Steel

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms
of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels, which are resistant to corrosion and
oxidation, typically need an additional 11% chromium. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel
is used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances,
furniture, and weapons.

Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic
forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying
elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the crystal
structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite
ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the
iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations.

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and
many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel
(either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make
pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness,
quenching behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the
resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's
ductility.

Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only
after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast
furnace and production of crucible steel. This was followed by the Bessemer process in England in the mid-
19th century, and then by the open-hearth furnace. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of
mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought iron. The German states saw major steel prowess
over Europe in the 19th century,[1] and the American steel production industry was manufactured in cities
such as Pittsburgh and Cleveland until the late 20th century.

Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods
by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today, steel is one
of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world, with more than 1.6 billion tons produced
annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organisations.
The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the
most energy and greenhouse gas emission intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions.[2]
However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of
over 60% globally.[3]

Definitions and related materials

The noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stahliją or stakhlijan 'made of steel', which is
related to stahlaz or stahliją 'standing firm'.[4]

The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (iron-carbon alloys).
Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of
steel make a brittle alloy commonly called pig iron. Alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have
been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include:
manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium,
vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium.[5] Additional elements, most
frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel:
phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper.

Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are
known as cast iron. With modern steelmaking techniques such as
powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and
other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not
malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a
lower melting point than steel and good castability properties.[5]
Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of
melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make
malleable iron or ductile iron objects. Steel is distinguishable from
wrought iron (now largely obsolete), which may contain a small
amount of carbon but large amounts of slag.
The steel cable of a colliery winding
Material properties tower

Origins and production

Iron is commonly found in the Earth's crust in the form of an ore,

usually an iron oxide, such as magnetite or hematite. Iron is extracted
from iron ore by removing the oxygen through its combination with a
preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as smelting, was
first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which
melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and copper, which melts at about
1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting
point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at
An iron-carbon phase diagram showing
about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F).[6] Small quantities of iron were smelted in
the conditions necessary to form
ancient times, in the solid-state, by heating the ore in a charcoal fire different phases
and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the
process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content
could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and
tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.

All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used

since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly
beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a
low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides,
results in an alloy (pig iron) that retains too much carbon to be called
steel.[6] The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a
subsequent step.
An incandescent steel workpiece in a
Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce blacksmith's art
steel with the desired properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to
its tensile strength and make the austenite form of the iron-carbon
solution more stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases
hardness while making it less prone to metal fatigue.[7]

To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal
surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten slows the formation of cementite, keeping carbon in the
iron matrix and allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in high-speed
steel. The addition of lead and sulfur decrease grain size, thereby making the steel easier to turn, but also
more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys are nevertheless frequently used for components such as
nuts, bolts, and washers in applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For the
most part, however, p-block elements such as sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and lead are considered
contaminants that make steel more brittle and are therefore removed from steel during the melting
processing.[7]

Properties

The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but

usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m3 (484 and 503 lb/cu ft),
or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).[8]

Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and

iron that make steel, several different metallurgical structures, with
very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is
essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable
form of pure iron is the body-centred cubic (BCC) structure called
alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a
small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F)
and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). The inclusion of carbon in alpha
iron is called ferrite. At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a face-
centred cubic (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The
inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open
FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as Fe-C phase diagram for carbon steels,
showing the A0, A1, A2 and A3 critical
much as 2.1%,[9] (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C
temperatures for heat treatments
(2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond
which is cast iron.[10] When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it
forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe3C).

When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the austenitic phase (FCC) of
the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite
structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to precipitate out
of solution as cementite, leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small
percentage of carbon in solution. The two, ferrite and cementite, precipitate simultaneously producing a
layered structure called pearlite, named for its resemblance to mother of pearl. In a hypereutectoid
composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite
at the austenite grain boundaries until the percentage of carbon in the grains has decreased to the eutectoid
composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8%
carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8%
of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the
boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel.[11] The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing
enough time for the carbon to migrate.

As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain
boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the
grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains,
resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no
time to migrate but is locked within the face-centred austenite and forms martensite. Martensite is a highly
strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending
on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite
BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a body-centred tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no
thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. There is no compositional
change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.[12]

Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation
between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this
expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining
ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal
stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other
microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although
they may not always be visible.[13]

Heat treatment

There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing,
quenching, and tempering.

Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal
stresses. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses
locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain
growth. The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved
and the alloying constituents.[14]

Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or oil. This
rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure.[12] The steel is then tempered, which is just a
specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process
transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses
and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel.[15]

Production
When iron is smelted from its ore, it contains more carbon than is
desirable. To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon
to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. In
the past, steel facilities would cast the raw steel product into ingots
which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that
resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial
product is close to the final composition and is continuously cast into
long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to
produce a final product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is
continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots.[16] Iron ore pellets used in the production
of steel
The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs,
billets, or blooms. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or
plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural
steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one assembly line, with
ore coming in and finished steel products coming out.[17] Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat
treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare.[18]

History

Ancient

Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in bloomeries and crucibles.[19][20]

The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in
Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehöyük) and are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC.[21][22] Horace identifies
steel weapons such as the falcata in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman
military.[23]

The reputation of Seric iron of India (wootz steel) grew considerably in the rest of the world.[20] Metal
production sites in Sri Lanka employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing
high-carbon steel. Large-scale Wootz steel production in India using crucibles occurred by the sixth
century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and
metallurgy.[19][20]

The Chinese of the Warring States period (403–221 BC) had quench-
hardened steel,[24] while Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC—
AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron,
thus producing a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st
century AD.[25][26]

There is evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by

the ancestors of the Haya people as early as 2,000 years ago by a
complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a
furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.[27][28][29][30][31][32]

Wootz and Damascus

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in India is

found in Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, the Golconda area in Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka, and in the Samanalawewa, Dehigaha
Alakanda, areas of Sri Lanka.[33] This came to be known as Wootz
steel, produced in South India by about the sixth century BC and
exported globally.[34][35] The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC Bloomery smelting during the Middle
in the region as they are mentioned in literature of Sangam Tamil, Ages in the 5th to 15th centuries
Arabic, and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the
Romans, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they
called Seric Iron.[36] A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought
with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical
period.[37][38][39] The Chinese and locals in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka had also adopted the production
methods of creating Wootz steel from the Chera Dynasty Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD.[40][41]
In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds,
capable of producing high-carbon steel.[42][43] Since the technology was acquired from the Tamilians from
South India,[44] the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC.[34][43]

The manufacture of what came to be called Wootz, or Damascus steel, famous for its durability and ability to
hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. It was originally created
from several different materials including various trace elements, apparently ultimately from the writings of
Zosimos of Panopolis. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great was rewarded by the defeated King Porus, not with
gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel.[45] A recent study has speculated that carbon nanotubes were
included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though, given the technology of
that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design.[46] Natural wind was used where the
soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for
every 2 tons of soil,[42] a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and
archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.[42][47]

Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal)
in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD.[35] In the 11th century, there is evidence of
the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior,
inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that used partial decarburization via
repeated forging under a cold blast.[48]

Modern
Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has
been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace.[49]
Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use coke, which has
proven more economical.[50][51][52]

Processes starting from bar iron

In these processes, pig iron made from raw iron ore was refined (fined)
in a finery forge to produce bar iron, which was then used in steel-
making.[49]

The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a

treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from
1601. A similar process for case hardening armor and files was
described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was
introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by
Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s.[53]

The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th
century, it was realized that the best steel came from oregrounds iron A Bessemer converter in Sheffield,
of a region north of Stockholm, Sweden. This was still the usual raw England
material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was
used.[54][55]

Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than having been forged, with the result that it
is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel.
The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s.
Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.[55][56]

Processes starting from pig iron

The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry

Bessemer's process in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron.[57]
His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus mild
steel came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was
formerly used.[58] The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer
process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining
the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus.

Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the Siemens-Martin

process, which complemented the Bessemer process.[55] It consisted of An open hearth furnace in the Museum
co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron. of Industry in Brandenburg, Germany

These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-

Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), developed in 1952,[59] and other oxygen steel making
methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped
into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used,[60] and
because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is
manufactured in one-twelfth the time.[59] Today, electric arc furnaces (EAF) are a common method of
reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they
use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when
there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.[61]

Industry
The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic
progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural
and overall economic development.[62] In 1980, there were more than
500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had
fallen to 224,000.[63]

The economic boom in China and India caused a massive increase in

the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand
increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian[64] and Chinese[65] steel
firms have expanded to meet demand, such as Tata Steel (which
bought Corus Group in 2007), Baosteel Group and Shagang Group. As White-hot steel pouring out of an
of 2017, though, ArcelorMittal is the world's largest steel producer.[66] electric arc furnace in Brackenridge,
In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel Pennsylvania
producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and
the US followed respectively.[67] The large production capacity of steel
results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions
inherent related to the main production route. In 2021, it was
estimated that around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions
resulted from the steel industry.[68][69] Reduction of these emissions
are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using
cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture
and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology. Steel production (in million tons) by
country in 2007
At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led
to many cut-backs.[70]

Recycling
Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally;[3] in the United
States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in
the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%.[71]

As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of
steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602 × 109 long tons; 1.795 × 109 short tons) of crude steel
was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons)
recycled.[72]

Contemporary

Carbon

Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to

fulfill many purposes.[7] Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and
carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production.[5] Low alloy steel is
alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese,
chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the
hardenability of thick sections.[5] High strength low alloy steel has
Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem,
small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically
Pennsylvania was one of the world's
1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price largest manufacturers of steel before its
increase.[73] closure in 2003.

Recent Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations have

given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both
strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material.
There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to
contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength steel.[74]
Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize
amounts of austenite at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying
strain, the austenite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat.[75] Twinning
Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening
on the alloy.[76]

Carbon Steels are often galvanized, through hot-dip or electroplating in zinc for protection against rust.[77]

Alloy

Stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined

with nickel, to resist corrosion. Some stainless steels, such as the
ferritic stainless steels are magnetic, while others, such as the
austenitic, are nonmagnetic.[78] Corrosion-resistant steels are
abbreviated as CRES.

Alloy steels are plain-carbon steels in which small amounts of alloying

elements like chromium and vanadium have been added. Some more
modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with large amounts
of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution
hardening. This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and
improves the alloy's temperature resistance.[5] Tool steel is generally
used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting
cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels
such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface,
and so can be used un-painted.[79] Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel
and other elements, but unlike most steel contains little carbon
(0.01%). This creates a very strong but still malleable steel.[80] Forging a structural member out of
steel
Eglin steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in
varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel for use in bunker
buster weapons, and Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or
manganese steel contains 12–14% manganese which, when abraded,
strain-hardens to form a very hard skin which resists wearing. Uses of
this particular alloy include tank tracks, bulldozer blade edges, and
cutting blades on the jaws of life.[81]

Standards
Cor-Ten rust coating
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into
various grades by standards organizations. For example, the Society of
Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of
steel.[82] The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys
such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States.[83] The JIS also defines a
series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries.

Uses
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and
buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are
supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing. It sees
widespread use in major appliances and cars. Despite the growth in usage of aluminium, steel is still the main
material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails and
screws and other household products and cooking utensils.[84]
Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipelines, mining,
offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines),
heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tool,
and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better
known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role).

Historical

Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern

production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where
no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of A roll of steel wool
knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was
needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and
watches.[55]

With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has
become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought
iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in
the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace
steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and
weight.[85] Carbon fiber is replacing steel in some cost insensitive
applications such as sports equipment and high-end automobiles. A carbon steel knife

Long
As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete
Railroad tracks
Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges
Wires
Input to reforging applications

Flat carbon A steel bridge

Major appliances
Magnetic cores
The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.

Weathering (COR-TEN)
Intermodal containers
Outdoor sculptures
Architecture
A steel pylon suspending overhead
power lines
 Highliner train cars

Stainless
Cutlery
Rulers
Surgical instruments
Watches
Guns
Rail passenger vehicles
Tablets
Trash Cans A stainless steel gravy boat
Body piercing jewellery
Inexpensive rings
Components of spacecraft and space stations

Low-background

Steel manufactured after World War II became contaminated with radionuclides by nuclear weapons testing.
Low-background steel, steel manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain radiation-sensitive applications
such as Geiger counters and radiation shielding.

See also
Bulat steel Rolling
Chemistry portal
Direct reduction Rolling mill
Carbon steel Rust Belt
Damascus steel Second Industrial Revolution
Galvanising Silicon steel
Global steel industry trends Steel abrasive
Iron in folklore Steel mill
Knife metal Tamahagane, used in Japanese
Machinability swords
Noric steel Tinplate
Pelletizing Toledo steel
Wootz steel

References
1. R., Allen. "(1979). International Competition in Iron and Steel, 1850-1913" (http://www.jstor.org/stable/212
0336). JSTOR. Cambridge university. JSTOR 2120336 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2120336). Retrieved
November 13, 2020.
2. "Decarbonization in steel | McKinsey" (https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/metals-and-mining/our-insigh
ts/decarbonization-challenge-for-steel). www.mckinsey.com. Retrieved 2022-05-20.
3. Hartman, Roy A. (2009). "Recycling" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080414215636/http://encarta.msn.co
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Further reading
Mark Reutter, Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=bdkUfDoY24QC). University of Illinois Press, 2005.
Duncan Burn, The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition (http://questia.c
om/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930). Cambridge University Press, 1961.
Harukiyu Hasegawa, The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a
=o&d=108742046). Routledge, 1996.
J.C. Carr and W. Taplin, History of the British Steel Industry (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=808791).
Harvard University Press, 1962.
H. Lee Scamehorn, Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94
821694). University of Nebraska Press, 1992.
Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001 (http://e
h.net/bookreviews/library/0558). University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001.

External links
Official website (http://www.worldsteel.org/) of the World Steel Association (worldsteel)
steeluniversity.org (http://steeluniversity.org/): Online steel education resources, an initiative of World
Steel Association
Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist (https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA26) from
the American Society for Metals
MATDAT Database of Properties of Unalloyed, Low-Alloy and High-Alloy Steels (http://www.matdat.com)
– obtained from published results of material testing

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