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Unit 2 - Part 2

The document discusses three topics: 1. Schnorr identification schemes which allow a prover to prove possession of a secret key to a verifier through a zero-knowledge proof using discrete logarithms. 2. Primality testing algorithms like Miller-Rabin that use properties of prime numbers to probabilistically determine if a number is prime rather than with absolute certainty. 3. The Chinese Remainder Theorem which shows that integers can be reconstructed from their residues modulo relatively prime moduli.

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sumit mor
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19 views4 pages

Unit 2 - Part 2

The document discusses three topics: 1. Schnorr identification schemes which allow a prover to prove possession of a secret key to a verifier through a zero-knowledge proof using discrete logarithms. 2. Primality testing algorithms like Miller-Rabin that use properties of prime numbers to probabilistically determine if a number is prime rather than with absolute certainty. 3. The Chinese Remainder Theorem which shows that integers can be reconstructed from their residues modulo relatively prime moduli.

Uploaded by

sumit mor
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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UNIT - 2

Schnorr Identification Schemes

An identification scheme is an interactive protocol between the two parties, namely a Prover “P”
and a Verifier “V”. If the protocol is successful, then the Verifier is convinced that it is
interacting with the Prover or more precisely with someone who knows the Secret Key that
corresponds to the Prover’s Public Key.

It supports a Zero Knowledge proof method and uses Discrete Logarithms.

In Schnorr’s Identification Scheme, the Prover has a Proving Public Key (N, g, X) and a Proving
Secret Key (N, x), where “N” is a prime number for Modulus operation and X is the Secret,
where

X <----- gx mod N

After registering the Secret, the Prover generates a random value “y” and computes Y, as:

Y <----- gy mod N

Now, “Y” is sent to the Verifier. The Verifier then generates a random value “c” and sends it to
the Prover. This acts as a challenge for the Prover to produce the correct result. The Prover now
computes Z, as:

Z <----- (y + x * c) mod N
The Prover sends “Z” to the Verifier to prove that the Prover knows “x”. The Verifier now
computes two values, as:

Val1 <----- Y * Xc mod N

Val2 <----- gZ mod N

If Val1 == Val2, it is proved that the Prover knows “x”. This is because

Y * Xc == gy * gx*c == gy + c * x

gZ = gy + c * x

Primality Testing

A Primality Test determines whether a number is prime or not. Primality Tests are categorized as
Deterministic and Probabilistic. Deterministic Tests determine with absolute certainty that a
number is Prime. Probabilistic Tests can potentially identify a composite number as prime.
However, Probabilistic Tests are more fast compared to Deterministic Tests.

Miller – Rabin algorithm is typically used for testing the primality of large numbers.

Any positive odd integer “N” can be expressed, as:

N – 1 = 2k * q, where k > 0, q is Odd and N >= 3 ……… EQ. 1


The first property of prime number states that if P is prime and “a” is a positive integer, where a
< P, then a2 mod P == 1, if and only if either a mod P == 1 or a mod P == -1 mod P == P – 1.

By the rules of Modular Arithmetic, (a mod P) * (a mod P) == a2 mod P.

Conversely, if a2 mod P == 1, then (a mod P)2 == 1, which is TRUE, only for a mod P == 1 or a
mod P == -1.

The second property states that if P is a prime number greater than 2, then using EQ. 1 and let
“a” be any integer in range 1 < a < P – 1, then one of the following two conditions should be
TRUE, i. e.

(i) aq is congruent to 1 mod P, i. e., aq mod P == 1 or aq == 1 mod P

(ii) One of the elements aq, a2*q, a4*q, ….. is congruent to -1 mod P.

These considerations lead to a conclusion that if “n” is prime, then either the first element in the
list of residues or remainders (aq, a2q, a4q, …..) modulo n == 1 or some element in the list equals
n – 1; otherwise “n” is composite. However, these algorithms are probabilistic and don’t always
conclusively prove that “n” is Prime.

Chinese Remainder Theorem

Chinese Remainder Theorem states that it is possible to reconstruct integers in a certain range
from their residue modulo set of pair-wise relatively prime moduli.

Example

x == 2 mod 3

x == 4 mod 5

x == 5 mod 7
Here, a1 = 2, a2 = 4, a3 = 5, m1 = 3, m2 = 5 and m3 = 7.

Now, compute M, as:

M = m1 * m2 * m3 = 3 * 5 * 7 = 105

M / m1 = 105 / 3 = 35, M / m2 = 105 / 5 = 21 and M / m3 = 105 / 7 = 15

Now, we have new set of congruences, as:

35 * b1 == 1 mod 3

21 * b2 == 1 mod 5

15 * b3 == 1 mod 7

The solutions to these new congruences are b1 = 2, b2 = 1 and b3 = 1. So, now “x” will be given,
as:

x = [(a1 * b1 * M / m1) + (a2 * b2 * M / m2) + (a3 * b3 * M / m3)] mod M

x = [2 * 2 * 35 + 4 * 1 * 21 + 5 * 1 * 15] mod 105 = [140 + 84 + 75] mod 105

x = 299 mod 105 = 89 mod 105

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