Manav Rachna International Institute

of Research & Studies

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

Electronics workshop

Submitted By: TUSHAR KUMAR SINGH

1/21/FET/BCS/051
 INDEX
S.NO NAME OF THE DATE OF DATE OF REMARKS
EXPERIMENT EXPERITE SUBMIS
MENT SION

1. Identification of
Electronics Components

2. Usage of Test Equipments

/ tools

3. How to solder

4. Design a Project on
Flashing Light

Experiment No. 1

Aim:- Identification of Electronics Components ( Resistance,

Capacitors, diode, Zener diode, Transistors, Inductors, IC’s, D-
Type Connectors, BNC connector, Crocodile clip, Banana Plug,
Co-axial Cable, Wave guides, Fiber optic cable, types of
Antenna’s. etc.)
Theory:-
Electrical symbols and electronic circuit symbols are used for
drawing schematic diagram. The symbols represent electrical
and electronic components.

Here is a list of electrical variables provided with measurement

unit & their Symbols:-
Electronic circuits are made up of electronic components. The
electronic components are divided into two types:-
1) Active components
2) Passive components

1) Active components:-The active components are non linear

and the main character of signal changes when it passes through
these components. Active components deliver power. e.g-Diode,
Transistor, SCR, FET, UJT and MOSFET
2) Passive components:-The passive components are linear
component and the character of signal does not change when it
passes through these components. The passive components
consume power. e.g-Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

Passive Components:- Introduction of Resistor, Inductor,

Capacitor

RESISTORS :- Resistance is the opposition to current flow in

various degrees. The practical unit of resistance is called the
ohm. A resistor on one ohm is physically very large but provides
only a small resistance to current flow. Resistors are often made
of thin layers of carbon or lengths of small copper wire. They can
also be thin deposited layers of metallic material. An image of a
few resistor types is shown below.

RESISTOR COLOR CODES -

There are main two types of codes used for the identification of value of the resistor. The
resistance value is displayed using the color code (the colored bars/the colored stripes),
because the average resistor is too small to have the value printed on it with numbers.
CAPACITORS –

A capacitor is a device that stores an electrical charge when a

potential difference (voltage) exists between two conductors
which are usually two plates separated by a dielectric material
(an insulating material like air, paper, or special chemicals
between two sheets of aluminum foil). Few Capacitors are shown
below:-
 Capacitors block DC voltages and pass AC voltages. They are
used as filters, AC coupling capacitors and as by-pass
capacitors. They are also used in conjunction with resistors and
inductors to form tuned circuits and timing circuits. A capacitors
value C (in Farads) is dependent upon the ratio of the charge Q
(in Coulombs) divided by the V (in volts). Common capacitors
come in values of microfarads or Pico farads.
INDUCTORS -
Inductors are usually made with coils of wire. The wire coils are
wound around iron cores, ferrite cores, or other materials except
in the case of an air core inductor where there is no core other
than air. The inductor stores electrical charge in magnetic
fields. When the magnetic field collapses it induces an electrical
charge back into the wire. Inductors are associated with circuit
capacitance and can form a tuned circuit and resonate at a
particular frequency. Two coils close to one another, as they
are in a transformer, literally transfer charge from one coil to the
other. This is called mutual inductance. Here are few inductors
shown below:-

Transformers

A transformer is an electrical apparatus designed to convert

alternating current from one voltage to another. It can be
designed to "step up" or "step down" voltages and works on the
magnetic induction principle. A transformer has no moving parts
and is a completely static solid state device, which insures,
under normal operating conditions, a long and trouble-free life. It
consists, in its simplest form, of two or more coils of insulated
wire wound on a laminated steel core. When voltage is
introduced to one coil, called the primary, it magnetizes the iron
core. A voltage is then induced in the other coil, called the
secondary or output coil. The change of voltage (or voltage ratio)
between the primary and secondary depends on the turns ratio of
the two coils.
Diodes:-

A diode is an electrical device that allows the current to flow in

one direction only and shows maximum resistance for the
current to flow in the opposite direction. A diode carries two
terminals called anode and cathode. The anode is a positive
terminal and the cathode is a negative terminal and the current
will only flow from the anode terminal to the cathode terminal.

Working:

The working of the diode depends on the interaction between the

P and N junction. The P junction is a region that contains a high
concentration of holes while the N junction is a region that
contains a high concentration of electrons.
To understand the working of the diode we’ll take three following
conditions.

A: Forward Biased Diode:

Forward biased condition will occur when the P-type material of

the diode is connected with the positive terminal of the source
and the N-type material is connected with the negative terminal
of the source.

At first, when we increase the voltage from zero, no current will

flow through the diode due to the presence of a potential barrier.
However, when the applied voltage exceeds the forward
potential barrier, the diode will behave as a short-circuited path
and the current flow will be resisted by the external resistors.
Reverse Biased Diode:

This condition will occur when the P-type material of the diode is
connected to the negative terminal of the source and the N-type
material is connected to the positive terminal of the source.

In this condition, the holes present in the P region will shift

further away from the depletion region due to electrostatic
attraction. As a result, more uncovered negative ions will be left
behind. In this scenario, there will be no current flow in the
circuit.

Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is
designed to operate in the reverse direction.
A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily
doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the
reverse direction. When the voltage across the terminals of a
Zener diode is reversed and the potential reaches the Zener
Voltage (knee voltage), the junction breaks down and the current
flows in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener
Effect.
A Zener diode not only allows current to flow from anode to
cathode but also, in the reverse direction on reaching the Zener
voltage. Due to this functionality, Zener diodes are the most
commonly used semiconductor diodes.

The Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
light when an electric current flows through it. When current
passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes
emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in
the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction.
Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on
the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an
LED will emit a coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength
when forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is
encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can
come out.

LED Symbol

The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the
addition of two small arrows denoting the emission of light.
How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent
from p → n while the minority holes are sent from n → p. At the
junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers
increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction
recombine with the majority charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination.

In standard diodes, the energy is released in the form of heat. But
in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released in the form of
photons. We call this phenomenon electroluminescence.
Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical
phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an
electric current passed through it. As the forward voltage
increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a
maximum.

Transistor
A transistor is a type of a semiconductor device that acts as a
switch and an amplifier. The three terminals of BJT are base,
emitter and collector. A very small current flowing between base
and emitter can control a larger flow of current between the
collector and emitter terminal.

Furthermore, there are two types of BJT. These include;

 P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type

material is introduced or placed between two p-type
materials. In such a configuration, the device will control
the flow of current. PNP transistor consists of 2 crystal
diodes which are connected in series. The right side and
left side of the diodes are known as the collector-base
diode and emitter-base diode, respectively.
 N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type
material that is present between two n-type materials. N-P-
N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals to
strong signals. In NPN transistor, the electrons move from
the emitter to collector region resulting in the formation of
current in the transistor. This transistor is widely used in
the circuit.
Integrated Circuits (IC)
An integrated circuit or an IC is a small chip of a semiconductor
material that mounts an entire circuit on itself. It is very small
when compared to the standard circuits, which are made of
independent circuit components. The most commonly used IC is
the monolithic integrated circuit.

Integrated circuits can function as an oscillator, amplifier,

microprocessor or even as a computer memory.

Integrated Circuits or an IC is defined as a microchip on which

thousands and hundreds of electrical components, such as
resistors, capacitors and transistors, are fabricated. An IC
functions as an oscillator, amplifier, microprocessor, timer or as
computer memory.

D-type connectors
A D-type connector contains two or more parallel rows of pins or
sockets usually surrounded by a D-shaped metal shield that
provides mechanical support, ensures correct orientation, and
may screen against electromagnetic interference. The part
containing pin contacts is called the male connector or plug,
while that containing socket contacts is called the female
connector or socket. The socket's shield fits tightly inside the
plug's shield. The plug also may have screws on either side of the
shield that fastens into holes in the socket. When screened
cables are used, the shields are connected to the overall screens
of the cables. This creates an electrically continuous screen
covering the whole cable and connector system.

BNC connector (Bayonet Nut Coupling)

A commonly used plug and socket for audio, video and
networking applications that provides a tight connection. Using a
mount somewhat similar to the way a bayonet (knife) is mounted
onto the end of a rifle, BNCs are used to connect a variety of
different coaxial cable types. After the plug is inserted, it is
turned, causing pins in the socket to be pinched into a locking
groove on the plug. BNC connectors are attached to the ends of
coaxial cables and can be used for connecting signals such as
RF signals and video signals on consumer electronics. Consumer
electronics that have RCA connectors, such as televisions and
DVD players, may also offer BNC connectors to deliver composite
video. On computer monitors, BNC connectors may be used as an
alternative to VGA connectors in order to improve the quality of
the video. BNC connectors can connect both analog and digital
signals. Male type BNC connectors are attached to the ends of
coaxial cables. BNC connectors consist of metal ring, or tube,
surrounding a pin. The pin is connected to the coaxial cable and
is the point of transmission between the cable and the device the
cable is connected to. In earlier computer networks, BNC
connectors with coaxial cables were used in Ethernet networks,
but Ethernet networks are now more commonly connected by
RJ45 connectors and CAT5-style cables.

BNC Connector

Crocodile clip
A crocodile clip (also alligator clip or spring clip) is a simple
mechanical device for creating a temporary electrical
connection, and is named for its resemblance to an alligator's or
crocodile's jaws. Functioning much like a spring-loaded
clothespin, the clip's tapered, serrated jaws are forced together
by a spring to grip an object. When manufactured for electronics
testing and evaluation, one jaw of the clip is typically
permanently crimped or soldered to a wire, or is bent to form the
inner tubular contact of a ~4 mm female banana jack, enabling
quick non-permanent connection between a circuit under test
and laboratory equipment or to another electrical circuit. The clip
is typically covered by a plastic shroud or "boot" to prevent
accidental short-circuits.
Crocodile and alligator clips are frequently used to quickly and
cheaply assemble or modify experimental circuits. They are
useful for connecting components to wires.

Banana connector
A banana connector (commonly banana plug for the male, banana
socket or banana jack for the female) is a single-wire (one
conductor) electrical connector used for joining wires to
equipment. The plugs are frequently used to terminate patch
cords for electronic test equipment. They are also often used as
the plugs on the cables connecting the amplifier to the
loudspeakers in hi-fi sound systems.

Bread board
A breadboard is a device used to build a prototype of an
electronic circuit. Figure2.3 show some of the breadboards that
are commercially available.
Samples of Breadboards
When you physically see a breadboard, you observe that there
are many strips of metal (or copper) which run underneath the
board. The metal strips are arranged as shown in Figure

Arrangement of Metal Strip

These strips connect the holes on the top of the breadboard. To

build a circuit we place the legs of components ( ICs, switches,
resistors …, etc) in the holes and connect these holes together to
construct the circuit
Using Breadboard

BREADBOARDING DIGITA L CIRCUITS

SUGGESTIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL BREADBOARDING

1. Use a separate node rail for power and ground. Use the top
line for +5 V, and the bottom
for ground.
2. Anytime an IC is inserted, immediately connect it to power and
ground rails.
3. Insert ICs an logical order. Insert all ICs in with the same
orientation. Good placement
reduces wiring complexity.
4. Cut wires to smallest usable size. Keep your wires short.
5. Change wire colors often. Try to use Red for +5 V, and Black
for ground.
6. Highlight or somehow record on the schematics as
connections are made.
7. Avoid alligator clips.
8. Label inputs and outputs using tape.
9. Connect discrete components directly to IC/nodes.
10. Do not twist resistor or capacitor leads to get exact values.
Use a node on the breadboard.
(Typically, digital circuits do not need exact values.)
11. Break each circuit into simple blocks. A block consists of a
single IC or logic level.
Assemble and test one block at a time.
12. Have one partner wire the circuit while the other records
data. If something goes wrong,
switch places. Sometimes it is easier to find someone else's
mistake.
13. Alternate assembler and recorder positions after each
experiment section so both partners
get experience.
14. Split up very large circuits so that each partner assembles a
section.
15. Keep power and clock lines short. Especially between
boards.
16. Use decoupling capacitors in large circuits, or at high clock
rates

Conclusion: Various Electronics components studied & tested.

Experiment-2

Aim: Usage of Test equipments / tools:- The use of multimeter

for measurement of continuity, resistance, capacitance and
inductance, usage of CRO, function generator, frequency counter

1) Multimeter

A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures

current, a voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage)
between two points, and an ohmmeter measures resistance. A
multimeter combines these functions, and possibly some
additional ones as well, into a single instrument. The Multimeter
is a combined instrument that can:
 Measure voltage
 Measure current
 Measure resistance
 Measure frequency in some instruments.
 Test diodes and transistors in some instruments.

Following options are present on multimeter:

 Function/Range Switch: selects the function (voltmeter,

ammeter, or ohmmeter) and the range for the measurement.
 COM Input Terminal:Common ground, used in ALL
measurements.

 V Input Terminal: for voltage or resistance measurements.

 200 mA Input Terminal: for small current measurements.

 10 A Input Terminal: for large current measurements.

 Low Battery LCD: appears when the battery needs

replacement.

2. Oscilloscope

It is widely used for measurement of time-varying signals. Any

time you have a signal that varies with time - slowly or quickly -
you can use an oscilloscope to measure it CRO display
 The CRO display is simply a Cathode Ray Tube within which
electrons are deflected to "trace" the input signal(s) in a
visible form.

 The display is shown above and has nine divisions on both

the X and Y axes. These divisions are used to measure the
amplitude of the signal ( In volts ) on the Y-axis and the
Period of the signal ( In seconds ) on the X-axis.
2. How to use CRO:
Adjusting the Trace Position and Appearance
 a. First we set the AC-GND-DC for both Channels A and B to
GND. (this should allow us to see a horizontal line across
the display)
b. The next thing that we do is use the Mode Selector to allow
us to view channel A on the display.
c. Now that we can see the position of the trace we use both
the Intensity and Focus controls to achieve a clear
appearing trace.
d. Finally we move the trace into the center of the display
using the both the Horizontal Position Control and the
Vertical Position Control corresponding to Channel A.
e. Use the Mode Selector to view the trace of Channel B on
the display.
f. Repeat (d).
g. Finally to check that the above steps have been carried out
correctly we can set the Mode Selection Switch to DUAL
which will allow us to view both traces on the display
Measuring the Input Signal
 O.K. now we that the CRO has been connected to the
circuit we can actually adjust the view of the signal on the
display to allow us to make an accurate reading
 This is done by following the instructions listed below:
a. Select the input channel that we wish to view using
the Mode Selector.
i.e. if Channel A is required the Mode Selector would
be in the CH A position, Channel B the CH B position
and to see both of the input signals the Mode Selector
would be in the DUAL position.
b. After selecting the input we wish to the AC-GND-DC
Selector is moved from the GND position to the D.C.
position.
NOTE: It may seem that if an A.C. signal is being
measured, the AC-GND-DC Selector should be set in
the A.C. position. This is not neccessary unless there
is a large D.C. offset in the A.C. input. So please avoid
the temptation to use the A.C. selection.
 c. At this point the Vertical Gain must be adjusted. This
is adjusted to allow the signal to be viewed on a scale
that is convienient.
d. Show me examples of how the Vertical Gain Controls
Work..
NOTE: Be sure to adjust the Vertical Gain Control that
corresponds to the input channel that we are
measuring a signal with.
e. The final step involves the adjustment of the Time
Base Control. Here the control is rotated to the right
or left untill the shape and period of the signal viewed
on the display can be observed.

3. Function Generator
The function generator is used to generate a wide range of
alternating-current (AC) signals.

The Function Generator Frequency Setting

 To set the frequency output of the Function Generator we
use the Frequency Control and the Range Selection
Switches.
 The process is quite simple, firstly the Frequency is
adjusted to the correct value.
i.e if we require 12.5 kHz we Use the Frequency Control to
12.5 and then depress the Range Selection Switch
corresponding to a 1kHz multiplier and the output will be as
required.
Range Selection Switches:
  Above is a diagram of the function generator with the
Range Selector Switches on the top of the diagram.
 Because the display shows only an integer we have Range
Selectors to control the frequency of the output signal. So
to find the frequency of the signal we simply multipy the
integer on the display by the number above the Range
Selector being used.
e.g.The display shows a value of 365 and we are using a
range of 10k. The frequency becomes 3650kHz which is
3.65MHz.
Mode Selection Switches:

 The Mode Selection Switches are used to control the shape

of the output signal. In this case we only have access to
three different types of signal:
1. Square Wave
2. Sine Wave
3. Triangle Wave
 The operation of these switches is quite simple just press
the switch that corresponds to the particular type of signal
that we require
Amplitude Control Knob:
  Before we connect the output of the Function Generator to
a circuit we must first be able to set the Amplitude of the
Output signal.
 This is done using the Amplitude Control Shown in the
diagram below:

 The other important point to remember is that the Function

Generator does not display any information about signal
amplitude so we must use the CRO to view the amplitude
when we set it to the required level.
The Output Terminal:

 The Output Terminal on the Function Generator is a BNC

Connection which can be used directly with a Coaxial
Cable.

Experiment: 3
HOW TO SOLDER

1. Plug in the iron and moisten sponge with water.

2. Bend the component’s lead to fit the holes on the board,

observing special orientation before inserting component.

3. Clean the iron tip by wiping it across a wet sponge. Then tin
the iron’s tip using a small amount of solder. Heat the joint by
placing the iron’s tip at the component’s base.

4. After a moment of heating, apply solder to the joint, remove

the solder, then iron but hold the component in place until
cooled. Make sure to store the iron in the stand without wiping
off the tip.

5. Trim excess leads with wire cutters. Make sure to hold on or

cover excess lead while cutting.

1.2. Desoldering Technique

Desoldering may be required for several reasons:

_ a component may have failed
_ a wrong part was installed;
_ a design modi_cation necessitates a change; or
_ if a board contains expensive components that can be
salvaged.

Whatever the reason, there are three common techniques to remove

solder from a joint: using a desoldering pump, a desoldering wick, or
desoldering iron. Regardless of the method used, if it is permissible to
destroy the part during removal, then a lot of time and effort can be
saved. For instance,using wire cutters to trim o_ all the pins of a
through-hole IC so they can be removed individually makes the removal
process much easier. In most cases, avoiding damage to the PCB is of
paramount importance

Experiment : 4
To study making printed Circuit Board (PCB) & design Minor
Project “Flashing Light” using multi vibrator.

Component Used: PCB, Transistor Q1, Q2 (BC-547 OR BC-548),

resistors, capacitors and connecting wires

Theory:
A printed circuit board or PCB is used to mechanically support
and electrically connect electronic components using conductive
pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to
as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB
populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly
(PCBA).

Let's look at Astable Multivibrator which is an example of a very

common type of electronic circuit.
The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled
transistor switching circuit known as Flashing light that has NO
stable output states as it changes from one state to the other all
the time. The astable circuit consists of two switching
transistors, a cross-coupled feedback network, and two time
delay capacitors which allow oscillation between the two states
with no external trigger signal to produce the change in state.
Astable multi vibrators are therefore also known as Free-running
Multi vibrator as they do not require any additional inputs or
external assistance to oscillate. It consists of two transistors,
two capacitors and four resistors and LEDs. R2, R3, C1 and the
supply voltage determine the flash rate. Using a regulated power
supply, a stable flash rate may be ensured. The purpose of R1
and R4 is to limit current through the LEDs to the maximum they
can handle.

Circuit Diagram:
Operation:
After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic
components are attached to form a functional printed circuit
assembly. In through-hole construction, component leads are
inserted in holes. In surface-mount construction, the components
are placed on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the PCB. In
both kinds of construction, component leads are electrically and
mechanically fixed to the board with a molten metal solder.
 Let Q1 turns ON LED turns ON because it becomes forward
biased and capacitor C1 starts charging. As current is
flowing through R2, C1, Q1 and ground.
 The capacitor C1 is coupled to base of Q2, hence Q2
becomes ON when capacitor C1 get charged and Vc1 >0.7 V
and LED2 turns ON because it becomes forward biased and
capacitor C2 starts charging as current is flowing through
R3,C2,Q2 and ground. The capacitor C2 is coupled to base
of Q1, hence Q1 becomes ON when capacitor C2 get
charged and Vc2 > 0.7 V and LED1 turns ON
  While one of the capacitors is charging, current flows to
the base of the alternate transistor, making the emitter-
collector path conduct, making one of the LEDs light. When
the capacitor is charged, it stops conducting and switches
off the transistor, and then the other capacitor begins to
charge switching on the other transistor, at the same time
the first capacitor discharges, then the cycle repeats.
 In this way FLASHING LIGHT starts glowing and dimming
repeatedly.

Result: Hence we have studied making printed Circuit Board

(PCB) & designed Minor Project “Flashing Light” using multi
vibrator.