ACADEMIC WRITING

Zenith Education
2010

© Niets uit deze publicatie mag worden vermenigvuldigd of openbaar gemaakt op enige wijze dan voor eigen gebruik, zonder
toestemming van de auteur. De teksten zijn eigendom van Zenith Education.

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Content
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3
2. The writing process ........................................................................................................ 4
3. The present tense ............................................................................................................ 8
4. Academic Texts.............................................................................................................. 9
5. Writing a good paragraph............................................................................................. 11
6. It’s all in the past .......................................................................................................... 16
7. Writing definitions ....................................................................................................... 17
8. The language of definitions.......................................................................................... 19
9. Academic Reporting Skills........................................................................................... 21
10. Paraphrasing ............................................................................................................... 22
11. Reporting verbs .......................................................................................................... 24
12. The passive and the active.......................................................................................... 25
13. Describing and interpreting non-verbal material........................................................ 26
14. Qualification............................................................................................................... 27
15. Adverbs vs Adjectives................................................................................................ 29
16. The structure of problem-solution texts ..................................................................... 30
17. Punctuation................................................................................................................. 31
18. The conditional (if-clause) ......................................................................................... 34

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1. Introduction

The skill of writing

Writing academic texts, such as papers, articles, theses or dissertations, is often considered to be
fairly straightforward. However, this skill, just like any other skill, must be learned first. This is the
reason why students who have never had any formal training in academic writing often encounter
problems when writing an academic text. Both the theory (“How should I do it?”) and practice of writing
are important. After all, it isn’t until you are actually writing an academic text in English that you
discover your weaknesses. Problems can occur at different stages of the writing process, for example
while planning content or formulating a research question. Furthermore, writing blocks can occur. The
novice writer does not always know how to solve these problems effectively.

Apart from research and writing problems, psychological problems may occur during the writing process.
Lack of motivation or discipline is an example of such a problem. Not everybody experiences the same
problems. Some students are good at organisation and structuring content but they have difficulty with
producing the required formal and objective academic style. Others are excellent at planning but expect
too much of themselves. Once the academic writing skill has been mastered, fewer psychological
problems will occur.

Tackling problems
Every problem that occurs during the writing process can be solved. These problems can be tackled by
becoming aware of your own writing process, by receiving tips and strategies, by practising a lot, by
giving feedback on other texts, and by receiving feedback. Not only can these problems be solved or
prevented, your level of academic writing in English can also be upgraded.

This course offers a complete toolkit to improve the skill of writing academic English. The various tips
and assignments will not have the same effect for everybody. Some students will benefit more from
certain tips than others. That is why our advice is to try everything first, and then to use the elements that
suit your own writing style. By the end of this course you will be able to write faster and better when it
comes to academic texts in English.

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2. The writing process

The process of writing an academic text consists of various phases. Each phase has its own specific
activities. For example, when you are choosing a topic you won’t need to start writing any sentences
yet. Whereas when you are revising (adjusting and rewriting) a text, there is no need to figure out
how to formulate your research question. It is important to distinguish between these phases in order
to concentrate on the activities belonging to that particular phase. Every activity requires its own
specific skills.
Novice writers often work on several activities belonging to different phases of the writing
process all at the same time. It is impossible to work efficiently this way. These inexperienced and
untrained writers are using various skills at once which results in a slower work pace and a poorer
quality text.
It is important to be aware of your own writing process. When you are aware of your own
writing process, you can change it to make it more efficient in order to produce better-quality texts in
less time. What’s more, you will be able to assess which parts of your writing process need to be
improved.
In this lesson, we determine the three phases of the writing process. This is not only efficient
(as you will be using the right skills at the right time), it is also important to divide the writing process
into smaller parts in order to make it more manageable. It will then be easier to get started and to
achieve your goals more quickly.

The three phases of the writing process

The writing process consists of three phases: (1) Planning, (2) Writing, and (3), Editing.

Every phase requires its own skills and activities. The writing process is a cyclical process: the various
steps can be taken more than once. The writing process is also a dynamic process. For example,
when you are writing your text (i.e. you are in the writing phase) and you discover that your plan has to
be adjusted, you can then go back to the planning phase and change your plan.

Evaluating your own writing process: How much time do you spend on each step?

As a guideline: You should spend at least some time on each step. However, some writers tend to
spend as much as 60% of their time planning and others prefer to spend most of their time editing their
texts. You certainly do not need to try to spend 33.3% of your time on each step.

NOTE: You should always edit your text twice: once globally (on macro level or text level) for content
and once locally (micro level or sentence level) for grammar, spelling and word order. It is practically

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impossible to edit the content and organisation of your text at the same time as the language you have
used. Ideally, you should even edit a third time (on meso level or paragraph level) to ensure that each
paragraph is logical and correct that it has a topic sentence.

Writing strategies

A writing strategy is anything you do in order to help you write a text. As everyone is different, what is
a useful writing strategy may vary from person to person. However, research has found that some
strategies are generally useful:

• Plan both globally and locally

• Plan flexibly (do not be afraid to change your plan)
• Think at text level – NOT just sentence level
• Use more than one language for thinking
• Print out the text before you read through it
• Revise first globally and then locally

Wanting do to everything at the same time is a bad strategy. A good strategy is to divide the writing
process into phases. Not only will this lead to better-quality texts in less time, but it will also make
writing more enjoyable!

More writing strategies for academic writing

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a common technique used for generating ideas. It can either be used to think of
topics for a paper/thesis or to think of ideas in connection with a specific topic. Give yourself a few
minutes to jot down every idea you can think of, however unusual it may seem – write in points, not full
sentences. The idea is to first generate a lot of ideas, and then later to critically evaluate these ideas.
You can also to make a ‘spider web’, in which you join the ideas to each other with lines in order to
indicate connections between the various ideas.

Weighing Priorities
When you have brainstormed a number of possible topics, it can be useful to weigh priorities to help
you choose the most appropriate topic. This technique involves giving each topic a ranking on a
number of factors that are relevant to you (e.g. interest value, theoretical importance, practical
relevance, amount of literature available). Give each topic a score between one and ten for each of
the factors you have chosen. Add up the scores on each of the factors and calculate the average
score for each topic. If you consider one of the factors to be more important than the others, you may
decide to weight this factor more heavily than the others (e.g. you could give it a score out of 20
instead of 10, so that it contributes more to the average score for all the factors).

Topic Limitation
Once a broad topic area has been chosen, topic limitation can be used as a technique for limiting the
scope of the topic. Imagine, for example, that you plan to write a thesis on ‘sports reporting’. This topic
can be limited by adding more specific information such as ‘sports reporting in television journalism’.
The topic can be further specified as ‘sports reporting in public television journalism’, and then as
‘football reporting in public television journalism’, and so on. A word of warning: be careful not to limit
the topic too much too early in the writing process. If you do this, it can be difficult to backtrack later.

Free writing
Free writing can be used as a technique to get your ideas flowing freely at any stage of the writing
process. It can help you get a clearer idea of the specific topic area, or it can help you decide on what
you want to say in a specific sub-section of your paper/thesis. Set a time limit – for example, 10
minutes. Start writing – either with pen and paper or on the computer – and make sure you keep on
writing until the time limit is up. Don’t worry about whether the language is correct or whether the
sentences are well connected. If you can’t think of anything else to write, write down things like “I don’t
know what else to write” and you will probably find that by the time you have finished writing this

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sentence you will have come up with something else. This is a good technique for people with writer’s
block.

Research question formulation

Once a topic has been limited, formulating a research question is an excellent (and also necessary)
way of coming to grips with the topic. A research question always needs an objective. This objective
may either be theoretical (e.g. to compare two models; to test a hypothesis; to identify gaps in the
state of knowledge) or practical (e.g. to pinpoint a social problem; to offer solutions to a social
problem). Once the objective has been determined, a general research question needs to be
formulated. In most cases, the research question needs to be broken up into specific sub-questions.

Introduction Writing
Once a research question has been formulated, it can be very useful to write a short introduction (1–2
pages). Even if you have not yet done much reading on the topic, this is a good way of clarifying your
ideas on the topic and of testing whether the research question you have chosen really comes to
terms with the issues you are concerned with. This introduction should include the follow elements:

1) Situation: the background situation concerning the topic;

2) Problematisation: a specific problem related to the topic (e.g. gaps in the state of knowledge;
inconsistencies; incorrect assumptions; lack of empirical testing of a hypothesis).
3) Description of paper/thesis: the objective of your paper, which of course will be related to dealing
with the issue(s) that have been problematised; the research question(s); and a brief description of the
structure of the rest of the paper/thesis.

Flexible reading
It is not efficient – and generally not possible in terms of time – to read all the literature on your topic in
great detail. It is therefore important to develop flexible reading strategies. Different ways of reading
are appropriate at different points in the writing process. Three common ways of reading are:

1) Orientational reading: This way of reading is most appropriate in the first phase of collecting
literature. The most important question here is: ‘Can I use this text in my paper/thesis?’ This question
can be answered by reading the title, the abstract or summary and possibly the introduction – no more
than this.
2) Global reading: This way of reading is most appropriate when a decision has already been made
that a text is potentially relevant. The text is read in such a way as to obtain a global impression of the
content. Global reading can involve reading main sentences only, or reading the whole text quickly
and superficially.
3) Intensive reading: This way of reading is most appropriate in cases where it is clear that a
publication is a key publication for the paper/thesis. It can be useful to use strategies such as
summarizing, underlining, making notes in the margin, or immediately adding information from the
publication to your own text.

A simple model of writing

Below you will find a model of writing adapted from Flower and Hayes (1980). Take a good look at the
model and see how you (as the monitor) can control the writing process and the writing product.
The first week of this writing course is all about the writing process. Once you are more aware of your
own writing process, we will be able to spend the next seven weeks on the writing product.

By the end of this course, you will be better and faster at writing academic texts in English.

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 A SIMPLE MODEL OF WRITING
(Adapted from Flower & Hayes, 1980)

MONITOR

WRITING WRITING
PRODUCT
Content PROCESS
Purpose Planning
Audience

Organization

Formulating
Language Use

Tone & style

Flow
Revising
Grammar &
vocabulary

KNOWLEDGE BASE
e.g. knowledge about topic, writing, language

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3. The present tense

What is the difference between the following two sentences:

1. Sam is driving to work.

2. Sally walks to work

The first sentence is used to express something that is happening at the moment. The verb
tense is a present continuous which is used to describe a temporary situation in English.
Sam is driving to work AT THE MOMENT (because it is raining – he usually walks to work,
for example)

The second sentence, on the other hand, is used for situations that are always true. The verb
tense is the present simple and it is used to describe permanent situations. Sally ALWAYS
walks to work. The present simple is used to express universal truths.

This is very relevant to academic writing in English. If you write: ‘A lack of exercise is
causing chronic back pain’ you are referring to a temporary situation. If you state that ‘A lack
of exercise causes chronic back pain’ you are making a much wider claim.

Please be aware of this difference in the English present tense. Take a look at the following
two tests to see if you have fully grasped this grammar topic.

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4. Academic Texts

Science is built on different theories. These previously formulated theories form the basis of new
paradigms. New discoveries and theories result in the dynamic nature of ‘knowledge’ in science.
‘Knowledge’ is adapted to new ideas and theories. Scientific articles, books, theses and dissertations
report this process of knowledge development.

In science, older, earlier accepted ideas are perceived as facts. The subjective evaluation of these
facts are called opinions. In the future, these opinions can be perceived as facts, but until these
opinions are fully supported empirically or accepted by the scientific world, they remain opinions. In an
academic text, both facts and opinions are presented. Facts have to be supported by a source (or a
reference to that source). It must be made clear how a fact became a fact, or, in other words, what
empirical proof it is based on. Opinions have to be supported by arguments and facts.

Facts and opinions need to be easily recognizable. When presenting facts, a reference to the original
literature source has to be included. In this way, peers can check whether the facts are presented
correctly. Academic writers need to use academic caution (or the language of qualification – see also
Week 5) when presenting opinions. Auxiliary verbs and provisions such as can, appear, and probably
must be used to emphasize the subjectivity of these ideas. Academic texts can be seen as critical
reports of knowledge development and they document the academic debate between peers.

Key features of an academic text

The four key features of academic texts are:

1 Passive tenses

2 Reporting evidence

3 'Objectivity'

4 Formal language

1. Passive tenses

1. We've always known that drinking alcohol is linked with car accidents.
2. The link between alcohol consumption and motor vehicle accidents has long been recognised.

In academic writing the passive is often used when the 'doer' of an action is not important or unknown. In
this case 'we' are not important. What is important is the fact, i.e. the link between alcohol consumption
and motor vehicle accidents. The second text emphasises this fact, then uses the passive tense to
emphasise the action (recognised) rather than the doer of the action (we).

The verb 'is linked' is changed in the second text to a noun, 'the link'. This process, known as
nominalisation, is common in academic writing. Changing a process (verb) to a concrete object or 'thing'
(a noun - either real or abstract) makes it more concrete. This adds authority to what is being said.

2. Reporting evidence

1. Well over half the deaths in car accidents involve drink driving.
2. A recent study conducted by the National Road Safety Association attributes a high sixty per cent
of road fatalities to the effects of alcohol among drivers as well as pedestrians (1998, p 84).

Academic writing requires accurate reporting of evidence, with all sources referenced.

The second text does this. However, the first text makes vague unsupported claims.

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3. Objectivity

1. To stop any more increases in the number of accidents involving people who drink and drive, we
need better policing on the roads and people (especially young people) need to be educated
about the dangers of drinking and driving.
2. As the report goes on to recommend, more effective policing and educational programs,
particularly aimed at younger drivers, are required in order to prevent any further escalation in
drink driving accidents.

The first text expresses the writer's personal opinion ('we need...'), whereas the second text, although it
may also be the opinion of the writer, attributes the claim to the report. In academic writing your academic
point of view (evidenced by reliable academic sources) is required, not your personal opinion.

4. Formal language

Academic writing tends to use formal language. Compare:

1. better policing
2. more effective policing

1. (especially young people)

2. particularly aimed at younger drivers

1. to stop any more increases

2. to prevent any further escalation

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5. Writing a good paragraph
There are three important aspects of writing that you need to be aware of. A good paragraph has three
structural parts and it has elements of unity and coherence.

The three structural parts

A paragraph has three major structural parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding
sentence.

The topic sentence

The topic sentence presents the main idea of the paragraph. It not only states the topic of the paragraph,
but it also limits the topic to one or two aspects that can (and will) be discussed in the space of a single
paragraph.

The development
The topic sentence is supported by the development. The development explains the topic sentence by
giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics and quotations.

The conclusion
The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important points to
remember.

Unity

Unity means that you discuss only one main idea in each paragraph. This idea is stated in the topic
sentence and developed in the supporting sentences.

Coherence

Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because your supporting
sentences are presented in logical order and your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition
signals. Internal reference (using the appropriate pronoun to refer back to a noun mentioned earlier in
your text) is another device to improve coherence.

Signalling and signposting

Apart from the features of a good paragraph mentioned earlier, signalling and signposting are a very
important aspect of academic writing. Using signalling words and signposting sentences will make your
text a great deal more reader-friendly!

It is not only crucial to have a plan before you start writing – you also need to reveal it to the reader.

Signalling language and signposting is used to reveal your plan to the reader. These may be in the form of
transitional linking phrases, such as 'in addition, another important characteristic, however, for example, in
conclusion, on the other hand'. They might also be in the form of sentences such as “The following three
arguments support this idea. First, Second, Third”. Headings, sub-headings and the opening words of
topic sentences are also useful as signposts.

Exercise

For example, in the text below about insider trading, signalling language needs to be added. Please
rewrite the third and fourth sentences and include signalling language to improve their coherence and
reader-friendliness.

Please note that it is not enough to simply add a linking word.

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"The general consensus nowadays is that insider trading is morally incorrect and should not take place.
However, opponents as well as supporters of insider trade can be found in the existing literature.
Werhane (1989) states that insider trade undermines the efficient functioning of a free market. Manne
(2000) argues that long-term shareholders actually benefit from insider trading as the average price could
be higher than it would be without insider trading."

Model Answer

The revised text could look something like this:

"The general consensus nowadays is that insider trading is morally incorrect and should not take place.
However, opponents as well as supporters of insider trade can be found in the existing literature. One of
the opponents of insider trading is Werhane (1989). He criticises the phenomenon and argues that insider
trade undermines the efficient functioning of a free market. Manne (2000), on the other hand, argues that
shareholders actually benefit from insider trading as the average price could be higher than it would be
without insider trading."

Did you include the same signalling language in your text?

Signalling language

Here is a list of sample sentences that you can use as signalling language when you are writing academic
texts.

Introducing a ‘problem’ area of research

• There has been much/considerable debate concerning/regarding...

• There has been a great deal of discussion concerning/regarding...
• There is considerable dissent concerning/regarding...
• A considerable amount of research has focussed on whether...

Introducing a claim (from which you wish to distance yourself)

• There are many claims that...

• It has been claimed that...
• It is frequently maintained that...
• It is often asserted that...
• It is often thought that...
• It is often said that...
• Many scientists/researchers/experts are of the opinion that...
• According to many scientists/researchers/experts...

Introducing a problem

• It is not clear, however,...

• It is uncertain, however,...
• It remains unclear whether...
• Despite..., little progress has been made in...
• Nevertheless, few solutions have been found to...
• An unresolved issue is whether...
• Few studies have considered whether...
• Little research has been conducted on...

Signalling your own hypothesis/approach

• We can hypothesize that...

• We might hypothesize that...

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 • It seems feasible that...
• We might expect that...
• This finding might lead us to expect that...
• It seems reasonable to expect that...
• An interesting approach would be to...

Introducing your study

• This paper/study will examine/investigate/address/focus on...

• In this paper/study we will examine/investigate/address/focus on...

Linking words

Here is a list of linking words that you can use when you are writing academic texts.

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Addition Clause Connectors :
And ; not …. nor ….
Sentence Connectors :
besides ; first(ly) ; second(ly) ; similarly ; likewise ; in addition ;
furthermore ; moreover ; by the same token ; what is more
Phrase Connectors :
additional ; added ; extra ; further ; supplementary ; in addition to ;
both … and … ; neither … nor …

Adversative/ Clause Connectors :

Contrast although ; while ; whereas ; even though ; despite the fact that ;
but ; notwithstanding the fact that
Sentence Connectors :
in contrast ; however ; yet ; nevertheless ; alternatively ;
conversely ; by contrast ; despite this ; nonetheless ; on the
contrary ; on the one hand … on the other ; admittedly
Phrase Connectors :
as for ; in spite of ; instead of ; in spite of ; in contrast with ;
contrary to ; on the one hand … on the other ; albeit

Conclusion Sentence Connectors :

in conclusion ; to sum up ; summing up ; in sum ; in short

Result Clause Connectors :

(cause and because ; as ; since ; for ; in that ; as a result of the fact that
effect) Sentence Connectors :
thus ; therefore ; accordingly ; as a result ; for that reason ;
because of this ; consequently ; as a consequence
Phrase Connectors :
because of ; as a result of ; due to ; hence
Content Disjunct Sentence Connectors :
appropriately ; astonishingly ; clearly ; disappointingly ; fortunately
; inevitably ; interestingly ; ironically ; predictably ; surprisingly ;
understandably ; unexpectedly ; unfortunately

Comparison Clause Connectors :

similar to the way in which … ;
Sentence Connectors :
Similarly; likewise; correspondingly; in a similar fashion.
Phrase Connectors :
with respect to … ; as regards … ; as far as … is concerned ;
regarding ... ; in terms of … ; both … and …. ; as is the case for
…

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Internal Referencing

Flow

To improve the coherence of your text and its flow, you need to use the appropriate pronoun.

1.
Consider the sentence below. Which of the follow-up sentences in each pair is most appropriate and why?

The weather in January was much warmer than usual.

It was the second warmest on record. (correct)

This was the second warmest on record. (incorrect)
This may be connected to global warming trends. (correct)
It may be connected to global warming trends. (incorrect)

Answer Key

As you have probably found out, it is the correct choice for the first pair and this for the second pair. It is
used to refer to a single entity/thing in the previous sentence (the weather), while this refers to the whole
proposition/situation (The above-average temperature in January).

2.

Consider the following sentence:

The government expects a budget surplus next year.

Which of the following do you prefer as a follow up sentence?

• This surprised economists.

• This announcement surprised economists.
• The unexpected announcement surprised economists.
• This unexpected announcement by the government surprised economists.

Answer Key

Here again, this refers not to an entity, but to a whole situation (i.e. the fact that the government expects a
budget surplus next year). In academic writing, it is common to add a noun to this to make the reference
clearer. In some cases, other words are added as well for clarity and/or impact, but as the example
shows, it is also possible to overspecify a reference.

3.

This + noun phrase can have either a summarizing or an interpretative function. In the example above
about the budget surplus the noun phrase has an interpretative function, as it tells the reader how to 'read'
the previous sentence.

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6. It’s all in the past

What is the difference between the following two sentences?

A. John has lived in Amsterdam for 20 years

B. Sarah lived in Amsterdam for 20 years.

Who is still living there now? John or Sarah?

The correct answer is John. In English the present perfect (have + past participle = has lived) is used
for situations that started in the past and continue until the present moment.

The simple past (lived) is used for situations that started in the past and ended in the past. They are
over now. It is a finished action.

In academic writing the present perfect is used to describe the state of research in a certain field. It
means that it is still relevant and still going on as we speak. As soon as ‘last week’, ‘from 1970 until
1980’ or ‘yesterday’ is used, the simple past has to be used.

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7. Writing definitions
In academic writing, it is important that key terms are defined clearly and precisely. In undergraduate
writing, the main purpose of defining key terms may be to demonstrate that the writer has adequate
knowledge of the subject matter. However, as many academic disagreements centre on definitional
differences, defining key terms may also serve the important purpose of making clear to the reader
exactly how the writer intends a particular term to be understood. In some cases, it is necessary to
explore different possible definitions of a term before choosing one and moving on to study a topic in
greater detail.

Basic structure of a definition

Basic structure of a definition

Term Class Distinguishing feature(s)
(A/an)_____is (a/an)_______ wh-word
that/which converts the energy of sunlight
A solar cell is a device
into electric energy

Source: Swales & Feak, p.56

• A university is an institution where knowledge is 'produced' and passed on to others.

• A social economist can broadly be described as an academic or professional who investigates and
measures the effects social problems have on economic activity.
• Research may be defined as a systematic process that/which* consists of three elements or
components: (1) a question, problem or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation
of data.

*In restrictive relative clauses (also called non-defining or extra information clauses) in American English 'that' is
generally used for things, while in British English 'which' should be used for things. Restrictive relative clauses
have to be placed between commas.

For example: Inflation in Britain, which was at its highest under Jim Callahan, is a constant source of concern to
Conservative governments.

Read the following sentences below. How do sentences 1 and 2 differ from 3 and 4?

1. A biologist is a person who studies living things.

2. Milk which contains chemicals is dangerous.
3. Lhasa, which is in Tibet, is the world's highest capital city.
4. Fleming, who was born in Scotland, discovered penicillin.

In terms of grammar, the use of commas is closely related to the topic of relative pronouns such as who,
that and which. In English if a clause (part of a sentence) is an extra information clause (non-restrictive
relative clause) it has to be placed between commas. See sentences 3 and 4 above. If the non-restrictive
relative clause is left out, the meaning of the rest of the sentence doesn’t change.

If the clause is a restrictive relative clause, however, it shouldn’t be placed between commas. See
sentences 1 and 2. If these parts of the sentence are left out the meaning of the rest of sentence does
change.

Compare the following two sentences:

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A. The students who worked hard passed their exams.

B. The students, who worked hard, passed their exams.

In sentence A only those students who worked hard passed their exams. In sentence B, however, every
student worked hard and every student passed the exams.

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8. The language of definitions
To help you formulate definitions, here is a list of various examples of how to write definitions.

Term → Definition

X refers to Y
X is a term that refers to Y
X is a term that is used to mean Y
X is defined as Y
X can be defined as Y
X may be defined as Y
X has (frequently) been defined as Y. However, ….

X is a form of Y
The term X has come to be used to refer to ......
The term X is generally understood to mean ......
The term X has been applied to situations where ......
In broad terms, X can be defined as any Y that is .......
The broad use of the term X is sometimes equated with ......
In the literature, the term X tends to be used to refer to ......

Definition → Term

Y is known as X
Y is called X
Y is referred to as X

Common classes

a term
a concept
a phenomenon
an issue
a factor
a theory
a hypothesis
a field of study
an approach
a process

Generalizations

X is concerned with Y
X involves Y
X relates to Y
X deals with Y
X consists of

Indicating difficulties in defining a term

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In the field of Y, various definitions of X are found.
X is a commonly used notion and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely.
A generally accepted definition of X is lacking.
The term X embodies a multitude of concepts which ......

Specifying terms that are used in an essay/thesis

In this essay, the term X will be used (in its broadest sense) to refer to ......
Throughout this thesis, the term X is used to refer to …
While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use
the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as .......
In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is X
In this dissertation, the terms X and Y are used interchangeably to mean ......

Referring to people's definitions

Smith (2000) was apparently the first to use the term X.

Smith writes that X is a '……….......' (2000, p.11).
According to a definition provided by Smith (2000, p.11), X is ......
The term X is used by Smith (2001) to refer to ......
Smith (2001) uses the term X to refer to ......
For Smith (2001), X means/refers to .......
X is defined by Smith (2000,p.11) as ‘................’
Smith defines X as ….
X is Y (Smith, 2000, p.11)

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9. Academic Reporting Skills

1. Condensing
Condensing is the skill of providing a short overview of source material that contains only the most important
points. Which points are the most important will be determined not only by the focus of the source text, but also by
the focus of your own text. If the synopsis forms part of a paper or thesis, the points that are the most important
will be those that bear most directly on the specific topic dealt with in your paper or thesis.

2. Paraphrasing
In academic writing, it is important not to plagiarize, meaning it is not acceptable to simply copy sentences
verbatim from a source text unless, of course, you present the text as a quote. Quotes should be used only when
there is an important reason for using the exact words in the source texts – for example, when a definition of a
term in the text is being used. Paraphrasing is therefore an important skill to possess. Paraphrasing is the skill of
putting ideas contained in source material into your own words. It is NOT sufficient to simply rearrange or
substitute a few words and present a source text as your own writing. The knack of good paraphrasing is to
benefit from both the conceptual content and the linguistic expression of the source text, while still using your own
words.

3. Identifying sources appropriately

Clearly, in order to avoid plagiarism, it is also important to develop skills that enable you to identify sources
appropriately.

a. Quoting: Quotations must be identical to the original and use only a small segment of the source text.
Quotations must be placed in quotation marks with a citation presented in a form commonly used in your
discipline.

b. Referencing: Ideas, findings, data and illustrations taken from source texts must all be referenced according to
the conventions of your discipline. The following references are in APA (American Psychological Association)
style.

Goodman (1989) has found a correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from
traditional crops.

A correlation between the increase in agricultural fertility and the shift away from traditional crops has been
identified (Goodman, 1989).

c. Use of reporting verbs: Reporting verbs can be used to indicate that an idea, opinion or finding is not your own.
Using such verbs is also a way of distancing yourself from an idea or opinion.

e.g. Bernstein states that________________.

claims that (idea)
argues that
maintains that

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10. Paraphrasing

The following steps should help you produce successful paraphrasing:

1. Understand what you are reading. If you do not understand it, you cannot paraphrase it!
2. Think about the idea, particularly in relation to your specific topic.
3. Write down the idea, while not looking at the original
4. Look back at the original to see if you have changed the grammar and vocabulary sufficiently. If not, change
them further.

Here are a couple of tips to help you change sentences in the original:

- do not paraphrase specialized vocabulary or technical terms.

- where possible, make use of synonyms.
- change sentence structure, though this may not be strictly necessary in all cases.
- leave out unnecessary details: you can make the paraphrasing more general.

Example 1:

The results showed that the error percentage for ESL learners was 1.88%; the error percentage for native
speakers was 1.1%.

Paraphrase: The results revealed that ESL learners had a higher error
percentage than native speakers.

Example 2

Please read the following three texts. The first one is the original passage, the second one an unacceptable
paraphrase and the third text is a good paraphrase. (These texts are taken from Writing Academic English, Alice
Oshima and Ann Hogue, Pearson Education, ISBN 0201340542.)

1. Original Passage

Language is the main means of communication between peoples. However, so many different languages
have developed that language has often been a barrier rather than an aid to understanding among peoples.
For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an international, universal, language which all people
could speak and understand. The arguments in favour of a universal language are simple and obvious. If all
peoples spoke the same tonque, cultural and economic ties might be much closer, and good will might
increase between countries (Kispert).

2. Unacceptable paraphrase (= plagiarism!)

Language is the principal means of communication between peoples. However, because there are numerous
languages, language itself has frequently been a barrier rather than an aid to understanding among the world
population. For many years, people have envisioned a common universal language that everyone in the
world could communicate in. The reasons for having a universal language are clearly understandable. If the
same tongue were spoken by all countries, they would undoubtedly become closer culturally and
economically. It would probably also create good will among nations (Kispert).

3. Good paraphrase

Humans communicate through language. However, because there are so many languages in the world,
language is an obstacle rather than an aid to communication. For a long time, people have wished for an
international language that speakers all over the world could understand. A universal language would
certainly build cultural and economic bonds. It would also create better feelings among countries (Kispert).

While you are reading the original text you want to paraphrase you can take notes or even make an outline in
order to help you write a better paraphrase.

The notes:
Language – people use to communicate – but too many – obstacle – dream – international language – reasons:
cultural, economic, political

The outline:

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A. Language – main means of communication
1. Too many languages – barrier to understanding
2. Universal language needed

B. Reasons for a universal language

1. Increase cultural, economic bonds
2. Increase good feelings between countries

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11. Reporting verbs

Synopses frequently begin with a sentence containing two elements: the source and the main idea.

For example:

According to Boskin (1983), the blue whale population off the coast of California may be increasing.

Young and Song (1991) examined the history of fluoridation in Western Europe.

Reporting verbs are used to help indicate clearly that an idea, opinion or finding is not your own. In many cases,
you will want to report objectively, so an objective reporting verb should be used.

e.g. Smith (2000) discusses________________.

describes (idea)
states that

However, it is also possible to use evaluative reporting verbs that reveal something of your attitude towards the
source material.

e.g. Smith (2000) presumes that _______________.

claims that (idea)

Campbell (2004) presumes that all parents are equally capable of helping their children with schoolwork.

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12. The passive and the active
Imagine what would happen if someone came into the classroom and said this:

A. A mistake has been made!

How would you react? What would you ask this person?

Now compare it to the following sentence:

B. Somebody has made a mistake!

What would you say to this?

Which sentence is passive and which one is active?

Answer:

Sentence A is passive. Your reply would be: What mistake? With passive sentences the focus is on the action
rather than the actor. In academic writing that is exactly what you need: the “what” is important, not you the writer.

Sentence B is active. You would ask: Who did it? With active sentence the focus is on the actor rather than the
action.

See also Week 2 – The four key features of academic texts.

NOTE: Please make sure that you vary the use of the passive and the active in your academic texts. You can
create active sentences without using I or we!! See Grammar 5 The Passive and the Active 2.

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13. Describing and interpreting non-verbal material
Location elements and summaries

Just as when writing definitions, there are conventions as to how to describe information in a graph, model or
table. The first move is a location element and summary statement. These difficult words refer to where the
information can be found (the number of the table or graph, for example Figure 67 or Table 3) and it describes the
information presented in a few words: a summary of the entire table or graph. The second move is to write one or
more highlighting statements. You do not need to comment on every result or figure or percentage, but only on a
few highlights that are the most surprising, or the most relevant to your research question. The third move of your
text is to interpret the graph/table/model and to comment on the implications of the findings presented in this non-
verbal material and highlighted in second move of your text.

Please note that these sentences are active. The non-verbal material can be used as the subject of the subject-
verb-object sentence.

shows
provides
presents
summarises
The graph
contains
Figure 1
depicts
Table 2
lists

demonstrates
illustrates that
indicates

seen
concluded
figure 1 it can be shown
From that
table 2 it may be estimated
calculated
inferred

As is shown
the graph
from ,
figure 1
As can be seen in
table 2
It can be seen that …

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14. Qualification
Why is qualification so important in academic speech and writing?
Qualifying your statements in academic writing is also referred to as “academic caution”. It is an essential feature
of academic writing. Opinions and new facts that have not been generally accepted need to be presented with
academic caution to make them acceptable. For example, instead of concluding: “A lack of exercise causes
chronic back pain” it is a convention to write: “These results seem to suggest that a lack of exercise causes
chronic back pain”.
There are several ways of qualifiying a statement. (See below.)
Please be careful not to qualify too much, otherwise your text will come across as weak and uncertain.

Read the list entitled ‘The language of qualification’ and use this in your texts.

PROBABILITY
definitely
In all likelihood without a doubt
There may be undoubtedly
There could be certainly
There might be probably
possibly
It is certain that conceivably
It is almost certain that
It is probable that
It is (highly) likely that
It is possible that FREQUENCY
It may well be that
It may be that always
It could be that usually
It might be that normally
It is conceivable that generally
It is not beyond the bounds of credibility that on the whole
It is (highly) unlikely/improbable that regularly
It is inconceivable that frequently
often
CLARITY sometimes
occasionally
It is clear that rarely
It appears that seldom
It seems that hardly ever
It would appear that scarcely ever
It would seem that never
It looks as if
It seems as if
There is a tendency
X appears to have
X seems to have
X would appear/seem to have
X tends to …. QUANTITY

SOURCE all/every/each
most
It is generally agreed that a majority of

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It is now generally recognized that a lot/much/many
It is widely accepted that a lot of
It is said that some
It is claimed that a number of
It has been suggested that several
The evidence suggests that a few/a little
There is evidence to suggest that few/little
The evidence tends to suggest that no/none/not any

Strategies for qualifying statements

Add probability: may, could etc.
Sleeping 7-9 hours results in better academic performance.
Sleeping 7-9 hours may result in better academic performance.

Add distance: appear, seem etc.

The factory has benefited from the recent technology upgrade.
The factory appears to have benefited from the recent technology upgrade.

Limit generalisation: to tend to; qualify subject (e.g. many, a majority)

Children living in poverty have a history of problems.
Children living in poverty tend to have a history of problems.
Many children living in poverty have a history of problems.

Weaken verb:
Unsound policies of the IMF led to the financial crisis.
Unsound policies of the IMF contributed to the financial crisis.

Combined qualifications:
The use of seat belts prevents physical injuries in car accidents.

prevents → reduces (weaken verb)

reduces → may reduce (add probability)
+ in some circumstances (weaken the generalisation)
+ certain types of injury (weaken the generalisation)
+ according to simulation studies (add distance)

According to simulation studies, in some circumstances the use of seat belts may reduce certain types of physical
injuries in car accidents.

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15. Adverbs vs Adjectives

To –ly or not to –ly, that is the question

A frequent error of non-native speakers of English is the addition of –ly to an adjective. In order to get this
grammar topic right every time, we need to identify whether a certain word is an adverb in the sentence or an
adjective.

We need to look at the role of an adjective and an adverb in the sentence:

A. The extremely beautiful lady sings wonderfully well.

What are the adjectives in this sentence?

- beautiful – it modifies the noun ‘lady’

What are the adverbs in this sentence?

- extremely – it modifies the adjective ‘beautiful’

- well – it modifies the verb ‘sings’ – (how well does she sing?) *
- wonderfully – it modifies another adverb ‘well’

* ‘well’ is the adverb of ‘good’ – this is an irregular form – the adjective ‘good’ does not become ‘goodly’ but ‘well’.

Please compare the following two sentences:

B. The terrible, slow driver.
C. The terribly slow driver.

In sentence B the driver drives both slowly and badly. In sentence C, however, the driver is simply very slow.

Further reading & exercises:

R. Murphy, English Grammar in Use, Cambridge: Units 100 and 101
M. Foley & D. Hall, Longman Advanced Learners' Grammar, Pearson Education: Chapter 24

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16. The structure of problem-solution texts

The underlying structure of a problem-solution text is not the general-to-specific movement as in descriptive texts
(see Week 3) but a problem-to-solution movement. General-specific writing tends to be descriptive and expository
whereas problem-solution texts tend to be more argumentative and evaluative. The former requires the author to
be informed and organised whereas the latter requires the author to be questioning and perceptive.

Common moves in a problem-solution text

Move Example
Situation Background information about claims for research English
Problem Reasons for doubting the accuracy of the figures
Solution Alternative data leading to more accurate figures
Evaluation Assessment of the merits of the proposed answer

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17. Punctuation

Appropriate punctuation can be a great help to the clarity of a text. Punctuation shows which groups of words
belong together – to indicate meaning – and which phrases or words are comments on statements, rather than
part of the statements themselves.

1. Comma (,)

After the full stop, the comma is the most commonly-used punctuation mark. Commas SHOULD be used in the
following situations :

a. In lists:

All major pieces of writing consist of a beginning, middle and end.

In American English there is always a comma before ‘and’. In British English, there is no comma before ‘and’,
unless you wish to give the elements before and after the comma a more separate status.

b. To separate a non-defining relative clause from the main clause:

Inflation in Britain, which was at its highest under Jim Callahan, is a constant source of concern to Conservative
governments.

Commas should NOT be used to separate defining relative clauses from the clause in which they are embedded.

People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.

[= no comma after people or glass houses because the relative clause defines (specifies) a particular group of
people, not 'people' in general]

c. To separate sentence connectives from the rest of the sentence: e.g. however, furthermore, moreover, firstly,

secondly, nevertheless, in spite of x, consequently etc.

However, the facts show us a different picture.

If the sentence connective is used elsewhere in the sentence, it must be separated from the rest of the sentence
with commas on either side.

The facts, however, show us a different picture.

d. To separate 'comment words' from the rest of the sentence: e.g. of course, for example, unfortunately, in other

words etc.

In other words, the reports seem to contradict one another.

e. Between two clauses that are joined with one of the following conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, yet, for.

Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.

Commas SHOULD NOT be used in the following situations:

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a. Use a full stop or semicolon to separate two independent clauses, or join them with a coordinating conjunction.

We started to unpack our things, pretty soon we were ready for the beach. Incorrect

We started to unpack our things; pretty soon we were ready for the beach. Correct

We started to unpack our things, and pretty soon we were ready for the beach. Correct

b. Do not use a comma to separate subject and verb.

His enthusiasm for the subject and his desire to be of help, led him to volunteer. Incorrect

His enthusiasm for the subject and his desire to be of help led him to volunteer. Correct

2. Semi-Colon (;)

A semi-colon is used to balance two ideas that are grammatically complete.

a. Can be used in sentences as an alternative to conjunctions/adverbs. They also imply academic neutrality.

Roses are red; violets are blue

The sciences search for change; the humanities reflect on what is.

b. Can be used after a colon(:) to denote major categories.

There are x major forms of domestic central heating: gas heated boilers serving radiators installed throughout the
house; oil-fired central heating; and electric storage heaters served by 'off peak' electricity'.

3. Colon (:)

a. Introduces a list (see above)

b. Before an explanation

The exploitation of North Sea oil can be problematic: the dangers of under-sea exploration make it an undertaking
not to be lightly considered.

c. Clarification/amplification

The problem was this: how to add taped dialogue to film sequences and synchronise them in projection.

4. Dash ( – )

a. These are useful for very pertinent explanations/comments which would be one step further removed through
the use of commas or brackets.

The knight can move in any direction – forwards, backwards or to either side – but it always has to move three
squares at a time.

Recent developments have taken a new turn – as discussed in this essay – but it is not clear what the long-term
outcomes will be.

5. Brackets ()

a. Brackets are used to add parenthetical comments.

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This is one step removed from the dash. You must use them for author and date etc. after a quotation e.g. (Jones,
1991 p. 6 - 12). Too many brackets mean it may be better to shorten sentences and/or use a footnote.

6. Apostrophe (’)

a. Possession
Britain's problems in the twentieth century.

b. After plurals:
'Smith's problems'; but 'the Smiths' problems'.

However, ‘its’ has no apostrophe when possessive:

The U.N. is ... Its work

c. In contractions

It is clear > It's clear - (substitution for 'i').

Let us > Let's

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18. The conditional (if-clause)

Conditionals are used to describe hypothetical situations. There are three different forms and they consist of two
clauses: the if clause (conditional clause) and the main clause (result). Take a look at the verbs in bold.

1. The first conditional = the possible or likely conditional:

If I sell my shares today, I will be rich tomorrow.

2. The second conditional = the unlikely or improbable conditional. This situation is still possible but no longer
very likely to happen.

If I sold my shares today, I would be rich tomorrow.

3. The third conditional = the impossible or past conditional. The banks are now closed, the day is over.

If I had sold my shares today, I would have been rich tomorrow.

Please note that “if” and “will/would/would have been” are never in the same clause, never in the same part of
the sentence. There is one exception, however, only in polite forms (see sentence 6 of assignment 47).

Further reading & exercises:

R. Murphy, English Grammar in Use, Cambridge: Units 38 – 40

M. Foley & D. Hall, Longman Advanced Learners’ Grammar, Pearson Education: Chapter 10.

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