy consumption was correspondingly lower for the BEV
allows the drive
78.1%, andsystem
SUPCAP tobydecelerate
77.9%. the bus speed only by regenerative braking and without the need
system (LTO) by 82.1%, BEV (LFP) by 81.5%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 81%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by
to engage theThe SORT family
vehicle’s main ofbrakes.
tests has a gentle
The periodsspeed characteristic for
of regenerative both acceleration
braking are visibleand braking.
in the total energy
78.1%, and SUPCAP by 77.9%.
This allows
consumption graph theasdrive system
falling to decelerate
sections of the the bus speed only
consumption by regenerative
curve, and also in braking
the and diagram
power without of the
The SORT family of tests has a gentle speed characteristic for both acceleration and braking.
the need to engage the vehicle's main brakes. The periods of regenerative braking are visible in the
engine as periods
This allows theof negative power.
drive system With the
to decelerate theexception
bus speed of systems
only with supercapacitors,
by regenerative there were
braking and without
total energy consumption graph as falling sections of the consumption curve, and also in the power
the needincreases
no significant to engagein thethe
vehicle's main brakes.
temperature of theThe periodsstore.
energy of regenerative braking are visible in the
diagram of the engine as periods of negative power. With the exception of systems with
total energy consumption graph as falling sections of the consumption curve, and also in the power
supercapacitors, there were no significant increases in the temperature of the energy store.
diagram
4.1.3. Bus Energy of Consumption
the engine as Tests
periods of negative
Using the SORT power.
3 TestWith the exception of systems with
supercapacitors, there were no significant increases in the temperature of the energy store.
4.1.3. Bus Energy Consumption Tests Using the SORT 3 Test
The SORT 3 cycle (Suburban) [64] describes traffic conditions prevailing in extra-urban traffic and
4.1.3.The
BusSORT
on the outskirts Energy3 Consumption
cycle
of cities. (Suburban)
The average [64]
Tests describes
Using
speed thethe
of traffic
SORTbus3 inconditions
Test prevailing
this cycle in extra-urban
is 25.3 km/h, and thetraffic
maximum
and on the outskirts of cities. The average speed of the bus in this cycle is 25.3 km/h, and the
speed is 60 km/h.
The SORTThe3 length of the test
cycle (Suburban) route
[64] is 1.45
describes km, conditions
traffic and the travel timeinisextra-urban
prevailing around 206.2 s. During
traffic
maximum speed is 60 km/h. The length of the test route is 1.45 km, and the travel time is around
and
the tests, theonfundamental
the outskirts of cities.
route wasThelooped
averagefour
speed of theFigure
times. bus in12
this cycle the
shows is 25.3 km/h,
value of and set
the the vehicle
206.2 s. During the tests, the fundamental route was looped four times. Figure 12 shows the value of
maximum
speed during thespeed is 60 km/h. The the
implementation length of the test route is 1.45 km, and the travel time is around
the set vehicle speed during theof SORT
implementation 3 test.
of the SORT 3 test.
206.2 s. During the tests, the fundamental route was looped four times. Figure 12 shows the value of
the set vehicle speed during the implementation of the SORT 3 test.

Figure12.
Figure 12.SORT
SORT 33 driving
drivingcycle.
cycle.
Figure 12. SORT 3 driving cycle.
Figure Figure 13 presents
13 presents the parametersobtained
the parameters obtained by
by vehicles
vehiclesduring the the
during SORT 3 test,3such
SORT test,assuch
speed,
as speed,
voltage and current on the DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores, and
voltage andFigure
current on the the
13 presents DC-link, power,
parameters SOC
obtained by of energy
vehicles stores,
during temperature
the SORT ofasenergy
3 test, such speed, stores,
instantaneous and total energy consumption.
voltage and current
and instantaneous on the
and total DC-link,
energy power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores, and
consumption.
instantaneous and total energy consumption.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

Figure 13. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 15 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 39

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Figure 13. SORT 3 results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage
and SORT
Figure 13. 3 results
Current of simulation
on DC-link (V), (A); (c)tests, where: (a)Power
Motor/Engine Bus speed during
(kW); (d) tests
Battery & (km/h);
SUPCAP (b) Voltage
State of and
CurrentCharge
on DC-link (V),Battery
(%); (e) (A); (c)&Motor/Engine Power (kW);
SUPCAP temperature (d)Instantaneous
(°C); (f) Battery & SUPCAP
energy State of Charge (%);
consumption
(e) Battery & SUPCAP
(Wh/km); (g) Totaltemperature (◦ C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total
energy usage (kWh).
energy usage (kWh).

The average distance traveled by the vehicle in this test was 7.25 km. From the presented
characteristics, the lowest energy consumption was recorded for a battery system using LTO (787.2 Wh/km),
followed by BEV (LFP) (816.8 Wh/km), BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP (839.8 Wh/km), SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) (935.3
Wh/km), SUPCAP (945.9 Wh/km), and DIESEL (4297.2 Wh/km). In relation to the diesel power system,
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 39
Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (816.8 Wh/km), BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP (839.8 Wh/km), SUPCAP-BEV
Wh/km),
Energies
(LFP) 2019,followed
(935.3 12, 951
Wh/km),bySUPCAP
BEV (LFP) (816.8Wh/km),
(945.9 Wh/km),and
BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP
DIESEL (839.8 Wh/km),
(4297.2 Wh/km). SUPCAP-BEV
In relation to the 16 of 39
diesel
(LFP) (935.3
power system, Wh/km),
energy SUPCAP
consumption(945.9wasWh/km), and DIESEL
correspondingly (4297.2
lower for Wh/km).
the BEV systemIn relation to the
(LTO) by diesel
81.7%,
power system, energy consumption was correspondingly lower for
BEV (LFP) by 81%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 80.5%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by 78.2%, and SUPCAP by the BEV system (LTO) by 81.7%,
energy consumption was correspondingly lower for the BEV system (LTO) by 81.7%, BEV (LFP) by 81%,
BEV (LFP) by 81%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 80.5%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by 78.2%, and SUPCAP by
78%.
BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 80.5%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by 78.2%, and SUPCAP by 78%.
78%.Based on the registered data related to the energy consumption for all 3 SORT cycles, three
Based on the registered data related
related toto the energy consumption
consumption for for all
all 33 SORT
SORT cycles,
cycles,three
three
types of drive systems can bedata
Based on the registered distinguished. the
Theenergy
first type, with the least energy consumption, is
types of drive
types of drive systems can be distinguished. The first type, with the least energy consumption,
associated withsystems can be distinguished.
drive systems characterized The by thefirstpredominant
type, with the leastof
share energy
battery consumption,
weight in the is
isassociated
associatedwith
with drivesystems
systemscharacterized
characterizedbybythe thepredominant
predominantshare shareofofbattery
battery weightininthe the
energy store (LTO,drive
LFP, LFP-SUPCAP). The second type of drive system, with slightlyweight
higher energy
energy
energystore
store(LTO,
(LTO, LFP,
LFP,LFP-SUPCAP).
LFP-SUPCAP). The second
second type
type of drive system,
system, withwith slightlyhigherhigher energy
consumption, includes systems where The supercapacitors ofdominate
drive the massslightly share in the energy
energy
consumption,
consumption, includes systems where supercapacitors dominate the mass share in the energy storage
storage system includes
(SUPCAPsystems where supercapacitors
and SUPCAP-BATT systems). The dominate the mass
third type of drive share in thewith
system, energy
very
system
storage(SUPCAP
system and SUPCAP-BATT
(SUPCAP and systems). The
SUPCAP-BATT third type
systems). The of drive
third type system,
of with
drive very high
system, with energy
very
high energy consumption, includes a drive system with an internal combustion engine.
consumption, includes a drive
high energy consumption, system
includes with an
a drive internal
system withcombustion
an internal engine.
combustion engine.
In all three SORT tests, there was a beneficial effect on the work of the entire energy storage
In all three SORT tests, there was a beneficial
In all three SORT tests, there was a beneficial effect on effect on the
the work
work of of the
the entire
entire energy
energystorage
storage
from adding a small supercapacitor. When comparing the temperature of the battery pack in the
from
fromadding
addingaasmallsmallsupercapacitor.
supercapacitor. When comparing the
When comparing the temperature
temperatureof ofthe
thebattery
batterypack
packininthe
the
variants BEV (LFP) and BEV-SUPCAP, the battery in the variant with the supercapacitor shows a
variants BEV (LFP) and BEV-SUPCAP, the battery in the variant with the
variants BEV (LFP) and BEV-SUPCAP, the battery in the variant with the supercapacitor shows asupercapacitor shows a lower
lower temperature increase, which can be explained by smaller current surges at the moment of
temperature increase,increase,
lower temperature which can be explained
which by smallerby
can be explained current
smallersurges
currentat the moment
surges of regenerative
at the moment of
regenerative braking. The recovered energy can be temporarily stored in a supercapacitor and later
braking. The braking.
regenerative recovered Theenergy can be
recovered temporarily
energy stored in astored
can be temporarily supercapacitor and later and
in a supercapacitor reused
laterto
reused to accelerate the vehicle.
accelerate
reused to the vehicle.the vehicle.
accelerate
4.1.4.
4.1.4. Studies of Energy Consumption
Consumption by aa Bus Bus Using the the UDDS-HD
UDDS-HD Test Test
4.1.4.Studies
StudiesofofEnergy
Energy Consumption by by a Bus Using
Using the UDDS-HD Test
The
The UDDS-HD cycle [61] reflects the conditions of road traffic in large cities
cities with
with fast traffic
TheUDDS-HD
UDDS-HD cycle cycle [61]
[61] reflects
reflects the
the conditions
conditions of of road
road traffic
traffic in
in large
large cities with fasttraffic
fast traffic
sections.
sections. The average speed of the bus in this cycle is 30.4 km/h, and the top speed is 93.3 km/h. The
sections. The average speed
The average speedof ofthe
thebus
busininthis
thiscycle
cycle
is is 30.4
30.4 km/h,
km/h, andand
the the top speed
top speed is km/h.
is 93.3 93.3 km/h.
The
duration
The of theoftest
duration theisis1060
test is s, and the
1060 test
theroute is 8.9 km long. During the tests, the route was looped
duration of the test 1060 s, ands,the
andtest test route
route is 8.9
is 8.9 km kmDuring
long. long. During
the tests,the
thetests,
routethe
wasroute was
looped
twice.
looped Figure 14 shows
twice. Figure the
14 the set
shows value of the
the setofvalue vehicle speed
of the vehicle during the
speed the UDDS-HD
during test.
the UDDS-HD test.
twice. Figure 14 shows set value the vehicle speed during UDDS-HD test.

Figure 14.
14. UDDS-HD
Figure 14.
Figure driving
UDDS-HD driving cycle.
driving cycle.
cycle.

Figure 15
Figure15 presents
15presents the
presentsthe parameters
parameters
the parameters obtained
obtained by vehicles
vehicles
by vehicles
obtained by during
during the UDDS-HD
the UDDS-HD
during the UDDS-HD test,as
test, such
test, such asas
speed,
such
speed,
speed,voltage
voltage and
and current
and current
voltage on the on
current on the
the DC-link,
DC-link, power, power,
DC-link, SOC ofSOC
energy energy stores,
stores, stores,
of energy temperature
temperature ofenergy
of energy
temperature of energy
stores,
stores,
stores,
and and
andinstantaneous
instantaneous
instantaneous and total and
and total
total energy
energy energy consumption.
consumption.

(a)

Figure 15. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 17 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 39

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 15. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 18 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 39

(g)

Figure 15. UDDS-HD results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b)
Figure 15. UDDS-HD results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage
Voltage and Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State
and Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge
of Charge (%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP◦ temperature (°C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption
(%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature ( C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total
(Wh/km); (g) Total energy usage (kWh).
energy usage (kWh).

The
The average
average distance
distance traveled
traveled by by thethe vehicle
vehicle inin this
this test
test was
was 17.8
17.8 km.
km. From
From the the presented
presented
characteristics,
characteristics, the thelowest
lowestenergy
energy consumption
consumption was
wasrecorded
recorded for for
a battery system
a battery systemconsisting of LTO
consisting of
(924.6 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (949.4 Wh/km),
LTO (924.6 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (949.4 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (972.6 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (972.6 Wh/km),
SUPCAP-BEV
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) (LFP) (1038.2
(1038.2 Wh/km),
Wh/km),SUPCAP SUPCAP(1246.8(1246.8Wh/km),
Wh/km), and DIESEL
and DIESEL (4067.1
(4067.1 Wh/km).
Wh/km). In
relation
In relationto to
thethe
diesel
dieselpower
power system,
system,energy energyconsumption
consumptionwas wascorrespondingly
correspondinglylower lowerfor for the
the BEV
BEV
system
system (LTO) by 77.3%, BEV (LFP) by 76.7%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 76.1%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by
(LTO) by 77.3%, BEV (LFP) by 76.7%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 76.1%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by
74.5%,
74.5%, and
and SUPCAP
SUPCAP by by 69.3%.
69.3%.
In
In this
this test,
test, the
the presence
presence of of the
the prolonged
prolonged high high speed
speed section
section caused
caused aa rapid
rapid depletion
depletion of of energy
energy
in
in the supercapacitor bank, which terminated the route prematurely. Energy consumption data
the supercapacitor bank, which terminated the route prematurely. Energy consumption data
concerning
concerning the the SUPCAP
SUPCAP variant
variant takestakes into
into account
account only
only the short distance
the short distance travelled
travelled in in this
this test.
test.
This example perfectly
This example perfectlyillustrates
illustratesthat thatthethe selection
selection of the
of the electric
electric bus bus
power power
source source
for a forgivena given
route
route profile, that is the final place of operation, must be thought out
profile, that is the final place of operation, must be thought out beforehand and precisely calculated.beforehand and precisely
calculated.
SupercapacitorsSupercapacitors
with too smallwithcapacities
too smallwill capacities will not
not provide enoughprovide enough
energy energy for
for travelling thetravelling
distance
the distance between stops. In turn, too large capacities of the supercapacitors
between stops. In turn, too large capacities of the supercapacitors are associated with significant increase are associated with
significant increase in weight of the vehicle and energy losses
in weight of the vehicle and energy losses associated with the transport of excess mass.associated with the transport of excess
mass.Figure 13b shows the moments of recharging supercapacitors during bus stopping (SUPCAP and
Figure 13bvariants)
SUPCAP-BEV shows the moments
as well as periodicof recharging supercapacitors
replenishment of energy from duringan bus stopping
additional small(SUPCAP
battery
and
packSUPCAP-BEV variants)SUPCAP-BEV).
while driving (variant as well as periodic Figurereplenishment
13e also shows ofrapid
energy from an additional
temperature increases in small
the
battery pack while driving (variant SUPCAP-BEV). Figure 13e
additional battery pack caused by high power consumption when the bus is moving at high speed also shows rapid temperature
increases
sections ofinthethetest
additional
cycle. battery pack caused by high power consumption when the bus is moving
at high speedthe
During sections
UDDS-HDof the test,
test cycle.
there are sections with mild acceleration up to the set value of the
During the UDDS-HD
vehicle speed, with a small number test, thereofare sections
sections withitmild
where would acceleration
be possible uptotoachieve
the set avalue of the
significant
vehicle speed, with a small number of sections where it would be possible
regenerative braking effect. As a result, the supercapacitors act as an energy buffer to a small extent. to achieve a significant
regenerative braking
The effect of this effect.state
operating As a is result, the supercapacitors
a stabilized temperature level act asofanthe
energy
energy buffer to a which
storage, small extent.
entails
The effect of this operating state
smaller losses for its potential cooling. is a stabilized temperature level of the energy storage, which entails
smaller losses for its potential cooling.
4.1.5. Research on Energy Consumption by a Bus Using the OCBC Test
4.1.5. Research on Energy Consumption by a Bus Using the OCBC Test
The OCBC (Orange County Bus Cycle) [61] characterizes the intensity of traffic in city centers.
The OCBC
The duration (Orange
of the County
cycle is about 1909 Bus Cycle) [61] characterizes
s, the average vehicle speed theisintensity
19.85 km/h,of traffic in city centers.
the maximum speed
The duration
is 65.3 km/h, and of the distance
cycle is isabout
about1909 10.49seconds,
km. Figure the16average
shows the vehicle speed
set value is 19.85
of vehicle speedkm/h, the
during
maximum
the OCBC test.speed is 65.3 km/h, and the distance is about 10.49 km. Figure 16 shows the set value of
vehicle speed during the OCBC test.
Energies 2019, 12, 951 19 of 39
Energies2019,
Energies 2019,11,
11,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 19
19ofof3939

Figure 16.
Figure
Figure 16. OCBC
16. driving cycle.
OCBC driving cycle.
cycle.

Figure 17
Figure17
Figure 17presents the
presents the
presents parameters
the parameters obtained by
parameters obtained vehicles during
by vehicles
vehicles during the
during the OCBC
the OCBCtest,
OCBC test,such
test, suchas
such asspeed,
as speed,
speed,
voltage
voltage and
and current on
on the
the DC-link,
DC-link, power,
power, SOC
SOC of of energy
energy stores,
stores, temperature
temperature of of
energyenergy
voltage and current on the DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores, stores,
stores, and
and
instantaneous
and and
instantaneous total
and energy
total consumption.
energy consumption.
instantaneous and total energy consumption.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

(c)
(c)

Figure 17. Cont.

Energies 2019,
Energies 12, x951
2019, 11, FOR PEER REVIEW 2020ofof 39
39

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Figure 17. OCBC results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage
Figure 17. OCBC results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage and
and Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of
Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge (%);
Charge (%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature (°C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption
(e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature (◦ C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total
(Wh/km); (g) Total energy usage (kWh).
energy usage (kWh).

From
From the
the presented
presented characteristics,
characteristics, the
the lowest
lowest energy
energy consumption
consumption was
was recorded
recorded for
for aa battery
battery
system consisting of LTO (982.7 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (997.5 Wh/km),
system consisting of LTO (982.7 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (997.5 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP BEV
(LFP)-SUPCAP
(1037.4 Wh/km), (1037.4 Wh/km), SUPCAP-BEV
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) (1083.4
(LFP) (1083.4 Wh/km), Wh/km),
SUPCAP SUPCAP
(1106.3 Wh/km),(1106.3
andWh/km),
DIESEL
and DIESEL (5205.3 Wh/km). In relation to the diesel power system, energy consumption was
Energies 2019, 12, 951 21 of 39

(5205.3 Wh/km). In relation to the diesel power system, energy consumption was correspondingly
lower for the BEV system (LTO) by 81.1%, BEV (LFP) by 80.8%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 80.1%,
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by 79.2%, and SUPCAP by 78.7%.
During the OCBC test simulating city traffic, there is a large number of stops. For an electric
bus equipped with the SUPCAP-BEV system, this route mode makes it possible to effectively use
the regenerative
Energies 2019, braking. In REVIEW
11, x FOR PEER comparison with other types of cycle tests, the SUPCAP-BEV 21 of system
39 is
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 39
characterized by a similar level of energy consumption to the others.
regenerative braking. In comparison with other types of cycle tests, the SUPCAP-BEV system is
Onregenerative
the basis ofbraking.the presented research
In comparison withresults, there
other types of were no significant
cycle tests, fluctuations
the SUPCAP-BEV systemin is energy
characterized by a similar level of energy consumption to the others.
characterized except
store temperatures by a similar
for level of energy
systems with consumption to the others.
supercapacitors.
On the basis of the presented research results, there were no significant fluctuations in energy
On the basis of the presented research results, there were no significant fluctuations in energy
store temperatures except for systems with supercapacitors.
store
4.1.6. Bus temperatures
Energy except forTests
Consumption systems withthe
Using supercapacitors.
MBC Test
4.1.6. Bus Energy Consumption Tests Using the MBC Test
The4.1.6.
MBC Bus(Manhattan Bus Cycle)
Energy Consumption Tests[61]
Using was
thedeveloped
MBC Test as a test cycle performed using a chassis
dynamometer The and
MBCis(Manhattan
based on Bus
data Cycle) [61] was
recorded in developed as a test in
buses traveling cycle
theperformed
center ofusing a chassis in New
Manhattan
The MBC (Manhattan Bus Cycle) [61] was developed as a test cycle performed using a chassis
dynamometer and is based on data recorded in buses traveling in the center of Manhattan in New
York. Adynamometer
characteristic andfeature
is based ofon the
datacycle
recordedis ainvery
buseslarge number
traveling in the of stops
center and a lowinvalue
of Manhattan New of the
York. A characteristic feature of the cycle is a very large number of stops and a low value of the
averageaverage
speed
York. A of about 11 feature
characteristic km/h.ofThe the duration of the
cycle is a very cycle
large is approximately
number of stops and a low
speed of about 11 km/h. The duration of the cycle is approximately 1089 s, the maximum
1089value
s, theof maximum
the
average
speed isspeed speed of
40.88iskm/h, about 11 km/h. The duration of theDuring
cycle isthe
approximately 1089route
s, thewas
maximum
40.88 km/h, and the trip distance is 3.31 km. During the tests, the test route was looped twice.
and the trip distance is 3.31 km. tests, the test looped
speed is 40.88 km/h, and the trip distance is 3.31 km. During the tests, the test route was looped
Figure 18 shows
twice. the18set
Figure value
shows theofsetthe vehicle
value of the speed
vehicle during the MBC
speed during the MBCtest.test.
twice. Figure 18 shows the set value of the vehicle speed during the MBC test.

Figure18.
Figure 18.MBC
MBC driving
drivingcycle.
cycle.
Figure 18. MBC driving cycle.

Figure Figure
Figure
19 presents
19 presents the the
19 presents
parameters obtained by
parameters
the parametersobtained by vehicles
obtained by vehicles
vehicles
during the the
during
during
MBC test, such
the MBCMBC test,as
test, such
speed,
such
as as speed,
speed,
voltage and current on the DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores, and
voltage voltage
and current
and current on the DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores, and stores,
on the DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy
instantaneous and total energy consumption.
and instantaneous
instantaneousand
andtotal energyconsumption.
total energy consumption.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

Figure 19. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 22 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 39

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Figure 19. MBC results of simulation tests, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage and
Figure 19. MBConresults
Current of(V),
DC-link simulation tests, where:
(A); (c) Motor/Engine (a) Bus
Power speed
(kW); during
(d) Battery tests (km/h);
& SUPCAP (b)
State of Voltage and
Charge
Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge (%);
(e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature (◦ C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total
energy usage (kWh).

The average distance traveled by the vehicle in this test was 6.62 km. From the presented
characteristics, the lowest energy consumption was recorded for a battery system consisting of LTO
(1300.1 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (1315.2 Wh/km), BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP (1373.2 Wh/km),
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 39

The average distance traveled by the vehicle in this test was 6.62 km. From the presented
Energies 2019, 12, 951 23 of 39
characteristics, the lowest energy consumption was recorded for a battery system consisting of LTO
(1300.1 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (1315.2 Wh/km), BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP (1373.2 Wh/km),
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP)
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) (1495.2
(1495.2 Wh/km),
Wh/km),SUPCAP SUPCAP(1531.1(1531.1Wh/km),
Wh/km), and
andDIESEL
DIESEL (7127.3
(7127.3Wh/km).
Wh/km). In
relation
In relationto to
thethe
diesel power
diesel powersystem,
system,energy
energyconsumption
consumptionwas wascorrespondingly
correspondinglylowerlower for
for the
the BEV
system (LTO) by 81.8%, BEV (LFP) by 81.5%, BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP by 80.7%, SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by
79%, and
79%, and SUPCAP
SUPCAP by by 78.5%.
78.5%.
Due to
Due to the
thevery
verylarge
largenumber
number ofof starts
starts andand stops
stops andand short
short sections
sections between
between them,them, the MBC
the MBC cycle
cycle is the most energy-intensive cycle of all the test routes presented. For this
is the most energy-intensive cycle of all the test routes presented. For this test cycle, one can very test cycle, one can
very clearly
clearly observe observe the differences
the differences between between the drive
the electric electric drive which
system, system, which
makes usemakes
of the use of the
possibility
possibility of regenerative braking and the conventional diesel system without
of regenerative braking and the conventional diesel system without such a property. In this cycle, such a property. In
this cycle, the difference in energy consumption between diesel- and electric-based
the difference in energy consumption between diesel- and electric-based drive systems is much greater drive systems is
muchingreater
than other than in otherThe
test cycles. test energy
cycles. The energy consumption
consumption of all propulsion
of all propulsion variants invariants
this testinwas
thisalso
test
was also significantly higher than in any other test, and the temperature increases
significantly higher than in any other test, and the temperature increases were also one of the highest. were also one of
the highest. Many stops in the test caused the SUPCAP-BEV variant’s supercapacitor
Many stops in the test caused the SUPCAP-BEV variant’s supercapacitor to be recharged sufficiently to be recharged
sufficiently
often, often, from
and energy and energy from thebattery
the additional additional
was battery was not needed.
not needed.

4.1.7. Bus Energy Consumption Tests

Tests Using
Using the
the BCDC
BCDC Test
Test
BCDC (Braunschweig
The BCDC (Braunschweig City Driving Cycle) (Braunschweig
(Braunschweig Cycle) [60] characterizes
characterizes the
intensity of traffic
traffic in
in city
city centers.
centers.
The BCDC cycle has been developed mainly to test the energy consumption of public transport
vehicles. The
Theduration
durationofofthe thecycle
cycleisisabout
about1740
1740 seconds,
seconds, thethe average
average vehicle
vehicle speed
speed is 22.9
is 22.9 km/h,
km/h, the
the maximum
maximum speed
speed is 58.2
is 58.2 km/h,
km/h, and and the distance
the distance is about
is about 11 km.
11 km. Figure
Figure 20 shows
20 shows the value
the set set value of
of the
the vehicle
vehicle speed
speed during
during the the
BCDCBCDCtest.test.

Figure 20.
Figure 20. BCDC driving cycle.
cycle.

Figure 21 shows the parameters obtained by vehicles during

during the BCDC test, such
such as
as speed,
speed,
voltage and current on the DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores,
current on the DC-link, power, SOC of energy stores, temperature of energy stores, and
and instantaneous
instantaneous and and
totaltotal energy
energy consumption.
consumption.

(a)

Figure 21. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 24 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 39

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 21. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 25 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 39

(g)

Figure
Figure 21. BCDC results
21. BCDC resultsof
ofsimulation
simulationtests,
tests,where:
where:(a)(a) Bus
Bus speed
speed during
during tests
tests (km/h);
(km/h); (b) (b) Voltage
Voltage and
and Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP
Current on DC-link (V), (A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge (%); State of
Charge (%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP ◦ temperature (°C); (f) Instantaneous energy
(e) Battery & SUPCAP temperature ( C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total consumption
(Wh/km); (g) Total
energy usage (kWh).energy usage (kWh).

From
From the
the presented
presented characteristics,
characteristics, the the lowest
lowest energyenergy consumption
consumption was was recorded
recorded for for aa battery
battery
system
system consisting of LTO (1020.6 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (1010.2 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)
consisting of LTO (1020.6 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (1010.2 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)
-SUPCAP
-SUPCAP (1138.1(1138.1 Wh/km),
Wh/km), SUPCAP-BEV
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) (LFP) (1289 (1289 Wh/km),
Wh/km), SUPCAPSUPCAP (1297.2(1297.2 Wh/km),
Wh/km), and and
DIESEL
DIESEL (4869.9
(4869.9 Wh/km).
Wh/km). InInrelation relationtotothe the diesel
diesel power
power system,
system, energy
energy consumption
consumption was was
correspondingly
correspondingly lower lowerforfor the the
BEV BEV system system
(LTO) by (LTO)
79.0%,byBEV 79.0%,
(LFP) BEV (LFP)
by 79.3%, BEV by(LFP)-SUPCAP
79.3%, BEV
(LFP)-SUPCAP
by 76.6%, SUPCAP-BEV by 76.6%,(LFP) SUPCAP-BEV
by 73.5%, (LFP) and SUPCAPby 73.5%, byand SUPCAP by 73.4%.
73.4%.
Similarly to the SORT 3 test, the BCDC test
Similarly to the SORT 3 test, the BCDC test clearly shows the effect clearly shows theofeffect of the supercapacitor
the supercapacitor operation
operation in the BEV-SUPCAP variant, but despite the battery
in the BEV-SUPCAP variant, but despite the battery being relieved of the currents caused being relieved of the currents caused
by regenerative
by regenerative
braking braking and
and subsequent subsequent
acceleration, acceleration,
it cannot be concluded it cannotthatbe concluded
this that this
configuration configuration
is energy-efficient.
is
The probable cause is the high internal resistance of the used supercapacitors as evidenced by the factas
energy-efficient. The probable cause is the high internal resistance of the used supercapacitors of
evidenced
their rapidby the fact of rise,
temperature theirwhich
rapid is temperature
marked with rise, which
a gray is markedline
continuous with a gray 21e.
in Figure continuous line in
Figure To21e.
sum up the conducted research using standardized test cycles on the energy consumption
of an electricupbus,
To sum the itconducted research using
can be concluded that the standardized
highest energy test cycles on the energy
consumption was consumption
noted for MBC of
an
(1300electric bus, itfollowed
Wh/km), can be concluded
by BCDCthat (1021theWh/km),
highest energy OCBCconsumption
(983 Wh/km), wasSORTnoted1 for
(968MBC (1300
Wh/km),
Wh/km), followed by BCDC (1021 Wh/km),
UDDS-HD (925 Wh/km), SORT 2 (841 Wh/km), and SORT 3 (787 Wh/km). OCBC (983 Wh/km), SORT 1 (968 Wh/km), UDDS-HD
(925 Wh/km),
The use ofSORT 2 (841drive
an electric Wh/km),system andinSORT
relation 3 (787 Wh/km).
to a system using a diesel engine (with an equivalent
energyTheconsumption
use of an electric
of 5793drive
Wh/km) system allowsin relation
to reducetoenergy a system using a diesel
consumption in theengine
SORT 1(withcycle an
by
equivalent energy consumption of 5793 Wh/km) allows to reduce
83.3% for the BEV system (LTO), 82.9% for BEV (LFP), 82.5% for BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP, and 78.6% for energy consumption in the SORT 1
cycle by 83.3% for the BEV
both SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) and SUPCAP. system (LTO), 82.9% for BEV (LFP), 82.5% for BEV (LFP) -SUPCAP, and
78.6%The for relative
both SUPCAP-BEV
reduction of CO (LFP) and SUPCAP.
2 emissions with respect to a drive with a diesel engine was 55.6% for
The relative reduction of CO
the BEV system (LTO), 54.6% for BEV (LFP), 53.4%
2 emissions withfor respect to a drive withand
BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP, a diesel
43.2%engine was 55.6%
for SUPCAP-BEV
for
(LFP) theand
BEV systemvariants.
SUPCAP (LTO), 54.6% for BEV (LFP), 53.4% for BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP, and 43.2% for
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) and
The obtained test results SUPCAP
showed variants.
that energy stores using supercapacitors (SUPCAP, SUPCAP-BEV,
The obtained test results
BEV-SUPCAP) did not show a lower total energy showed that energy
consumption storesthan using supercapacitors
purely (SUPCAP,
battery based systems; on
SUPCAP-BEV,
the contrary, in BEV-SUPCAP)
each standard road did test,
not show a lower
their energy total energyperformance
consumption consumption than
was purely
slightly battery
worse.
based systems; on the contrary, in each standard road test, their energy consumption performance
4.2. Research
was on Energy Consumption in the Gdynia-Flat, Gdynia-Hills Test Cycles
slightly worse.
The presented drive systems (BEV (LTO), BEV (LFP), SUPCAP-BEV (LFP), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP,
4.2. Research on Energy Consumption in the Gdynia-Flat, Gdynia-Hills Test Cycles
SUPCAP, DIESEL) were tested on two test routes: Gdynia-Flat and Gdynia-Hills. The Gdynia-Flat
routeThe presented
has been drive
developed systems
on the basis of(BEV (LTO),
real road BEV and
conditions (LFP), SUPCAP-BEV
is characterized (LFP), speeds
by variable BEV
(LFP)-SUPCAP,
at small changesSUPCAP,
in slope. DIESEL)
Test routewere tested on two
Gdynia-Hills test routes: Gdynia-Flat
is characterized by changes in and Gdynia-Hills.
both speed and
The Gdynia-Flat
inclination of theroute hasFigure
terrain. been developed
22 shows theon velocity
the basisand
of real road profile
altitude conditions and
of the is characterized
actual Gdynia-Flat
by variable
route. speeds atof
The duration small changes
the route in slope.
is about Test
3500 route Gdynia-Hills
s, average vehicle speedis characterized
is 27.19 km/h, bytop
changes
speedinis
both speedand
70 km/h, and inclination
distance of the
is about 25.4terrain.
km. Figure 22 shows the velocity and altitude profile of the
actual Gdynia-Flat route. The duration of the route is about 3500 s, average vehicle speed is 27.19
km/h, top speed is 70 km/h, and distance is about 25.4 km.
Energies 2019, 12, 951 26 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 39

Figure 22. Gdynia-Flat

Figure 22. Gdynia-Flat route
route height
height and
and speed
speed profiles.
profiles. Map
Map data
data from
fromGoogle
GoogleMaps.
Maps.

Figure
Figure 23
23 shows
shows the
the speed
speed and
and height
height profile
profileof
ofthe
theactual
actualGdynia-Hills
Gdynia-Hillsroute.
route. The
The duration
duration of
of
the
the route is about 3500 s, the average vehicle speed is 28.12 km/h, the maximum speed is70
route is about 3500 s, the average vehicle speed is 28.12 km/h, the maximum speed is 70km/h,
km/h,
and
and the
the distance
distanceisisapproximately
approximately24.2
24.2km.
km.
Energies 2019, 12, 951 27 of 39

Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 39

Figure Gdynia-Hills
23. 23.
Figure route
Gdynia-Hills routeheight
heightand
and speed profiles.Map
speed profiles. Map data
data from
from Google
Google Maps.
Maps.

4.2.1.4.2.1.
The Study on How
The Study Route
on How Choice
Route ChoiceImpacts
Impacts the EnergyConsumption
the Energy Consumptionbyby
thethe Electric
Electric
Bus—Gdynia-Flat
Bus—Gdynia-Flat Route
Route
The results of the
The results testtest
of the of of
drive
drivesystems
systemsonon four loopsofofthe
four loops theGdynia-Flat
Gdynia-Flat route
route withwith a total
a total length
length
of approximately 100100
of approximately kmkm areare
shown
shown ininFigure
Figure24.
24.

(a)

Figure 24. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 28 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 39

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 24. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 29 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
29
29 of 39
of 39

(g)
(g)
Figure 24. Results of simulation tests of powertrain systems on the Gdynia-Flat route on the section
Figure 24. Results
of about
ofwhere:
100 km,
simulation tests
(a) Bustests
of during
speed
powertrain systems
tests (km/h);
on
(b)on
the Gdynia-Flat
Voltage
route
and Current route
on the(V),
on DC-link
section
Figure 24. Results of simulation of powertrain systems the Gdynia-Flat on the section
of about 100
(A); (c) km, where: Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge (%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP (V),
(a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage and Current on DC-link
of about 100Motor/Engine
km.
(A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d)
temperature (°C); (f) Instantaneous Battery
energy & SUPCAP
consumption State of(g)
(Wh/km); Charge (%); (e)usage
Total energy Battery & SUPCAP
(kWh).
temperature (◦ C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total energy usage (kWh).
Based on the registered parameters, the lowest energy consumption was recorded for the
Based on the registered parameters, the lowest energy consumption was recorded for the
battery system
Based consisting
on the registeredof LTO (788.2 Wh/km),
parameters, the lowestfollowedenergy by BEV (LFP) (816.1
consumption wasWh/km),
recorded BEVfor (LFP)
the
battery system consisting of LTO (788.2 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (816.1 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)
-SUPCAP
-SUPCAP
battery (838.5
system(838.5 Wh/km),
Wh/km),
consisting SUPCAP-BEV
of SUPCAP-BEV
LTO (788.2 Wh/km), (LFP) (988.2
(LFP) (988.2 Wh/km),
Wh/km),
followed SUPCAP
bySUPCAP
BEV (LFP) (988.2
(988.2 Wh/km),
Wh/km),
(816.1 Wh/km), and
and DIESEL DIESEL
BEV (LFP)
(3730.4
-SUPCAP Wh/km).
(3730.4 Wh/km).
(838.5 In relation
In relation
Wh/km), totothe
SUPCAP-BEVthediesel
diesel power
power
(LFP) system,
system,
(988.2 energy
energy
Wh/km), consumption
consumption
SUPCAP (988.2was was correspondingly
correspondingly
Wh/km), and DIESEL
lower
(3730.4
for
lower the
for the
Wh/km).
BEV BEVsystem
system(LTO)
In relation to(LTO)
byby 78.9%,
the diesel 78.9%,
power
BEV
BEVsystem,(LFP)by
(LFP) by78.1%,
energy
78.1%, BEV BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP
(LFP)-SUPCAP
consumption
by 77.5%,
by 77.5%,
was correspondingly
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) byby 73.5%, and
andSUPCAP by 73.5%.
73.5%.
lowerSUPCAP-BEV
for the BEV(LFP) system 73.5%,
(LTO) bySUPCAP
78.9%, BEV (LFP) by 78.1%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP by 77.5%,
The The
firstfirst observation,
observation, whichcan
which canbebemade
made on on thethebasis
basisofofthetheobtained
obtained testtest
results, is clearly
results, the the
is clearly
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by 73.5%, and SUPCAP by 73.5%.
fasterfaster negotiation
negotiation of of
thethe testroute
test routeby by aa vehicle
vehicle powered
poweredbybya adiesel diesel engine.
engine.ThisThis
phenomenon
phenomenon is is
The first
related to
observation,
the fact that
which
this
can be made
propulsion system,
onasthe the
basis
only
of thetested,
one
obtainedhas a
test results,
gearbox that
isallows
clearly the
related to the fact that this propulsion system, as the only one tested, has a gearbox that allows
fasterhigher
negotiation of thetotest
accelerations be route
obtained by even
a vehicle
withoutpowered
the need by to
a diesel
developengine.
full ratedThis phenomenon
torque by the is
higher accelerations to be obtained even without the need to develop full rated torque by the
related to the fact
vehicle's engine. that this propulsion system, as the only one tested, has a gearbox that allows higher
vehicle's engine.
accelerations to betest
The long obtained
time ofeven without the
approximately need allows
4 hours to develop full rated
the tendency oftorque
systemsbytothe vehicle’s
achieve steady engine.
The long test time oftoapproximately
working 4 hours allows the tendencytemperature
of systems to the achieve steady
The longtemperature be recognized. 4
test time of approximately The increase
hours allows of the
the operating
tendency of systems of to achievesystem steady
working
based temperature
on LTO cellstowas to be recognized.
6.5 °C, and for The increase
theincrease
system with of
LFP the operating
cells, it was temperature
16.6 °C. The of the system
working temperature be recognized. The of the operating temperature of lower energybased
the system
based onon
loss LTOthe cells was
internal
◦ 6.5 °C, and
resistance of for BEV
the the system
system with LFP
(LTO) is cells,
the reasonit◦ was
for 16.6
the °C. The
lower lower
total energy energy
on LTO cells was 6.5 C, and for the system with LFP cells, it was 16.6 C. The lower energy loss on the
loss consumption
on the internal resistance
of this system. of the BEV system (LTO) is the reason for the lower total energy
internal resistance of the BEV system (LTO) is the reason for the lower total energy consumption of
consumption of this system.
this system.
4.2.2. The Study on How Route Choice Impacts the Energy Consumption by the Electric
4.2.2.Bus—Gdynia-Hills
4.2.2. The Study
The Study on
on How
How Route
Route Choice
Route Choice Impacts
Impacts the
the Energy
Energy Consumption
Consumption by by the
the Electric
Electric
Bus—Gdynia-Hills Route
Route
The results of testing drive systems on four consecutive repetitions of Gdynia-Hills route with a
total length of approximately 100 km are shown in Figure 25.
route with a
The results of testing drive systems on four consecutive repetitions of Gdynia-Hills route
approximately 100
total length of approximately 100 km
km are
are shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure25.
25.

(a)

(a)

Figure 25. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 30 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 39

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 25. Cont.

Energies 2019, 12, 951 31 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 31 of 39

(g)

Figure 25. Results of simulation tests of powertrain systems on the Gdynia-Hills route on the section
Figure 25. Results of simulation tests of powertrain systems on the Gdynia-Hills route on the section
of about 100 km, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage and Current on DC-link (V),
of about 100 km, where: (a) Bus speed during tests (km/h); (b) Voltage and Current on DC-link (V),
(A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge (%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP
(A); (c) Motor/Engine Power (kW); (d) Battery & SUPCAP State of Charge (%); (e) Battery & SUPCAP
temperature (°C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total energy usage (kWh).
temperature (◦ C); (f) Instantaneous energy consumption (Wh/km); (g) Total energy usage (kWh).

Based on
Based on the
the registered
registered parameters,
parameters, lowest
lowest energy
energy consumption
consumption was was recorded
recorded forfor the
the battery
battery
system consisting of LTO (855.5 Wh/km), followed by BEV
system consisting of LTO (855.5 Wh/km), followed by BEV (LFP) (913.5 Wh/km), BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP (LFP) (913.5 Wh/km), BEV
(LFP)-SUPCAP
(941.3 Wh/km),(941.3 Wh/km), SUPCAP-BEV
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) (1087.6 (LFP) Wh/km), (1087.6 Wh/km),(1091.3
SUPCAP SUPCAP (1091.3 Wh/km),
Wh/km), and DIESELand
DIESEL (3967.2 Wh/km). In relation to the diesel power system,
(3967.2 Wh/km). In relation to the diesel power system, energy consumption was correspondingly energy consumption was
correspondingly
lower for the BEV lower for the
system BEV by
(LTO) system
78.4%, (LTO)
BEVby(LFP) 78.4%,byBEV77%, (LFP)
BEV by(LFP)-SUPCAP
77%, BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP
by 76.3%,
by 76.3%, SUPCAP-BEV
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) by 72.6%,(LFP) and
by 72.6%,
SUPCAP andby SUPCAP
72.5%. by 72.5%.
Once again
Once again aa long,
long, aa four-hour
four-hour test
test allows
allows the the comparison
comparison of of long-term
long-term temperature
temperature increases
increases
during operation. On the Gdynia-Hills route, the increase of working temperature of the systemsystem
during operation. On the Gdynia-Hills route, the increase of working temperature of the based
based on LTO cells ◦was 8 °C, and the one with
on LTO cells was 8 C, and the one with LFP cells 20.2 C. LFP cells
◦ 20.2 °C.
Similar totothethe
Similar standardized
standardized tests, tests,
and onand routes onbased
routes based
on real ones,onsystems
real ones, systems with
with supercapacitors
supercapacitors
showed not lowershowed
but higher not energy
lower consumption
but higher energy compared consumption compared
to purely battery to purely
systems battery
regardless of
systems regardless of whether the route was
whether the route was flat or ran through hilly terrain. flat or ran through hilly terrain.
Table 22 presents
Table presents aa summary
summary of of the
the test
test results
results described
described in in Sections
Sections 4.1.1–4.1.7,
4.1.1.–4.2.2; 4.2.1
it presents the
and 4.2.2;
values
it of energy
presents consumption
the values of energyby each configuration
consumption by each of electric driveofsystem
configuration electricindrive
every test cycle.
system The
in every
averaged values of consumption for each cycle are shown in the bottom
test cycle. The averaged values of consumption for each cycle are shown in the bottom row. row.

Table2.2.Average
Table Average energy
energy consumption
consumption for afor a given
given test cycle
test cycle and configuration
and configuration of drive
of electric electric drive
system.
system.
BEV BEV (LFP) SUPCAP
Test Cycle Unit BEV (LFP) SUPCAP DIESEL
(LTO)
BEV BEV BEVSUPCAP
(LFP) BEV (LFP)
SUPCAP BEV
Test Cycle Unit SUPCAP DIESEL
SORT 1 Wh/km (LTO)
967.8 (LFP)990.5 SUPCAP 1016.2 (LFP)
1239.9 1239.9 5793.2
SORT 2
SORT 1 Wh/km
Wh/km 841.2
967.8 870.6
990.5 1016.2893.3 1030.6
1239.9 1041.5
1239.9 4703.3
5793.2
SORT 3 Wh/km 787.2 816.8 839.8 935.3 945.9 4297.2
SORT 2 Wh/km 841.2 870.6 893.3 1030.6 1041.5 4703.3
UDDS-HD Wh/km 924.6 949.4 972.6 1038.2 1246.8 4067.1
SORT 3 Wh/km 787.2 816.8 839.8 935.3 945.9 4297.2
OCBC Wh/km 982.7 997.5 1037.4 1083.4 1106.3 5205.3
UDDS-HD
MBC Wh/km
Wh/km 924.6
1300.1 949.4
1315.2 972.6
1373.2 1038.2
1495.2 1246.8
1531.1 4067.1
7127.3
BCDCOCBC Wh/km Wh/km 982.7
1020.6 997.5
1010.2 1037.4
1138.1 1083.4
1289.0 1106.3
1297.2 5205.3
4869.9
MBC
Gdynia-Flat Wh/km 1300.1
Wh/km 788.2 1315.2
816.1 1373.2838.5 1495.2
988.2 1531.1
988.2 7127.3
3730.4
BCDC Wh/km
Gdynia-Hills Wh/km 1020.6855.5 1010.2
913.5 1138.1941.3 1289.0
1087.6 1297.2
1091.3 4869.9
3967.2
Gdynia-Flat
Average Wh/km
Wh/km 788.2
940.9 816.1
964.4 838.5
1005.6 988.2
1131.9 988.2
1165.4 3730.4
4862.3
Gdynia-Hills Wh/km 855.5 913.5 941.3 1087.6 1091.3 3967.2
Average Wh/km 940.9 964.4 1005.6 1131.9 1165.4 4862.3
The level of energy consumption for the developed Gdynia-Flat (788 Wh/km) and Gdynia-Hills
(856 Wh/km)
The level test routesconsumption
of energy corresponded forrespectively to the
the developed level of energy
Gdynia-Flat consumption
(788 Wh/km) registered
and Gdynia-Hills
during the SORT
(856 Wh/km) test3routes
(787 Wh/km) and SORT
corresponded 2 (841 Wh/km)
respectively tests. of
to the level When operating
energy the bus registered
consumption on routes
with a significant
during the SORT change in slope,and
3 (787 Wh/km) the SORT
energy2spent on the movement
(841 Wh/km) tests. When of operating
the vehiclethe
may increase
bus by
on routes
about 10%.
with a significant change in slope, the energy spent on the movement of the vehicle may increase by
about 10%.
The highest energy consumption of all road tests conducted was characterized by MBC (1300
Wh/km), BCDC (1021 Wh/km), OCBC (983 Wh/km), SORT 1 (968 Wh/km), UDDS-HD (925 Wh/km),
Energies 2019, 12, 951 32 of 39

The highest energy consumption of all road tests conducted was characterized by MBC (1300 Wh/km),
BCDC (102111,
Energies 2019, Wh/km), OCBC
x FOR PEER (983 Wh/km), SORT 1 (968 Wh/km), UDDS-HD (925 Wh/km), Gdynia-Hills
REVIEW 32 of 39
(856 Wh/km), SORT 2 (841 Wh/km), Gdynia-Flat (788 Wh/km), and SORT 3 (787 Wh/km).
4.3. Energy Consumption Tests for Changes in Passenger Load, Thermal Conditioning System, and Ambient
4.3. Energy Consumption Tests for Changes in Passenger Load, Thermal Conditioning System, and Ambient
Temperatures
Temperatures
Due to the high popularity of LFP cells and low energy consumption in test cycles (Section 4.1),
Due to the high popularity of LFP cells and low energy consumption in test cycles (Section 4.1),
LFP cells were selected for research to analyze the impact of changes in the state of the electric bus
LFP cells were selected for research to analyze the impact of changes in the state of the electric
passenger load and ambient temperature, as well as different thermal conditioning systems, on
bus passenger load and ambient temperature, as well as different thermal conditioning systems,
energy consumption.
on energy consumption.
4.3.1.
4.3.1. Investigation
Investigationof
ofInfluence
Influence of
of Electric
Electric Bus
Bus Passenger
Passenger Number
Number Change
Change on
on Energy
Energy Consumption
Consumption
The
Thestudy
study involved
involved an
anelectric
electricbus
buspowered
powered from
from the
the BEV
BEV battery
battery pack
pack (LFP),
(LFP),moving
moving along
along the
the
route Gdynia-Hills (Figure 22) with a length of 24.3 km. Figure 26 shows the results of simulation
route Gdynia-Hills (Figure 22) with a length of 24.3 km. Figure 26 shows the results of simulation tests
tests forelectric
for an an electric bus during
bus during various
various loading
loading conditions
conditions in theinrange
the range
of 20of
to20
90to 90 passengers.
passengers.

Figure 26. Results of simulation tests for the Gdynia-Flat route during changes of the number
Figure 26. Results of simulation tests for the Gdynia-Flat route during changes of the number of
of passengers.
passengers.
The increase in the number of passengers (Table 3) from 20 to 80 caused an increase in the total
The increase in the number of passengers (Table 3) from 20 to 80 caused an increase in the total
weight of the bus as well as a lengthening of travel time on a given route, in this particular case, by 52 s.
weight of the bus as well as a lengthening of travel time on a given route, in this particular case, by
52 s. Table 3. Energy consumption of the electric drive system depending on the changes in the bus
loading status.
Table 3. Energy consumption of the electric drive system depending on the changes in the bus
loading status. Energy
Total Energy Range SOC at Start End
Passenger # Consumption
(kWh) (km) End (%) Temperature (◦ C) Temperature (◦ C)
Total (Wh/km)
Energy Start End
Range SOC at
20
Passenger # 15.18
Energy 624.54
Consumption 192.11 84.64 18
Temperature 24.23
Temperature
40 16.57 681.80 175.98 (km)83.47End (%) 18 24.86
60 (kWh)
18.05 (Wh/km)
742.91 161.53 82.22 18 (°C) (°C)
25.48
80 19.66 808.99 148.31 80.87 18 26.13
20 15.18 624.54 192.11 84.64 18 24.23
90 20.49 842.85 142.35 80.18 18 26.46
40 16.57 681.80 175.98 83.47 18 24.86
60 18.05 742.91 161.53 82.22 18 25.48
Based on the obtained results, the lowest energy consumption was obviously for a vehicle with the
80 of passengers
least amount 19.66 on board.808.99
Changing the148.31 80.87
loading percentage 18 25% and 100%
between 26.13of the
90
nominal passenger 20.49
load may result in842.85
an increase in142.35 80.18
energy consumed by the 18 26.46
vehicle by about 10–35%.

4.3.2.Based
Studyon
ofthe
Influence of Ambient
obtained Temperature
results, the Changes
lowest energy on the Energy
consumption Consumption
was obviously for a in an Electric
vehicle with
Bus with a Resistive Heating Source and Air Conditioning
the least amount of passengers on board. Changing the loading percentage between 25% and 100%
of theThe
nominal passenger
thermal load may
conditioning resultof
system in the
an increase in energy
passenger consumed
compartment andbyelectric
the vehicle bysystem
drive about
10–35%.
components were analyzed. The thermal conditioning system consisted of a 3.5 kW air conditioning
system (nominal consumed electrical power) and a 20 kW electric heater. The set temperature of the
4.3.2. Study of Influence of Ambient Temperature Changes on the Energy Consumption in an
Electric Bus with a Resistive Heating Source and Air Conditioning
The thermal conditioning system of the passenger compartment and electric drive system
components were analyzed. The thermal conditioning system consisted of a 3.5 kW air conditioning
system (nominal consumed electrical power) and a 20 kW electric heater. The set temperature of the
Energies 2019, 12, 951 33 of 39
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of 39

passenger compartment
passenger compartment was,
was, in in all
all cases,
cases, set
set to
to 20 ◦ C. The
20 °C. The research
researchwas
wasconducted
conductedon onananelectric
electric
propulsionsystem
propulsion systempowered
powered withwith
BEV BEV (LFP)
(LFP) on Gdynia-Flat
on the the Gdynia-Flat test route
test route while changing
while changing the
the ambient
ambient temperature range from
◦ +30 °C ◦to −10 °C. Figure 27 shows the results of
temperature range from +30 C to −10 C. Figure 27 shows the results of simulation reports for ansimulation reports
for an electric
electric bus operated
bus operated for different
for different ambient ambient temperature
temperature values.values.

Figure 27. Simulation results of energy consumption by an electric bus for the Gdynia-Flat route during
Figure 27. Simulation results of energy consumption by an electric bus for the Gdynia-Flat route
changes in ambient temperature.
during changes in ambient temperature.

Based on the obtained results, it can be inferred that the lowest energy consumption was noted
Based on the obtained results, it can be inferred that the lowest energy consumption was noted
for tests conducted at an ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C. An increase in temperature by 10 ◦ C caused an
for tests conducted at an ambient temperature of 20 °C. An increase in temperature by 10 °C caused
increase in energy consumption by 5.5%. This phenomenon was related to the necessity of thermal
an increase in energy consumption by 5.5%. This phenomenon was related to the necessity of
conditioning of the passenger compartment and elements of the electric drive system. The situation
thermal conditioning of the passenger compartment and elements of the electric drive system. The
was similar when the temperature dropped. At an ambient temperature of 0 ◦ C, an increase in energy
situation was similar when the temperature dropped. At an ambient temperature of 0 °C, an increase
consumption by 65.8% was noted, while at an ambient temperature of −10 ◦ C, this increase was 98.8%,
in energy consumption by 65.8% was noted, while at an ambient temperature of −10 °C, this increase
almost twice the consumption at 20 ◦ C.
was 98.8%, almost twice the consumption at 20 °C.
The power consumed by a classic, resistive heating system (Table 4) is of great importance when
The power consumed by a classic, resistive heating system (Table 4) is of great importance
operating electric electric
when operating buses inbuses
publicintransport. The average
public transport. The operating range was
average operating 106.86
range km106.86
was for thekm
electric
for
bus in question with an energy storage consisting of LFP cells and a resistive thermal conditioning
the electric bus in question with an energy storage consisting of LFP cells and a resistive thermal
system. The minimum
conditioning system. Thevalueminimum
of the achieved range
value of the was only 74.58
achieved rangekm,
wasat only
an ambient temperature
74.58 km, of −10
at an ambient
◦ C, while for an ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C, this value is twice as high and amounts to 148.31 km.
temperature of −10 °C, while for an ambient temperature of 20 °C, this value is twice as high and
amounts to 148.31 km.
Table 4. Energy consumption by an electric bus with a resistive thermal conditioning system depending
on changes
Table in ambient
4. Energy temperature.
consumption by an electric bus with a resistive thermal conditioning system
depending on changes in ambient temperature.
Energy
Ambient Total Energy Range SOC at Start End
Consumption
Temperature (◦ C) (kWh)
Total Energy (km) End (%) Temperature (◦ C)
Start Temperature ◦
End( C)
Ambient (Wh/km)
Range SOC at
Temperature
30 Energy
20.74 Consumption
853.21 140.63 80.05 Temperature
30 Temperature
37.27
20
(°C) 19.66 808.99 148.31(km) End (%)
80.88 20 28.07
0 (kWh)
32.60 (Wh/km)
1341.41 89.45 70.16 0 (°C) (°C)
13.25
−530 35.85
20.74 1475.22
853.21 81.33
140.63 67.3480.05 −5 30 11,68
37.27
−10 39.10 1608.67 74.58 64.50 −10 10.61
20 19.66 808.99 148.31 80.88 20 28.07
0 32.60 1341.41 89.45 70.16 0 13.25
In contrast to the energy consumption of the electric drive system, the energy for heating the
−5 35.85 1475.22 81.33 67.34 −5 11,68
passenger compartment cannot be minimized, for example, by changing the speed on the route,
because the −10bus operates
39.10through a strictly
1608.67 defined time
74.58schedule,
64.50while the heating
−10 system 10.61
constantly
consumes power even when the vehicle is stationary (e.g., in a traffic jam). The solution to this problem
can beIneither
contrast to the losses
to reduce energy(caused,
consumption of the electric
for example, drivetosystem,
by the need thethe
ventilate energy
cabin)for
or heating
to use a the
heat
passenger compartment cannot be minimized, for example, by changing
pump that will provide the necessary heat flux while using less valuable electricity. the speed on the route,
because the bus operates through a strictly defined time schedule, while the heating system
constantly
4.3.3. Studyconsumes power
of Influence even when
of Ambient the vehicleChanges
Temperature is stationary (e.g.,
on the in a traffic
Energy jam). Theinsolution
Consumption to
an Electric
Bus
thiswith a Heat
problem canPump
be either to reduce losses (caused, for example, by the need to ventilate the cabin)
or to use a heat pump that will provide the necessary heat flux while using less valuable electricity.
The thermal conditioning system of the passenger compartment and electric drive system
components were analyzed. The thermal conditioning system consisted of a 3.5 kW heat pump
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 34 of 39

4.3.3. Study of Influence of Ambient Temperature Changes on the Energy Consumption in an

Electric Bus with a Heat Pump
Energies 2019, 12, 951 34 of 39
The thermal conditioning system of the passenger compartment and electric drive system
components were analyzed. The thermal conditioning system consisted of a 3.5 kW heat pump
(nominal consumed
(nominal consumed electrical
electrical power).
power). An An electric
electricdrive
drivesystem
systempowered
poweredfrom
fromthe
theLFP
LFPbattery
batterypack
pack
wastested
was testedononthe
theGdynia-Flat
Gdynia-Flattest
testroute
routeatata change
a changeinin ambient
ambient temperature
temperature range
range of +30C°C
of +30 ◦ to10
to − −10
◦ C.
°C.in
As Asthe
in previous
the previous case,
case, the the
set set temperature
temperature of the
of the passenger
passenger compartment
compartment waswasininallallcases
casesheld
heldat
at 20
◦ °C. Figure 28 presents the parameters obtained by vehicles during
20 C. Figure 28 presents the parameters obtained by vehicles during the tests. the tests.

Figure 28. Results of simulation tests for the Gdynia-Flat route during changes the
Figure 28. Results of simulation tests for the Gdynia-Flat route during changes the ambient
ambient temperature.
temperature.
Based on the obtained results (Table 5), the lowest energy consumption was noted for tests conducted
Based on the obtained results, the lowest energy consumption was noted for tests conducted at
at an ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C. An increase in temperature by 10 ◦ C caused an increase in energy
an ambient temperature of 20 °C. An increase in temperature by 10 °C caused an increase in energy
consumption by 5.5%. Similar to the system with a resistance heater and the air conditioning system,
consumption by 5.5%. Similar to the system with a resistance heater and the air conditioning system,
this phenomenon was related to the necessity of thermal conditioning of the passenger compartment
this phenomenon was related to the necessity of thermal conditioning of the passenger compartment
and electric drive system components. Completely different results were obtained for the situation of the
and electric drive system components. Completely different results were obtained for the situation
outside temperature drop. At an ambient temperature of 0 ◦ C, an increase in energy consumption by
of the outside temperature drop. At an ambient temperature of 0 °C, an increase in energy
about 11% was noted, while for an ambient temperature of −10 ◦ C, this increase was 16.5%.
consumption by about 11% was noted, while for an ambient temperature of −10 °C, this increase was
16.5%.
Table 5. Energy consumption of an electric bus with a heat pump depending on changes in
ambient temperature.
Table 5. Energy consumption of an electric bus with a heat pump depending on changes in ambient
temperature. Total Energy Energy Consumption
Ambient Range SOC at Start End
Temperature (◦ C) (kWh) (Wh/km) (km) End (%) Temperature (◦ C) Temperature (◦ C)
30
Ambient Total
20.74 Energy
853.21 140.63 80.05 Start
30 End
37.27
20 19.66 808.99 Range
148.31 SOC
80.88 at 20 28.07
Temperature Energy Consumption Temperature Temperature
0 21.82 897.68 133.66
(km) 78.90(%)
End 0 12.34
−5(°C) 22.36
(kWh) 919.98
(Wh/km) 130.42 78.27 − 5
(°C) 10.69
(°C)
−10 22.90 942.21 127.34 77.62 −10 9.47
30 20.74 853.21 140.63 80.05 30 37.27
20 19.66 808.99 148.31 80.88 20 28.07
The average operating range for a bus with an electric drive system and an energy storage
composed 0of LFP cells21.82for a thermal 897.68 133.66 with
conditioning system 78.90
a heat pump was0 136.07 km.12.34
−5 22.36 919.98 130.42 78.27 −5
In the situation of bus operating at low ambient temperatures, energy consumption may 10.69
increase
from between−10 16.5% to 22.90
100% compared 942.21 127.34 of the
to the operation 77.62
vehicle at an−10 9.47
ambient temperature of
◦
20 C, depending on whether the heat source is a heat pump or a simple resistance heater.
The average operating range for a bus with an electric drive system and an energy storage
4.4. CO2 Emission
composed of LFP cells for a thermal conditioning system with a heat pump was 136.07 km.
In the
The use situation
of electricof businoperating
drive at low ambient
buses, in addition temperatures,
to the benefits energy
associated consumption
with the economics of may
use
increase from between 16.5% to 100% compared to the operation of the vehicle at
and reduction of generated noise, has a main advantage: the absence of emissions of any gases in thean ambient
temperature
place of operation,
of vehicle 20 °C, depending on any
including whether
CO2 the heat source
belonging to theisgreenhouse
a heat pump gasorgroup
a simple resistance
(GHG).
heater.
However, the energy that is used to charge the battery pack of electric vehicles can come from
conventional sources related to the combustion of fossil fuels. The share of fossil fuels in the production
of electricity varies, depending on the sources used by the country and the CO2 emission equivalent,
can range from 24 gCO2 eq/kWh in the southern regions of Norway to 1231 gCO2 eq/kWh in Estonia.
It should also be clearly stated that the emission of pollutants from a combined heat and power
plant (often having a high energy conversion efficiency of 45%) with installed filtration systems has a
significantly smaller impact on the natural environment than the emission of pollutants generated by
 However, the energy that is used to charge the battery pack of electric vehicles can come from
conventional sources related to the combustion of fossil fuels. The share of fossil fuels in the
production of electricity varies, depending on the sources used by the country and the CO2 emission
equivalent, can range from 24 gCO2 eq/kWh in the southern regions of Norway to 1231 gCO2
eq/kWh
Energies in 12,
2019, Estonia.
951 It should also be clearly stated that the emission of pollutants from a combined
35 of 39
heat and power plant (often having a high energy conversion efficiency of 45%) with installed
filtration systems has a significantly smaller impact on the natural environment than the emission of
vehicle combustion
pollutants generatedengines. Figure
by vehicle 29 showsengines.
combustion the approximate
Figure 29values
showsofthe
theapproximate
CO2 mass equivalent
values of per
the
1COkWh of electric energy in a given country/region.
2 mass equivalent per 1 kWh of electric energy in a given country/region.

29. Electricity emissions

Figure 29. emissions intensity
intensity grams
grams COCO22ee per
perkWh
kWh(g/CO
(g/CO22eq/kWh)
eq/kWh) snapshot
snapshot from
electricity. Map taken
electricity. taken at
at 01.02.2019
01.02.2019 12:00
12:00 UTC
UTC [65].
[65].

Table
Table 66 presents
presentsthe
thevalues
valuesofofequivalent
equivalentCOCO2 emissions
2 emissionsgenerated
generatedbyby
different configurations
different of
configurations
electric drive
of electric systems
drive at energy
systems consumption
at energy consumptionlevels as shown
levels in Table
as shown 2. 2.
in Table

Table
Table 6. Potential possible
6. Potential possible CO
CO22 emission
emission amounts
amounts generated
generated by
by aa bus with each drive system
configuration.
configuration.

BEV
BEV BEV
BEV BEV
BEV (LFP)
(LFP) SUPCAP
SUPCAP
Test Cycle Unit SUPCAP DIESEL
Test Cycle Unit (LTO) (LFP) SUPCAP BEV (LFP) SUPCAP DIESEL
(LTO) (LFP) SUPCAP BEV (LFP)
SORT 1 kg/CO2 eq/kWh 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.3 2.3 4.0
SORT
SORT 12 kg/CO22eq/kWh
kg/CO eq/kWh 1.8
2.7 1.8
2.8 1.8
2.9 2.3
3.3 2.3
3.4 4.05.7
SORT 23
SORT kg/CO eq/kWh
kg/CO22eq/kWh 4.0
2.7 4.1
2.8 4.3
2.9 4.7
3.3 4.8
3.4 5.78.2
UDDS-HD kg/CO2 eq/kWh 11.6 11.9 12.2 13.0 4.3 19.1
SORT
OCBC3 kg/CO2eq/kWh
kg/CO eq/kWh 4.0
7.2 4.1
7.3 4.3
7.6 4.7
8.0 4.8
8.1 8.2
14.4
2
MBC
UDDS-HD kg/CO
kg/CO22eq/kWh
eq/kWh 6.0
11.6 6.1
11.9 6.4
12.2 6.9
13.0 7.1
4.3 12.5
19.1
BCDC kg/CO2 eq/kWh 7.7 7.6 8.6 9.7 9.8 13.9
OCBC kg/CO2eq/kWh 7.2 7.3 7.6 8.0 8.1 14.4
Gdynia-Flat kg/CO2 eq/kWh 54.7 56.7 58.2 68.6 68.6 97.6
MBC
Gdynia-Hills kg/CO22eq/kWh
kg/CO eq/kWh 6.0
59.6 6.1
63.6 6.4
65.6 6.9
75.8 7.1
76.0 12.5
104.1
BCDC kg/CO2eq/kWh 7.7 7.6 8.6 9.7 9.8 13.9
5. Conclusions
Gdynia-Flat kg/CO2eq/kWh 54.7 56.7 58.2 68.6 68.6 97.6
Gdynia-Hills
This kg/COthe
article presents 2eq/kWh 59.6modeling
results of 63.6 the electric
65.6 drive 75.8
system of a76.0 104.1 from a
bus powered
hybrid energy store consisting of accumulators and supercapacitors in five different configurations.
The developed models of electric drive systems were used for simulation tests using standardized test
procedures as well as routes developed on the basis of real road conditions. The in-depth results of
simulation tests for various operational scenarios have been provided, including variable conditions of
loading, ambient temperature, and slope of the road.
The obtained test results showed that the smallest average power consumption among all six
configurations was characterized by a drive system powered by BEV LTO.
The use of this type of energy storage enabled more than a five-fold (5.17) (4.91 for BEV (LFP); 4.79
for BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP; and 3.92 for SUPCAP-BEV (LFP) and SUPCAP) energy reduction compared
Energies 2019, 12, 951 36 of 39

to a diesel vehicle, and almost twice (1.94) (1.89 for BEV (LFP); 1.82 for BEV (LFP)-SUPCAP; 1.61 for
SUPCAP-BEV (LFP); and 1.93 for SUPCAP) the reduction of CO2 emissions.
The total energy consumption of the vehicle is also influenced by the used thermal conditioning
system of the passenger compartment and electric drive system components. The use of a system using
a resistive heating system can increase the energy consumption during the prevailing temperatures
of −10 ◦ C up to 100% in relation to the ambient temperature at 20 ◦ C, which is associated with a
vehicle range decrease by approximately 50%. Bearing in mind the amount of energy consumed, better
effects related to temperature conditioning of the passenger compartment and electric drive system
components were obtained using a heat pump.
On the basis of the test results obtained, as well as the properties of batteries used in electric bus
drive systems (charge/discharge level, operating temperature, charging/discharging current), the
type of cells can be chosen, as well as the method of their connection, depending on the planned place
of operation defined by the length of the route, differences in slope, and temperature changes.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: This research received no external support.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References
1. Sanchez-Lugo. Global Climate Report-September 2018|State of the Climate|National Centers for
Environmental Information (NCEI). Available online: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/201809
(accessed on 18 November 2018).
2. Ministry of the Environment. COP24. Available online: https://cop24.gov.pl/ (accessed on 1 January 2019).
3. Plumer, B. COP24, the New Round of Global Climate Talks, Has Begun. We Answer Three Key Questions.
Available online: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/04/climate/cop24-climate-conference-katowice.
html (accessed on 1 January 2019).
4. Worland, J. The Paris Agreement Lives on at the U.N. Climate Change Conference. But Political
Disruption Still Remains a Threat. Available online: http://time.com/5480146/climate-change-cop-24-
paris-agreement/ (accessed on 1 January 2019).
5. The Directorate-General for Climate Action (DG CLIMA). Road Transport: Reducing CO2 Emissions from
Vehicles-Climate Action-European Commission. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/
transport/vehicles_en (accessed on 1 January 2019).
6. Howell, D. Hybrid and Electric Systems R&D at DOE: Fiscal Year 2011–2012 Status. WEVJ 2012, 5, 370–381.
[CrossRef]
7. Bottiglione, F.; Contursi, T.; Gentile, A.; Mantriota, G. The Fuel Economy of Hybrid Buses: The Role of
Ancillaries in Real Urban Driving. Energies 2014, 7, 4202–4220. [CrossRef]
8. Li, L.; You, S.; Yang, C.; Yan, B.; Song, J.; Chen, Z. Driving-behavior-aware stochastic model predictive control
for plug-in hybrid electric buses. Appl. Energy 2016, 162, 868–879. [CrossRef]
9. Martinez-Laserna, E.; Herrera, V.; Gandiaga, I.; Milo, A.; Sarasketa-Zabala, E.; Gaztañaga, H. Li-Ion Battery
Lifetime Model’s Influence on the Economic Assessment of a Hybrid Electric Bus’s Operation. WEVJ 2018, 9,
28. [CrossRef]
10. Wang, X.; He, H.; Sun, F.; Sun, X.; Tang, H. Comparative Study on Different Energy Management Strategies
for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles. Energies 2013, 6, 5656–5675. [CrossRef]
11. Kim, M.; Jeung, D.; Min, K. Fuel Economy of Series Hybrid Electric Bus by Matching the Gear Ratio of
Different Capacity Traction Motors. WEVJ 2012, 5, 254–260. [CrossRef]
12. Tian, X.; He, R.; Xu, Y. Design of an Energy Management Strategy for a Parallel Hybrid Electric Bus Based on
an IDP-ANFIS Scheme. IEEE Access 2018, 6, 23806–23819. [CrossRef]
13. Zhao, K.; Liang, Z.; Huang, Y.; Wang, H.; Khajepour, A.; Zhen, Y. Research on a Novel Hydraulic/Electric
Synergy Bus. Energies 2018, 11, 34. [CrossRef]
14. Topal, O.; Nakir, İ. Total Cost of Ownership Based Economic Analysis of Diesel, CNG and Electric Bus
Concepts for the Public Transport in Istanbul City. Energies 2018, 11, 2369. [CrossRef]
Energies 2019, 12, 951 37 of 39

15. Madanda, R.; Musasizi, P.I.; Asiimwe, A.T.; Matovu, F.; Africa, J.; Tickodri-Togboa, S.S. Model Based
Engineering and Realization of the KAYOOLA Electric City Bus Powertrain. WEVJ 2013, 6, 155–164.
[CrossRef]
16. Wu, X.; Wang, T. Optimization of Battery Capacity Decay for Semi-Active Hybrid Energy Storage System
Equipped on Electric City Bus. Energies 2017, 10, 792. [CrossRef]
17. Min, H.; Lai, C.; Yu, Y.; Zhu, T.; Zhang, C. Comparison Study of Two Semi-Active Hybrid Energy Storage
Systems for Hybrid Electric Vehicle Applications and Their Experimental Validation. Energies 2017, 10, 279.
[CrossRef]
18. Nájera, J.; Moreno-Torres, P.; Lafoz, M.; de Castro, R.; Arribas, J.R. Approach to Hybrid Energy Storage
Systems Dimensioning for Urban Electric Buses Regarding Efficiency and Battery Aging. Energies 2017, 10,
1708. [CrossRef]
19. Soltani, M.; Ronsmans, J.; Kakihara, S.; Jaguemont, J.; van den Bossche, P.; van Mierlo, J.; Omar, N. Hybrid
Battery/Lithium-Ion Capacitor Energy Storage System for a Pure Electric Bus for an Urban Transportation
Application. Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1176. [CrossRef]
20. Fang, S.-C.; Ke, B.-R.; Chung, C.-Y. Minimization of Construction Costs for an All Battery-Swapping
Electric-Bus Transportation System: Comparison with an All Plug-In System. Energies 2017, 10, 890.
[CrossRef]
21. Li, W.; Li, Y.; Deng, H.; Bao, L. Planning of Electric Public Transport System under Battery Swap Mode.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 2528. [CrossRef]
22. Liu, H.; Wang, C.; Zhao, X.; Guo, C. An Adaptive-Equivalent Consumption Minimum Strategy for an
Extended-Range Electric Bus Based on Target Driving Cycle Generation. Energies 2018, 11, 1805. [CrossRef]
23. Mallon, K.; Assadian, F.; Fu, B. Analysis of On-Board Photovoltaics for a Battery Electric Bus and Their
Impact on Battery Lifespan. Energies 2017, 10, 943. [CrossRef]
24. Aschilean, I.; Varlam, M.; Culcer, M.; Iliescu, M.; Raceanu, M.; Enache, A.; Raboaca, M.; Rasoi, G.; Filote, C.
Hybrid Electric Powertrain with Fuel Cells for a Series Vehicle. Energies 2018, 11, 1294. [CrossRef]
25. Yulianto, A.; Simic, M.; Taylor, D.; Trivailo, P. Modelling of full electric and hybrid electric fuel cells buses.
Procedia Comput. Sci. 2017, 112, 1916–1925. [CrossRef]
26. Wang, W.; Zhang, Z.; Shi, J.; Lin, C.; Gao, Y. Optimization of a Dual-Motor Coupled Powertrain Energy
Management Strategy for a Battery Electric Bus Based on Dynamic Programming Method. IEEE Access 2018,
6, 32899–32909. [CrossRef]
27. Zhao, M.; Shi, J.; Lin, C.; Zhang, J. Application-Oriented Optimal Shift Schedule Extraction for a Dual-Motor
Electric Bus with Automated Manual Transmission. Energies 2018, 11, 325. [CrossRef]
28. Panday, A.; Bansal, H.O. Optimal fuel control of series-parallel input split hybrid electric vehicle using
genetic algorithm based control strategy. In Proceedings of the2015 International Conference on Energy
Economics and Environment (ICEEE), Greater Noida, India, 27–28 March 2015.
29. Zhao, G.-Z.; Huang, X.; Peng, X. Adaptive Model Predictive Control Research on Regenerative Braking for
Electric Bus Cruising Downhill. J. Adv. Manuf. Syst. 2016, 15, 133–150. [CrossRef]
30. Halmeaho, T.; Rahkola, P.; Tammi, K.; Pippuri, J.; Pellikka, A.-P.; Manninen, A.; Ruotsalainen, S. Experimental
validation of electric bus powertrain model under city driving cycles. IET Electr. Syst. Transp. 2017, 7, 74–83.
[CrossRef]
31. Kivekäs, K.; Lajunen, A.; Vepsäläinen, J.; Tammi, K. City Bus Powertrain Comparison: Driving Cycle
Variation and Passenger Load Sensitivity Analysis. Energies 2018, 11, 1755. [CrossRef]
32. Vepsäläinen, J.; Kivekäs, K.; Otto, K.; Lajunen, A.; Tammi, K. Development and validation of energy demand
uncertainty model for electric city buses. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2018, 63, 347–361. [CrossRef]
33. Yan, M.; Li, M.; He, H.; Peng, J.; Sun, C. Rule-based energy management for dual-source electric buses
extracted by wavelet transform. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 189, 116–127. [CrossRef]
34. Yu, L.; Kong, D.; Yan, X. A Driving Behavior Planning and Trajectory Generation Method for Autonomous
Electric Bus. Future Internet 2018, 10, 51. [CrossRef]
35. Shen, P.; Zhao, Z.; Li, J.; Zhan, X. Development of a typical driving cycle for an intra-city hybrid electric bus
with a fixed route. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2018, 59, 346–360. [CrossRef]
36. Leou, R.-C.; Hung, J.-J. Optimal Charging Schedule Planning and Economic Analysis for Electric Bus
Charging Stations. Energies 2017, 10, 483. [CrossRef]
Energies 2019, 12, 951 38 of 39

37. Bak, D.-B.; Bak, J.-S.; Kim, S.-Y. Strategies for Implementing Public Service Electric Bus Lines by Charging
Type in Daegu Metropolitan City, South Korea. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3386. [CrossRef]
38. Gao, Y.; Guo, S.; Ren, J.; Zhao, Z.; Ehsan, A.; Zheng, Y. An Electric Bus Power Consumption Model and
Optimization of Charging Scheduling Concerning Multi-External Factors. Energies 2018, 11, 2060. [CrossRef]
39. Lajunen, A. Lifecycle costs and charging requirements of electric buses with different charging methods.
J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 172, 56–67. [CrossRef]
40. Rogge, M.; van der Hurk, E.; Larsen, A.; Sauer, D.U. Electric bus fleet size and mix problem with optimization
of charging infrastructure. Appl. Energy 2018, 211, 282–295. [CrossRef]
41. Bi, Z.; Keoleian, G.A.; Ersal, T. Wireless charger deployment for an electric bus network: A multi-objective
life cycle optimization. Appl. Energy 2018, 225, 1090–1101. [CrossRef]
42. Jang, Y.J.; Suh, E.S.; Kim, J.W. System Architecture and Mathematical Models of Electric Transit Bus System
Utilizing Wireless Power Transfer Technology. IEEE Syst. J. 2016, 10, 495–506. [CrossRef]
43. Kotiev, G.O.; Butarovich, D.O.; Kositsyn, B.B. Energy efficient motion control of the electric bus on route.
IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 315, 12014. [CrossRef]
44. Cho, C.-W.; Lee, H.-S.; Won, J.-P.; Lee, M.-Y. Measurement and Evaluation of Heating Performance of Heat
Pump Systems Using Wasted Heat from Electric Devices for an Electric Bus. Energies 2012, 5, 658–669.
[CrossRef]
45. Zhang, Z.; Li, W.; Shi, J.; Chen, J. A Study on Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems in Cold Climates. Energies
2016, 9, 881. [CrossRef]
46. He, H.; Yan, M.; Sun, C.; Peng, J.; Li, M.; Jia, H. Predictive air-conditioner control for electric buses with
passenger amount variation forecast. Appl. Energy 2018, 227, 249–261. [CrossRef]
47. Xiong, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhong, Y. Modeling and analysis in air conditioning control system based on electric
bus. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 17th International Conference on Communication Technology (ICCT),
Chengdu, China, 27–30 October 2017.
48. Yan, M.; He, H.; Jia, H.; Li, M.; Xue, X. Model Predictive Control of the Air-conditioning System for Electric
Bus. Energy Procedia 2017, 105, 2415–2421. [CrossRef]
49. Wu, X.; Lv, S.; Chen, J. Determination of the Optimum Heat Transfer Coefficient and Temperature Rise
Analysis for a Lithium-Ion Battery under the Conditions of Harbin City Bus Driving Cycles. Energies 2017,
10, 1723. [CrossRef]
50. Turoń, K.; Czech, P.; Juzek, M. The concept of a walkable city as an alternative form of urban mobility. Sci. J.
Sil. Univ. Technol.-Ser. Transp. 2017, 95, 223–230. [CrossRef]
51. Kurek, A.; Jużyniec, J.; Kielc, B. Analysis of road safety in the city of Sosnowiec in the period 2006–2016.
Sci. J. Sil. Univ. Technol.-Ser. Transp. 2018, 100, 69–79. [CrossRef]
52. Czech, P.; Turon, K.; Barcik, J. Autonomous Vehicles: Basic Issues. Sci. J. Sil. Univ. Technol. Ser. Transp. 2018,
15–22. [CrossRef]
53. Skrúcaný, T.; Šarkan, B.; Figlus, T.; Synák, F.; Vrábel, J. Measuring of noise emitted by moving vehicles.
MATEC Web Conf. 2017, 107, 72. [CrossRef]
54. Yamamoto, A.; Fukuda, M.; Utsumi, H. Vehicle Management and Travel Data Analysis of E-Bus Adopted in
JR Kesennuma Line. WEVJ 2016, 8, 122–130. [CrossRef]
55. Łebkowski, A. Temperature, Overcharge and Short-Circuit Studies of Batteries used in Electric Vehicles.
Przeglad˛ Elektrotechniczny 2017, 1, 69–75. [CrossRef]
56. Nørregaard, K.; Johnsen, B.; Hedegaard Gravesen, C. Battery degradation in electric buses. 2016.
Available online: https://www.trafikstyrelsen.dk/~{}/media/Dokumenter/06%20Kollektiv%20trafik/
Forsogsordningen/2013/Elbusser/Battery%20degradation%20in%20electric%20buses%20-%20final.pdf
(accessed on 27 February 2019).
57. Łebkowski, A. Steam and Oxyhydrogen Addition Influence on Energy Usage by Range Extender—Battery
Electric Vehicles. Energies 2018, 11, 2403. [CrossRef]
58. Global Carbon Dioxide Emissions Rose Almost 3% in 2018|CBC News. Available online: https://www.cbc.
ca/news/technology/carbon-pollution-increase-1.4934096 (accessed on 25 January 2019).
59. The Global Fuel Economy Initiative. International Test Cycles for Emissions and Fuel Economy.
Available online: https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/transport/gfei/autotool/approaches/information/
test_cycles.asp#pg (accessed on 27 January 2019).
Energies 2019, 12, 951 39 of 39

60. US EPA. Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Ttesting-Dynamometer Drive Schedules. Available online:
https://www.epa.gov/vehicle-and-fuel-emissions-testing/dynamometer-drive-schedules (accessed on 27
January 2019).
61. DieselNet. Emission Test Cycles. Available online: https://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/index.
php (accessed on 27 January 2019).
62. European Commission. COMMISSION RECOMMENDATION of 31.5.2017 on the use of fuel consumption
and CO2 emission values type-approved and measured in accordance with the World Harmonised Light Vehicles
Test Procedure when making information available for consumers pursuant to Directive 1999/94/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2017.
63. UNECE. World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations. Available online: http://www.unece.org/
trans/main/wp29/meeting_docs_wp29.html (accessed on 27 January 2019).
64. Gis, W.; Kruczyński, S.; Taubert, S.; Wierzejsk, A. Studies of energy use by electric buses in SORT tests.
Combust. Engines 2017, 135–138. [CrossRef]
65. Live CO2 Emissions of Electricity Consumption. Available online: https://www.electricitymap.org/
(accessed on 1 February 2019).

© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).