University of Engineering &

Technology, Lahore (New campus)

I&C Lab Report

Submitted to:
Mr. Ansar Javeid
Submitted to:
Muhammad Hassan Bashir (2020-CH-243)
1
Contents
General safety Instructions: .............................................................................................. 8
General Safety Instruction for Electrical Equipment: ...................................................... 9
Lab Layout: ......................................................................................................................... 9
Report Rubrics(CLO-2): ....................................................................................................10
Laboratory performance assessment (CLO-1): ..............................................................11
Viva Voice Rubrics (CLO-1, CLO-2 & CLO-3): .................................................................12
Equipment status in Instrumentation and Control Lab: .................................................13
Experiment 1: .....................................................................................................................14
Objective: ........................................................................................................................14
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................14
Theory: ............................................................................................................................14
Working Principle: ..........................................................................................................15
Limitations: .....................................................................................................................15
Advantages: ....................................................................................................................16
Disadvantages: ...............................................................................................................16
Applications:...................................................................................................................17
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................17
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................17
Graph: .............................................................................................................................17
Result & Discussion: .....................................................................................................18
Experiment 2: .....................................................................................................................18
Objective: ........................................................................................................................18
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................18
Theory: ............................................................................................................................18
Applications:...................................................................................................................18
Time constant: ................................................................................................................20
Working Principle:..........................................................................................................20
See-beck effect:...........................................................................................................20
Peltier effect: ...............................................................................................................20
Thomson effect:....................................................................................................20
Advantages of thermocouple: .......................................................................................20
Applications:...................................................................................................................21
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................21
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................21

2
 Observation & Calculations: .........................................................................................21
Graph: .............................................................................................................................22
Result & Discussion: .....................................................................................................22
Experiment 3: .....................................................................................................................23
Objective: ........................................................................................................................23
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................23
Theory: ............................................................................................................................23
Working principle: ..........................................................................................................24
Applications of Potentiometer: .....................................................................................24
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................24
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................24
Observation & Calculations: .........................................................................................25
Graph: .............................................................................................................................25
Result & Discussion: .....................................................................................................25
Experiment 4: .....................................................................................................................26
Objective: ........................................................................................................................26
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................26
Theory: ............................................................................................................................26
Limitation of Dead Weight Tester: ................................................................................27
Basic Operating Principle:.............................................................................................27
Experimental Procedure: ...............................................................................................27
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................27
Observation & Calculations: .........................................................................................28
Graph: .............................................................................................................................28
Result and Discussion: ..................................................................................................28
Experiment - 5 ....................................................................................................................29
Objective: ........................................................................................................................29
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................29
Theory: ............................................................................................................................29
Applications of Liquid Level System: ...........................................................................29
Basic working / operating principle of Liquid Level Systems ....................................30
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................30
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................30
Observations and Calculations:....................................................................................30
1st Run:........................................................................................................................30

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 Graph: .............................................................................................................................31
2nd Run: ......................................................................................................................31
Graph: .............................................................................................................................31
3rd Run: .......................................................................................................................32
Graph: .............................................................................................................................32
Result and Discussion: ..................................................................................................32
Experiment - 6 ....................................................................................................................33
Objective: ........................................................................................................................33
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................33
Theory: ............................................................................................................................33
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................33
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................33
Discussion: .....................................................................................................................33
Experiment 7: .....................................................................................................................34
Objective: ........................................................................................................................34
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................34
Theory: ............................................................................................................................34
Proportional Response: .............................................................................................35
Integral Response: ......................................................................................................35
Derivative Response:..................................................................................................35
Advantages of Using PLCs: ..........................................................................................35
Drawbacks of Using PLCs: ............................................................................................36
Tuning: ............................................................................................................................36
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................36
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................37
Observations and Calculations:....................................................................................37
Experiment 8: .....................................................................................................................38
Objective: ........................................................................................................................38
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................38
Theory: ............................................................................................................................38
Proportional Response: .............................................................................................39
Integral Response: ......................................................................................................39
Derivative Response:..................................................................................................39
Advantages of Using PLCs: ..........................................................................................39
Drawbacks of Using PLCs: ............................................................................................40

4
 Tuning: ............................................................................................................................40
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................40
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................41
Observations and Calculations:....................................................................................41
Experiment 9: .....................................................................................................................42
Objective: ........................................................................................................................42
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................42
Theory: ............................................................................................................................42
Proportional Response: .............................................................................................43
Integral Response: ......................................................................................................43
Derivative Response:..................................................................................................43
Advantages of Using PLCs: ..........................................................................................43
Drawbacks of Using PLCs: ............................................................................................44
Tuning: ............................................................................................................................44
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................44
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................45
Observations and Calculations:....................................................................................45
Experiment 7: .....................................................................................................................46
Objective: ........................................................................................................................46
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................46
Theory: ............................................................................................................................46
Proportional Response: .............................................................................................47
Integral Response: ......................................................................................................47
Derivative Response:..................................................................................................47
Advantages of Using PLCs: ..........................................................................................47
Drawbacks of Using PLCs: ............................................................................................48
Tuning: ............................................................................................................................48
Procedure: ......................................................................................................................48
Safety Precautions: ........................................................................................................49
Observations and Calculations:....................................................................................49
References: ........................................................................................................................50

5
Table of Figures
FIGURE 1: HAZARDS SYMBOLS ................................................................................................ 8
FIGURE 1: HAZARDS SYMBOLS ................................................................................................ 8
FIGURE 2: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT BENCH ....................................................................14
FIGURE 2: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT BENCH ....................................................................14
FIGURE 3: THERMOCOUPLES K- TYPE .....................................................................................18
FIGURE 3: THERMOCOUPLES K- TYPE .....................................................................................18
FIGURE 4: K-TYPE THERMOCOUPLE ........................................................................................19
FIGURE 4: K-TYPE THERMOCOUPLE ........................................................................................19
FIGURE 5: JUNCTIONS OF K-TYPE THERMOCOUPLE .................................................................19
FIGURE 5: JUNCTIONS OF K-TYPE THERMOCOUPLE .................................................................19
FIGURE 6: POTENTIOMETER ....................................................................................................23
FIGURE 6: POTENTIOMETER ....................................................................................................23
FIGURE 7: CONSTRUCTION OF POTENTIOMETER .......................................................................23
FIGURE 7: CONSTRUCTION OF POTENTIOMETER .......................................................................23
FIGURE 8: SEE-BACK EFFECT .................................................................................................24
FIGURE 8: SEE-BACK EFFECT .................................................................................................24
FIGURE 9: DEAD WEIGHT TESTER ...........................................................................................26
FIGURE 9: DEAD WEIGHT TESTER ...........................................................................................26
FIGURE 10: PARTS OF DEAD WEIGHT TESTER .........................................................................26
FIGURE 10: PARTS OF DEAD WEIGHT TESTER .........................................................................26
FIGURE 11: LIQUID LEVEL SYSTEM .........................................................................................29
FIGURE 11: LIQUID LEVEL SYSTEM .........................................................................................29
FIGURE 12: LIQUID LEVEL CONTROL RIG.................................................................................33
FIGURE 12: LIQUID LEVEL CONTROL RIG.................................................................................33
FIGURE 13: PLC SYSTEM.......................................................................................................34
FIGURE 13: PLC SYSTEM.......................................................................................................34
FIGURE 14: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................34
FIGURE 14: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................34
FIGURE 15: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................35
FIGURE 15: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................35
FIGURE 16: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................37
FIGURE 16: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................37
FIGURE 17: PLC SYSTEM.......................................................................................................38
FIGURE 18: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................38
FIGURE 18: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................38
FIGURE 19: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................39
FIGURE 19: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................39
FIGURE 20: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................41
FIGURE 20: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................41
FIGURE 21: PLC SYSTEM.......................................................................................................42
FIGURE 21: PLC SYSTEM.......................................................................................................42
FIGURE 22: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................42
FIGURE 22: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................42
FIGURE 23: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................43
FIGURE 23: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................43
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FIGURE 24: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................45
FIGURE 24: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................45
FIGURE 25: PLC SYSTEM.......................................................................................................46
FIGURE 25: PLC SYSTEM.......................................................................................................46
FIGURE 26: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................46
FIGURE 26: DIAGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.....................................................................46
FIGURE 27: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................47
FIGURE 27: RESPONSE OF A TYPICAL PID CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM .............................................47
FIGURE 28: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................49
FIGURE 28: TOPOLOGY FOR FLOW CONTROL ...........................................................................49

7
General safety Instructions:
1. Never eat or drink while working in the laboratory
2. Read labels carefully
3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your
supervisor.
4. Wear safety glasses or face shields when working with hazardous materials and/or
equipment.
5. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent.
6. Clothing: When handling dangerous substances, wear gloves, laboratory coats, and
safety shield or glasses. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the lab at any time.
Shoes are required when working in the machine shops
7. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or confined.
8. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work. Coats
should be hung in your room or placed in a locker. Extra books, purses, etc. should be
kept away from equipment that requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating
9. Disposal - Students are responsible for the proper disposal of used material if any in
appropriate containers
10. Equipment Failure - If a piece of equipment fails while being used, report it immediately
a technician. Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could harm yourself
and others.
11. If leaving a lab unattended, turn off all ignition sources and lock the doors.
12. Clean up your work area before leaving.
13. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.

Figure 1: Hazards Symbols

Figure 2: Hazards Symbols

8
General Safety Instruction for Electrical Equipment:
1. Obtain permission by the Lab in charge before operating any high voltage equipment
(voltages above 50Vrms ac and 50V dc are always dangerous, extra precautions
should be considered as voltage levels are increased).
2. Maintain an unobstructed access to all electrical panels.
3. Avoid using extension cords whenever possible. Extension cords should not go under
doors, across aisles, be hung from the ceiling, or plugged into other extension cords.
4. Never, ever modify or otherwise change any high voltage equipment.
5. before attaching the power supply to your setup make sure there are no "live" wires
which can be touched, when possible, use a box with an interlock
6. when attaching a high voltage power supply ALWAYS switch off the supply W
7. When you are adjusting any high voltage equipment or a laser which is powered with
a high voltage supply, USE ONLY ONE HAND.
8. Your other hand is best placed in a pocket or behind your back. This procedure
eliminates the possibility of an accident where high voltage current flows up one arm,
through your chest, and down the other arm.

Lab Layout:

9
 Report Rubrics(CLO-2):

Assessment
Criteria Excellent (8 – 10) Acceptable (5 – 7) Unsatisfactory (0 –
(%Weightage) 3)

Objective (10%) Clear, briefly and specific Purpose established Not or poorly
broadly. presented.
Brief background theories Broad description of Background theories
Introduction and laws have been background theories and laws with
(10%) concisely described with and laws with no link irrelevant data has
references as per objective. to the objective. been described with
improper referencing.
Experiment Well described in the Described in disorder or Description of
procedure (10%) appropriate steps in a very short way. procedure with
logical manner. missing steps or not
presented at all
Result and Present all the results Present the results Not presented at all
Discussion needed for the report in an partially.
(40%) appropriate manner.

Very well redacted and Presentation of a Not presented at all or

Conclusions meaningful conclusions. summary or other parts not related in any way
(20%) of the report as with the lab.
conclusions
Safety Proper safety instruction Incomplete safety Safety precautions are
Precautions are listed instruction not presented
(10%)

10
Laboratory performance assessment (CLO-1):

11
Viva Voice Rubrics (CLO-1, CLO-2 & CLO-3):

12
Equipment status in Instrumentation and Control Lab:

No. Equipment Quantity Status Remarks

1 K Type Thermocouple 1 Working

2 Dead Weight Pressure Gauge 1 Working

Calibrator

Temperature
Measurement Bench through
3 Resistance 1 Working
Temperature
Detector
(RTD)

Temperature Measurement
4 Bench 1 Working
through Potentiometer

5 Level control Rig 1 Working

(ON/OFF
controller)

6 Liquid level system 1 Working

7 PLC Trainer 1 Working

13
Experiment 1:
Objective:
Calibrate the given resistance temperature detector (RTD) using the mercury
bulb thermometer.
Apparatus:
 Resistance thermometer device
 Beaker
 Oil
 Heating device
 Mercury Thermometer
 Multi-meter

Figure 3: Temperature Measurement Bench

Theory:
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):
Figure 4: Temperature Measurement Bench
An RTD stands for "Resistance Temperature Detector" and it is a sensor whose
resistance changes when its temperature changes and it is used to measure
temperature. The RTD's resistance increases linearly when the temperature
increases. Many RTDs are called wire wound.
An RTD is a temperature sensor which measures temperature using the principle
that the resistance of a metal changes with temperature. In practice, an electrical
current is transmitted through a piece of metal (the RTD element or resistor) located
in proximity to the area where temperature is to be measured. The resistance value
of the RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This resistance value is then
correlated to temperature based upon the known resistance characteristics of the
RTD element.

14
 Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements due to a number of
factors, including its
 Chemical inertness
 Nearly linear temperature versus resistance relationship
 Temperature coefficient of resistance that is large enough to give readily measurable
resistance changes with temperature and
 Stability (in that its temperature resistance does not drastically change with time).
Other metals that are less frequently used as the resistor elements in an RTD include
nickel, copper and Balco.
Working Principle:
An electrical current is passed through the sensor; the resistance element is used to
measure the resistance of the current being passed through it. As the temperature of the
resistance element increases the electrical resistance also increases. The electrical
resistance is measured in Ohms.
Limitations:
RTDs are a good fit for temperatures ranging from -200°C to +600°C. However,
outside this temperature range, RTDs are not the best fit. On average, RTDs have longer
response time compared to thermocouples. On average, thermocouples tend to be less
expensive than RTDs.
Configurations: RTD elements are typically in one of three configurations.
 A platinum or metal glass slurry film deposited or screened onto a small flat ceramic
substrate known as "thin film" RTD elements, and
 Platinum or metal wire wound on a glass or ceramic bobbin and sealed with a
coating of molten glass known as "wire wound" RTD elements.
 A partially supported wound element which is a small coil of wire inserted into a
hole in a ceramic insulator and attached along one side of that hole. Of the three
RTD elements, the thin film is most rugged and has become increasingly more
accurate over time.
 A simple rule of thumb is that the more wires an RTD has the more accurate it is.
The entire RTD assembly is not platinum. Among other issues, constructing an
RTD in that manner would for most purposes be prohibitively expensive. As a
result, only the small RTD element itself is made of platinum. As a practical matter
the resistance value of the RTD element would be useless without a means to
communicate that resistance to an instrument. Accordingly, insulated copper wires
typically connect the RTD element to the measuring instrument.
Like platinum, copper has a resistance value. Resistance along the copper lead wires
can impact the resistance measurement determined by the instrument connected to the RTD.
Two wire RTDs do not have a practical means for accounting for the resistance associated
with the copper lead wires which reduces the extent to which the resistance measured can

15
be accurately correlated to the temperature of the RTD element. As a result, two wire RTDs
are least commonly specified and are generally used where only an approximate value for
temperature is needed. Three wire RTDs are the most common specification for industrial
applications. Three wire RTDs normally use a Wheatstone bridge measurement circuit to
compensate for the lead wire resistance as shown below

When the metal's temperature increases, the resistance to the electron's flow also increases.
Similarly, as and when the temperature of element used in the Resistance Temperature
Detector increases, the resistance increases too.
The components of RTD are:
 RTD platinum resistance element: This is the actual temperature sensing
portion of the RTD. Elements range in length from 1/8" to 3". There are many
options. The standard temperature coefficient is an alpha of .00385 and the
standard resistance is 100 at 0 C.
 RTD Outside diameter: The most common outside diameter is 6mm (.236")
for non- US applications. However, outside diameters range from .063" to
.500".
 RTD Tubing Material: 316 Stainless steel is commonly used for assemblies
up to 500 F, above 500 F it is advisable to use Inconel 600.
 RTD Process Connection: Process connection fittings include all standard
fittings used with thermocouples (i.e., compression, welded, spring-loaded,
etc.).
 RTD Wire Configuration: RTDs are available in 2, 3 and 4 wire configurations.
3 wire configurations are the most common for industrial applications. Teflon
and fiberglass are the standard wire insulation materials. Teflon is moisture
resistant and can be used up to 400 F. Fiberglass can be used up to 1000 F.
 RTD cold end termination: RTDs can terminate on the cold end with plugs,
bare wires, terminal heads and any of the reference junctions common to
thermocouples.
Advantages:
 More Stable
 More accurate
 More linear
Disadvantages:
 Expensive

16
  Current source required Self-heating
 Small base resistance
Applications:
 Audio amplifiers and engine oil temperature sensors are used in the automotive
industry.
 In the field of medical electronics, for blood dialysis machines and infant incubators.
 As temperature sensors and amplifiers in communication and instrumentation.
 Applied to small appliance controllers and fire detectors in consumer electronics.
 For gas flow indicators and plastic laminating equipment in industrial electronics.
Procedure:
 The resistance thermometer device is inserted in oil beaker which already had mercury
filled thermometer.
 The oil in the beaker is heated and different sets of readings are taken for resistance
(in ohms) and temperature (o C) for every 50 C rise in temperature.
 Finally, a graph between the temperature along X-axis and resistance along Y-axis is
plotted. The straight-line draw showed the fitness of the resistance thermometer under
consideration for the required purpose.
Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coat & closed shoes in laboratory.
 Carefully use the AVO-meter & hotplate.
 Immediately switch OFF the hotplate if there is any spark in its power plug.
No. Temperature (0C) Resistance (Ω)
1. 40 2.6
2. 45 2.9
3. 50 3.1
4. 55 3.3
5. 60 3.6
6. 65 3.7
7. 70 3.9
8. 75 4.1

Graph:
TEMPERATURE V/S RESISTANCE
80
70
60
TEMPERATURE

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
RESISTANCE

17
Result & Discussion:
A RTD is in sense more accurate sometimes than thermocouple and shows us readings
with the given resistance in the system which we are using to calibrate it. It is smaller in shape
than thermocouple too and has wider range of advantages.

Experiment 2:
Objective:
Determination of the time constant of the given thermocouple (K-type) and also
find out the response “Tb” of the system when t=τ, t=2τ, t=3τ.
Apparatus:
 Thermocouple
 Heater
 Digital Voltmeter
 Stop watch
 Hookup wires
 Motor oil

Figure 5: Thermocouples K- Type

Theory:
Figure 6: Thermocouples K- Type
Thermocouple:
A thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different
types of metals, joined together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated
or cooled, a voltage is created that can be correlated back to the temperature. A
thermocouple is a simple, robust and cost-effective temperature sensor used in a wide
range of temperature measurement processes.
Applications:
Thermocouples are commonly used in a wide range of applications. Due to their wide
range of models and technical specifications, but it is extremely important to understand
its basic structure, functionality, ranges as to better determine the right thermocouple
type and material of thermocouple for an application. Due to the flow of current a voltage
drop occurs. This voltage drop depends on the temperature difference between the two
junctions.
The measurement of the voltage drop can then be correlated to this temperature
difference. It is extremely important to note that a thermocouple does not measure the
temperature, but rather the temperature difference between the two junctions.

18
 In order to use a thermocouple to measure temperature directly, one junction must be
maintained at a known temperature. This junction is commonly called the reference
junction (which is kept at 0°C usually) and its temperature is the reference temperature.
The other junction, which is normally placed in contact with the body of unknown
temperature, is called the measurement junction.

Figure 7: K-Type Thermocouple

Due to the flow of current a voltage drop occurs. This voltage drop depends on the
temperature difference between
Figure 8:theK-Type
two junctions. The measurement of the voltage drop
Thermocouple
can then be correlated to this temperature difference. It is extremely important to note
that a thermocouple does not measure the temperature, but rather the temperature
difference between the two junctions.
In order to use a thermocouple to measure temperature directly, one junction must be
maintained at a known temperature. This junction is commonly called the reference
junction (which is kept at 0°C usually) and its temperature is the reference temperature.
The other junction, which is normally placed in contact with the body of unknown
temperature, is called the measurement junction.

Figure 9: Junctions of K-Type Thermocouple

The various types of popular thermocouples include:

Figure 10: Junctions of K-Type Thermocouple
 Type K
 Type J
 Туре T
 Type E
 Type N
 Type S
 Type R

19
  Туре В
Thermocouples are commonly used in a wide range of applications. Due to their wide range
of models and technical specifications, but it is extremely important to understand its basic
structure, functionality. ranges as to better determine the right thermocouple type and
material of thermocouple for an application.
Although thermocouple calibration dictates the temperature range, the maximum range is
also limited by the diameter of the thermocouple wire. That is, a very thin thermocouple may
not reach the full temperature range.
K Type Thermocouples are known as general purpose thermocouple due to its low cost and
temperature range.
Time constant:
Time constant & is the time taken by the response function to register 63.2% of its
ultimate value is called time constant. Five-time constants are required for the sensor to
approach 100% of the step change value. An exposed junction thermocouple offers the
fastest response. Also, the smaller the probe sheath diameter, the faster the response, but
the maximum temperature may be lower.
Working Principle:
The working principle of thermocouple is based on three effects, discovered by See-
beck, Peltier and Thomson. They are as follows:
See-beck effect:
The See-beck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined together
at two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The amount
of emf generated is different for different combinations of the metals.
Peltier effect:
This phenomenon says that by introducing a potential difference between two
dissimilar conductors, a temperature difference can be created in them.
Thomson effect:
As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together forming two
junctions, the potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire
length of the conductors within the circuit.
In most of the cases the emf suggested by the Thomson effect is very small and it can be
neglected by making proper selection of the metals. The Peltier effect plays a prominent role
in the working principle of the thermocouple.
Advantages of thermocouple:
 Very wide temperature ranges about -2000C to +25000C
 Fast response time
 They are a simple construction
 Low initial cost
 Durable
 Easy to read has a clear screen and good scale
 Quick response for any temperature changes
 Precision accuracy in temperature measurement
 It is not easily broken good durability

20
  Good to be used temperature variation measurement with below 1 cm distance range
Available in small sheath sizes
 It is used for only temperature measurement only
Applications:
Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel
engines, other industrial processes and fog machines. Thermocouples are used in
applications that range from home appliances to industrial processes, to electric power
generation, to furnace monitoring and control, to food and beverage processing, to
automotive sensors, to aircraft engines, to rockets, satellites and spacecraft.
Procedure:
 Position the Stand (without the thermocouple) on a table top and ensure that the base
is horizontal by using the spirit level.
 Inert the thermocouple in the stand so that it can move easily.
 Place the heater adjacent to the stand and ensure proper electrical supply to the
heater. Connect the wires of Voltmeter to the corresponding wires of thermocouple.
After this, the apparatus is ready to perform the experiment.
 Ensure that circuit is complete as shown in schematic diagram using Digital Voltmeter.
 Note the reading on digital voltmeter.
 Switch on the heater. As thermocouple receives heat, digital voltmeter reading
changes.
 The ultimate value of temperature has been considered 2000C for this experiment.
 The conversion chart of voltage to temperature for the K type thermocouple is given
below.
 The measuring junction of thermocouple to be heated till the voltage appears on volt
meter to the range of (5.328 to 5.735) and measure the time duration by stopwatch to
reach this voltage level for estimating the response time. It is the estimation of
response time at t=T.
 . Repeat this procedure for the remaining values of time constants and plot a graph as
mentioned below.
Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
 Ensure proper working of miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
 Carefully insert the thermocouple in the stand.
 Immediately switch off the heater if there is any spark in heater's power plug.
Observation & Calculations:
Room Temperature = Ts = 30oC
Ultimate value of temperature = T = 90 oC
Amplitude = A = T - Ts = 90-30 = 600C

No. Time Thermocouple Tb-Ts=Tb* Response of Response Time

(t, sec) Reading (0C) System -ln{1-( Tb*/A)} = t/Tb
0
(Tb, C) Tb*/A
1. 90 35 5 0.08 0.083
2. 110 45 15 0.25 0.2708
3. 124 55 25 0.41 0.527
4. 139 65 35 0.58 0.867

21
Graph:
TIME VS TEMPERATURE
70

TEMPERATURE
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
TIME

RESPONSE OF SYSTEM VS
RESPONSE TIME
1
0.9
0.8
REPONSE TIME

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
RESPONSE OF SYSTEM

Result & Discussion:

The experiment starts by increasing the temperature to the respective. After the
temperature has been reached, the reading from thermocouple Type K was recorded. The K
type thermocouple gives good recording for wide temperature ranges and is also handy to
install anywhere.

22
Experiment 3:
Objective:
Calibrate the given thermocouple with the help of potentiometer.
Apparatus:
 Potentiometer
 Thermocouple
 Oil Bath
 Mercury Filled Thermometer
 Heating Medium
Theory:
A potentiometer (also known as a pot or pot meter) is defined as a 3 terminal variable
resistor in which the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric current. A
potentiometer acts as an adjustable voltage divider.

Figure 11: Potentiometer

Construction of Potentiometer:
Construction and Working Principle.
Figure The potentiometer consists of a long resistive
12: Potentiometer
wire L made up of magnum or with constantan and a battery of known EMF V. This voltage
is called driver cell voltage.

Figure 13: Construction of Potentiometer

See-beck effect:
Figure 14: Construction of Potentiometer
The See-beck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two
dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the
two substances.
23
 Figure 15: See-back effect

Working principle:
A potentiometer is a passive electronic component.
Figure 16: See-back effectPotentiometers work by varying
the position of a sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a potentiometer, the entire
input voltage is applied across the whole length of the resistor, and the output voltage is the
voltage drop between the fixed and sliding contact as shown below.

This is a very basic instrument used for comparing the emf of two cells and for calibrating
ammeter, voltmeter, and watt-meter. The basic working principle of a potentiometer is quite
simple. Suppose we have connected two batteries in parallel through a galvanometer. The
negative battery terminals are connected together and positive battery terminals are also
connected together through a galvanometer.
Applications of Potentiometer:
There are many different uses of a potentiometer. The three main applications of a
potentiometer are:
 Comparing the emf of a battery cell with a standard cell
 Measuring the internal resistance of a battery cell
 Measuring the voltage across a branch of a circuit
Procedure:
 Connect the thermocouple with the mercury filled thermometer.
 Insert both instrument in the beaker containing oil in it.
 The oil in the beaker is heated till the temperature reaches to 180°C and the variation
in EMF is noted by rising the temperature with regular interval.
 The change in emf along with the change in temperature is plotted on a graph paper.
If the line is linear then thermocouple is suitable for the required job.
Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises

24
  Carefully use the thermocouple and hotplate.
 Immediately switch off the hotplate if there is any spark in its power plug
Observation & Calculations:

No. Temperature (0C) Electromotive Force

(m volts)
1. 40 0.03
2. 50 0.06
3. 60 0.09
4. 70 1.40
5. 80 1.80
6. 90 2.20
7. 100 2.70
8. 110 3.00
9. 120 3.30

Graph:
e.m.f vs Temperature
4

2
emf

0
0 50 100 150
-1
Temperature

Result & Discussion:

By sliding the contact of the potentiometer, we can see and relate the emf generated by
the system and can use to calibrate our system with it. This thing also needs power source
to run also. At the end we plotted temperature vs emf generated by it.

25
Experiment 4:
Objective:
To calibrate the readings of bourdon manometer and to determine the gauge
error. Determine the measurement error in reference pressure source used for
calibration.
Apparatus:
 Dead weight pressure gauge setup
 Glycerin
 Pressure gauge
 Weights
Theory:
Dead-weight Tester:
A deadweight tester is a calibration standard that uses the principle of a pressure
balance to calibrate pressure measuring instruments. Deadweight testers use
calibrated weights to apply known pressures to a device under test for a simple and
cost-effective solution that covers a wide range of pressure calibrations.

Figure 17: Dead Weight Tester

Dead weight testers are named so because they utilize dead weights in
determination of pressures operating in a closed and compressed fluid system. They are so
called because of the reasonFigure
that for18: Dead
each Weight
value Tester to be exerted/ applied in the
of pressure
closed hydraulic system, a predetermined / fixed number of weights are used to exert the
force to counter balance the buoyancy forces. Each weight is stamped with the equivalent
amount of force that will be exerted on a predetermined area of piston cylinder arrangement
by using that weight. Therefore, the device is called Dead Weight tester.

Figure 19: Parts of Dead Weight Tester

26

Figure 20: Parts of Dead Weight Tester

 Limitation of Dead Weight Tester:
The minimum pressure increment is limited by the minimum mass value in the
mass set. If the test gauge is of high resolution, it may not be possible to position its needle
directly on a nominal test point.
Basic Operating Principle:
Pascal's law is the basis for the DWT (Dead Weight Tester). The law asserts that
the pressure applied in a closed system of incompressible fluid exerts an equal amount of
force in all directions. Within the closed confines of the Piston cylinder arrangement, piping,
pressurization chamber, and the head on which the gauge to be tested/ calibrated is fixed in
the DWT system, silicon oil is employed. The oil is poured into the pressurization chamber
from the oil bowl, and any trapped air is expelled. This is due to the fact that air is
compressible and so does not allow pressure to be applied evenly in all locations, causing
errors in the test findings.
Once the system is full with air free oil, pressure is gradually increased from the pressurization
chamber. Oil pressure starts increasing in all the areas including piston cylinder arrangement
over which the dead weights are mounted. The overall system achieves equilibrium as the
force steadily grows and equals the amount of downward force exerted by the dead weights,
and the dead weights begin to be raised up at that point. The amount of force working in the
entire system is the same at this point. The pressure gauge element, which is being
tested/calibrated, is also affected by the sum of pressure values stamped on weights lifted.
The formula on which the design of a DWT is based basically is expressed as follows:
P = F/A
P = reference pressure
F= force applied on piston
A = effective area
Experimental Procedure:
 Precision balance is required to determine the weight of piston and masses.
 Place the equipment on a flat and even surface and connect the supply tube that
connects the inferior area of the cylinder to the input of the manometer. The output of
this manometer should be prolonged, by means of a flexible tube, from the drainage
faucet until its free end is settled inside an empty recipient to avoid splashes.
 Disassemble the piston and determine accurately its weight and also determine the
weight of masses if it has not done yet.
 Cover the piston with Vaseline for the best operation.
 Open the faucet of the manometer, when the air of a system has been eliminated.
 Now put the one-way valve in the flexible tune that comes from the supper part of a
cylinder. Later on, closed the output of the faucet of the manometer and introducing
water in the equipment.
 Introduce the piston totally inside the cylinder.
 Repeat these steps adding to the piston, in a staggering way, the different masses of
the given sets of weights.
 Once the test has been completed removed the piston and dry it.
Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises.

27
  Take readings perfectly
Observation & Calculations:
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 ms-2
Area of Piston = 2.5446 x 10-4 m2
No. Mass of Piston Pressure in Manometer Absolute Relative
(Kg) the Cylinder Reading error Error
(bar) (bar) (bar) (%)
1. 0.5 0.1926 0.45 0.26 1.33
2. 2 0.7705 0.98 0.2095 0.27
3. 3.5 1.34 1.54 0.20 0.14

Graph:
Manometer Error
2

1.5
Error

0.5

0
1 2 3
Pressure in Manometer (bar)

Manometer Reading (bar) Relative Error %

Result and Discussion:

The dead weight pressure gauge can easily detect any type of flaw in burden gauges
and so then after that we can use it to calibrate our given burden tube. This thing also
doesn’t need any type of power source so it is easy to use too.

28
Experiment - 5
Objective:
Determination of the Time Constant of the given liquid level system
Apparatus:
 Tanks
 Tubes of different lengths, diameter and material
 Stop watch
 Beaker
 Graduated cylinder

Figure 21: Liquid Level System

Theory:
What is liquid level control system?
Figure 22: Liquid Level System
Liquid Level Controllers square measure devices utilized in upstream and eye
applications to watch the extent of liquid and make sure that the liquid is maintained at
the set level.
Liquid Level system may be a system specifically designed to manage the extent of
fluid in tanks. The most aim possessed by these systems is to manage the speed with
that the pump delivers fluid to the tank and then it will reach the required level within the
tank.
The purpose of the liquid level system is to take care of a selected level of fluid within
the tank. The liquid level management systems realize major applications in industrial
processes.
The controller present in the system generates the control signal that's born-again
into the required signal by the mechanism and is fed to the plant so as to perform the
required action.
The closed-loop operation of the system permits the feedback signal to urge
compared with the reference input thereby providing controlled action. This principle of
operation is employed by the liquid level system.

Applications of Liquid Level System:

Industrial tank system plays important role in industrial application such as in
 Food processing

29
  Pharmaceutical industry
 Chemical industry, water purification system
And many more.
Basic working / operating principle of Liquid Level Systems:
The crucial components of the water level control system are as follows:
 Fluid tank: Also known as a storage tank, used to hold the desired amount of
fluid.
 Measurement system: Senses the level of the fluid inside the tank.
 Controller: The controller is used to maintain the desired level by starting and
stopping the pump when gets information by the measurement system.
 Pump: The water from the source is fed to the tank through the pump when
actuated by the controller.
In such systems, fluid from the pump is allowed to enter the tank when the control signal
is generated by the controller.
Procedure:
 Take out one tube of certain length and diameter and fit it to the bottom of a tank. Storage
tank fill up to certain appropriate level.
 A beaker is placed at the bottom of tank and remove the cork. The water begins to flow
downward and liquid level reach to a certain level, in the same time a stopwatch is used
to measure the time duration of the level change.
 The volume of the water in the beaker is measured with the help of graduated cylinder.
 The mean of the height or level of the water is also noted.
 The storage of the tank can also be measured by measuring its diameter.
 The same procedure is repeated to get the 5-6 reading.
 Graph is plotted between mean level of water and flowrate; the slope of graph
determines the resistance.
 The time constant of the system can be calculated by the formula; Time constant =
Resistance x Storage.
 The same procedure is repeated by changing the tubes of different diameter and
lengths.
Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
 Take readings perfectly
Observations and Calculations:
1st Run:
Length of the tube = 50 cm
Inner Diameter of tube = 1.3 cm
No. Initial level Final level Mean level Volume Time Flowrate= V/t
(cm) (cm) (cm) (ml) (sec) (ml/sec)
1. 34 33 33.5 1350 11.64 115.97
2. 33 31 32 1900 16.87 112.62

30
 Graph:
Flow Rate vs Mean Height
100
80

Flowrate
60
40
20
0
25.5 26 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29
Mean Height (cm)

Slope = Resistance = R= 0.42 sec/cm2

Storage= πD2/4= 1.3273 cm2
Time Constant = R × Storage
Time Constant = 0.557 seconds
2nd Run:
Length of the tube = 70 cm
Inner Diameter of tube = 1.3 cm

No. Initial level Final level Mean level Volume Time Flowrate= V/t
(cm) (cm) (cm) (ml) (sec) (ml/sec)
1. 31 29 30 2200 14.26 154.2
2. 29 28 28.5 900 6.82 150

Graph:
Flow Rate vs Mean Height
100
80
Flowrate

60
40
20
0
25.5 26 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29
Mean Height (cm)

Slope = Resistance = R= 1.35 sec/cm2

Storage= πD2/4=1.327 cm2
Time Constant = R × Storage
Time Constant = 1.79 seconds

31
 3rd Run:
Length of the tube = 90 cm
Inner Diameter of tube = 1.3cm
No. Initial level Final level Mean level Volume Time Flowrate= V/t
(cm) (cm) (cm) (ml) (sec) (ml/sec)
1 28 27 27.5 950 14.04 67.8
2 27 25 26 2220 28.01 79.2

Graph:
Flow Rate vs Mean Height
100
80
Flowrate

60
40
20
0
25.5 26 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29
Mean Height (cm)

Slope = Resistance = R= 1.35 sec/cm2

Storage= πD2/4= 1.327 m2
Time Constant = R × Storage
Time Constant = 1.75 seconds
Result and Discussion:
By this experiment, we can calculate time constant of any system provided the flow rates and at the
height of the system so we can use them to find our time constant.

32
Experiment - 6
Objective:
Determination of the gain of the first order level system.
Apparatus:
 Tank
 Liquid level control system
 Flowmeter
 Portable compressor

Figure 23: Liquid Level Control Rig

Theory:
Level controllers are automated units for measuring the level of fluid in a contained area.
They're used in systems Figure
that 24: Liquid
require Level Control
monitoring, Rig
regulating, and controlling liquid levels and
preventing them from becoming excessively high or low.
The control of liquid levels, for example in a process tank, is an important function. An example
would be a hot water tank where water is removed, perhaps for washing down, and the level
needs to be restored ready for the next wash cycle. The water supply is controlled via a
pneumatic valve. Water is pumped into a precision machined cast acrylic measurement tank.
The flow to which can either be manually controlled or automatically controlled by a vessel
level monitor/controller.

Procedure:
 Fill the level in the tank through bypass valve of the control valve.
 Switch on the compressor and analyze the current value of level on the controller.
 Initially analyze the inlet flowrate of the tank through Rota meter.
 Change the inlet flowrate by changing the opening of control valve and analyze the variation
in level.
 The change in level provides the output change while the input change can be measure
through Rota meter.
 The gain can be estimated by ratio of change in output and input.
 The same procedure is repeated to get the 5-6 reading.

Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
 Carefully use the thermocouple and hotplate.
 Immediately switch off the compressor if there is any spark in its power plug.

Discussion:
In this system, we have a pneumatic valve which is being operated by the compressor and at
certain height in the tank, the pneumatic valve open or closes and adjusts the level of liquid in the
tank automatically.

33
Experiment 7:
Objective:
Analyze the dynamics of flow system using proportional, integral and
derivative controllers in PLC control system.
Apparatus:
 PLC control system
Theory:
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a small, modular solid state computer with
customized instructions for performing a particular task. PLCs, which are used in industrial
control systems (ICS) for a wide variety of industries, have largely replaced mechanical
relays, drum sequencers and cam timers.

Figure 25: PLC System

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm

used in industry and has been universally
Figure 26:accepted in industrial control. The popularity of
PLC System
PID controllers can be attributed partly to their robust performance in a wide range of
operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which allows engineers to
operate them in a simple, straightforward manner. Process variable is the system
parameter that needs to be controlled. The set point is the desired or command value for
the process variable.

Figure 27: Diagram of Closed Loop System

The control design process begins by defining the performance requirements. Control
system performance is often measured by applying a step function as the set point
Figure 28: Diagram of Closed Loop System
command variable, and then measuring the response of the process variable. Commonly,
the response is quantified by measuring defined waveform characteristics. Rise Time is the
amount of time the system takes to go from 10% to 90% of the steady-state, or final, value.
Percent Overshoot is the amount that the process variable overshoots the final value,
expressed as a percentage of the final value. Settling time is the time required for the
process variable to settle to within a certain percentage (commonly 5%) of the final value.

34
Steady-State Error is the final difference between the process variable and set point. Note
that the exact definition of these quantities will vary in industry and academia.

Figure 29: Response of a typical PID closed loop system

Proportional Response:
Figure 30:
The proportional Response
component of a typical
depends PID
only on theclosed loopbetween
difference system the set
point and the process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The
proportional gain (K) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal. For
instance, if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would
produce a proportional response of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will
increase the speed of the control system response. However, if the proportional gain is
too large, the process variable will begin to oscillate. If K is increased further, the
oscillations will become larger and the system will become unstable and may even
oscillate out of control.
Integral Response:
The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a
small error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral
response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to
drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between
the process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when
integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal
toward zero.
Derivative Response:
The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable
is increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of
the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (T) parameter will cause the control
system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed
of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use very small
derivative time (T), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the
process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate
is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable.
Advantages of Using PLCs:
PLCs have been a standard element of industrial machinery design for many
decades. What advantages do PLCs offer that make them such a popular choice?

35
  PLCs are fairly intuitive to program. Their programming languages are simple
in comparison to other industrial control systems, which makes PLCs great for
businesses that want to minimize complexity and costs.
 PLCs are a mature technology with years of testing and analysis backing them
up. It’s easy to find robust research about many different PLC types and
comprehensive tutorials for programming and integrating them.
 PLCs are available at a wide range of price points, including many extremely
affordable basic models that small businesses and startups often use.
 PLCs are extremely versatile, and most PLC models are suitable for controlling
a wide variety of processes and systems.
 PLCs are completely solid-state devices, which means they have no moving
parts. That makes them exceptionally reliable and abler to survive the
challenging conditions present in many industrial facilities.
 PLCs have relatively few components, which makes them easier to
troubleshoot and helps reduce maintenance downtime.
 PLCs are efficient and don’t consume very much electrical power. This helps
conserve energy and may simplify wiring considerations.
Drawbacks of Using PLCs:
No technology is perfect for every scenario, and there are some applications for
which PLCs aren’t the best choice. Let’s look at some of the most significant potential
drawbacks of using PLCs.
 PLCs have less capacity to handle extremely complex data or large numbers of
processes that involve analog rather than discrete inputs. As manufacturing
facilities become more integrated and involved, increasing numbers of them may
shift toward a distributed control system or another alternative industrial control
method.
 PLCs from different manufacturers often use proprietary programming software.
This makes PLC programming interfaces less interoperable than they might be,
especially considering that their programming languages share common
standards (see below).
 PLCs, like many other types of electronic equipment, are vulnerable to
electromagnetic interference (EMI). They can also experience other kinds of
common electronics malfunctions such as corrupted memory and communication
failures.
Tuning:
The process of setting the optimal gains for P, I & D to get an ideal response from a
control system is called Tuning.

Procedure:
 Switch on the computer system as well as PLC control system.
 Open FLTP-Flow-PID-Control from FLTP file in Start button and then in programs.
 Click on the open button and the open the file of topology.
 Make connection of control system according to topology given in the figure below.
 Adjust the valves according to the experiment.

36
  Switch on the pump and observe the value of flow system in PV (process variable)
and SP (Set Point). The PV and SP are represented by Yellow and Red lines
respectively.
 Observe the initial values of PV and SP. Change SP value through Knob and
analyze the graphical response.
 Change the P, I and D value so that margin between PV and SP can be minimized.
 Perform 4 tests and minimize the difference between two lines of graph.
 Take snapshot of the graphical results at each test.

Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
 Ensure proper working of PLC control system.
 Carefully adjust the control system according to topology.
Observations and Calculations:
PLC is used to control several variables once or at the same time it can be used to
control other variables too. It is computer operated program and gives good result of what
input is applied to them. By closing the valves and directing the flow through it with
controlling flow rate through it, this system automatically adjusts the flow rate of the system
of what command is given to them.

Figure 31: Topology for flow control

Figure 32: Topology for flow control

37
Experiment 8:
Objective:
Analyze the dynamics of pressure system using proportional, integral
and derivative controllers in PLC control system.

Apparatus:
 PLC control system
Theory:
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a small, modular solid state computer with
customized instructions for performing a particular task. PLCs, which are used in industrial
control systems (ICS) for a wide variety of industries, have largely replaced mechanical
relays, drum sequencers and cam timers.

Figure 33: PLC System

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm

used in industry and has been universally accepted in industrial control. The popularity of
PID controllers can be attributed partly to their robust performance in a wide range of
operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which allows engineers to
operate them in a simple, straightforward manner. Process variable is the system
parameter that needs to be controlled. The set point is the desired or command value for
the process variable.

Figure 34: Diagram of Closed Loop System

The control design process begins by defining the performance requirements. Control
system performance is often measured by applying a step function as the set point
Figure 35: Diagram of Closed Loop System
command variable, and then measuring the response of the process variable. Commonly,
the response is quantified by measuring defined waveform characteristics. Rise Time is the
amount of time the system takes to go from 10% to 90% of the steady-state, or final, value.
Percent Overshoot is the amount that the process variable overshoots the final value,
expressed as a percentage of the final value. Settling time is the time required for the

38
process variable to settle to within a certain percentage (commonly 5%) of the final value.
Steady-State Error is the final difference between the process variable and set point. Note
that the exact definition of these quantities will vary in industry and academia.

Figure 36: Response of a typical PID closed loop system

Proportional Response:
Figure 37:
The proportional Response
component of a typical
depends PID
only on theclosed loopbetween
difference system the set
point and the process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The
proportional gain (K) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal. For
instance, if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would
produce a proportional response of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will
increase the speed of the control system response. However, if the proportional gain is
too large, the process variable will begin to oscillate. If K is increased further, the
oscillations will become larger and the system will become unstable and may even
oscillate out of control.
Integral Response:
The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a
small error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral
response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to
drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between
the process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when
integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal
toward zero.
Derivative Response:
The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable
is increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of
the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (T) parameter will cause the control
system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed
of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use very small
derivative time (T), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the
process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate
is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable.
Advantages of Using PLCs:
PLCs have been a standard element of industrial machinery design for many
decades. What advantages do PLCs offer that make them such a popular choice?

39
  PLCs are fairly intuitive to program. Their programming languages are simple
in comparison to other industrial control systems, which makes PLCs great for
businesses that want to minimize complexity and costs.
 PLCs are a mature technology with years of testing and analysis backing them
up. It’s easy to find robust research about many different PLC types and
comprehensive tutorials for programming and integrating them.
 PLCs are available at a wide range of price points, including many extremely
affordable basic models that small businesses and startups often use.
 PLCs are extremely versatile, and most PLC models are suitable for controlling
a wide variety of processes and systems.
 PLCs are completely solid-state devices, which means they have no moving
parts. That makes them exceptionally reliable and abler to survive the
challenging conditions present in many industrial facilities.
 PLCs have relatively few components, which makes them easier to
troubleshoot and helps reduce maintenance downtime.
 PLCs are efficient and don’t consume very much electrical power. This helps
conserve energy and may simplify wiring considerations.
Drawbacks of Using PLCs:
No technology is perfect for every scenario, and there are some applications for
which PLCs aren’t the best choice. Let’s look at some of the most significant potential
drawbacks of using PLCs.
 PLCs have less capacity to handle extremely complex data or large numbers of
processes that involve analog rather than discrete inputs. As manufacturing
facilities become more integrated and involved, increasing numbers of them may
shift toward a distributed control system or another alternative industrial control
method.
 PLCs from different manufacturers often use proprietary programming software.
This makes PLC programming interfaces less interoperable than they might be,
especially considering that their programming languages share common
standards (see below).
 PLCs, like many other types of electronic equipment, are vulnerable to
electromagnetic interference (EMI). They can also experience other kinds of
common electronics malfunctions such as corrupted memory and communication
failures.
Tuning:
The process of setting the optimal gains for P, I & D to get an ideal response from a
control system is called Tuning.

Procedure:
 Switch on the computer system as well as PLC control system.
 Open FLTP-Flow-PID-Control from FLTP file in Start button and then in programs.
 Click on the open button and the open the file of topology.
 Make connection of control system according to topology given in the figure below.
 Adjust the valves according to the experiment.

40
  Switch on the pump and observe the value of flow system in PV (process variable)
and SP (Set Point). The PV and SP are represented by Yellow and Red lines
respectively.
 Observe the initial values of PV and SP. Change SP value through Knob and
analyze the graphical response.
 Change the P, I and D value so that margin between PV and SP can be minimized.
 Perform 4 tests and minimize the difference between two lines of graph.
 Take snapshot of the graphical results at each test.

Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
 Ensure proper working of PLC control system.
 Carefully adjust the control system according to topology.
Observations and Calculations:
PLC is used to control several variables once or at the same time it can be used to
control other variables too. It is computer operated program and gives good result of what
input is applied to them. By closing the valves and directing the flow through it with
controlling flow rate through it, this system automatically adjusts the flow rate of the system
of what command is given to them.

Figure 38: Topology for flow control

Figure 39: Topology for flow control

41
Experiment 9:
Objective:
Analyze the dynamics of temperature system using proportional, integral
and derivative controllers in PLC control system.

Apparatus:
 PLC control system
Theory:
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a small, modular solid state computer with
customized instructions for performing a particular task. PLCs, which are used in industrial
control systems (ICS) for a wide variety of industries, have largely replaced mechanical
relays, drum sequencers and cam timers.

Figure 40: PLC System

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm

used in industry and has been universally
Figure 41:accepted in industrial control. The popularity of
PLC System
PID controllers can be attributed partly to their robust performance in a wide range of
operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which allows engineers to
operate them in a simple, straightforward manner. Process variable is the system
parameter that needs to be controlled. The set point is the desired or command value for
the process variable.

Figure 42: Diagram of Closed Loop System

The control design process begins by defining the performance requirements. Control
system performance is often measured by applying a step function as the set point
Figure 43: Diagram of Closed Loop System
command variable, and then measuring the response of the process variable. Commonly,
the response is quantified by measuring defined waveform characteristics. Rise Time is the
amount of time the system takes to go from 10% to 90% of the steady-state, or final, value.
Percent Overshoot is the amount that the process variable overshoots the final value,
expressed as a percentage of the final value. Settling time is the time required for the

42
process variable to settle to within a certain percentage (commonly 5%) of the final value.
Steady-State Error is the final difference between the process variable and set point. Note
that the exact definition of these quantities will vary in industry and academia.

Figure 44: Response of a typical PID closed loop system

Proportional Response:
Figure 45:
The proportional Response
component of a typical
depends PID
only on theclosed loopbetween
difference system the set
point and the process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The
proportional gain (K) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal. For
instance, if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would
produce a proportional response of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will
increase the speed of the control system response. However, if the proportional gain is
too large, the process variable will begin to oscillate. If K is increased further, the
oscillations will become larger and the system will become unstable and may even
oscillate out of control.
Integral Response:
The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a
small error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral
response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to
drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between
the process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when
integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal
toward zero.
Derivative Response:
The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable
is increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of
the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (T) parameter will cause the control
system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed
of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use very small
derivative time (T), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the
process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate
is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable.
Advantages of Using PLCs:
PLCs have been a standard element of industrial machinery design for many
decades. What advantages do PLCs offer that make them such a popular choice?

43
  PLCs are fairly intuitive to program. Their programming languages are simple
in comparison to other industrial control systems, which makes PLCs great for
businesses that want to minimize complexity and costs.
 PLCs are a mature technology with years of testing and analysis backing them
up. It’s easy to find robust research about many different PLC types and
comprehensive tutorials for programming and integrating them.
 PLCs are available at a wide range of price points, including many extremely
affordable basic models that small businesses and startups often use.
 PLCs are extremely versatile, and most PLC models are suitable for controlling
a wide variety of processes and systems.
 PLCs are completely solid-state devices, which means they have no moving
parts. That makes them exceptionally reliable and abler to survive the
challenging conditions present in many industrial facilities.
 PLCs have relatively few components, which makes them easier to
troubleshoot and helps reduce maintenance downtime.
 PLCs are efficient and don’t consume very much electrical power. This helps
conserve energy and may simplify wiring considerations.
Drawbacks of Using PLCs:
No technology is perfect for every scenario, and there are some applications for
which PLCs aren’t the best choice. Let’s look at some of the most significant potential
drawbacks of using PLCs.
 PLCs have less capacity to handle extremely complex data or large numbers of
processes that involve analog rather than discrete inputs. As manufacturing
facilities become more integrated and involved, increasing numbers of them may
shift toward a distributed control system or another alternative industrial control
method.
 PLCs from different manufacturers often use proprietary programming software.
This makes PLC programming interfaces less interoperable than they might be,
especially considering that their programming languages share common
standards (see below).
 PLCs, like many other types of electronic equipment, are vulnerable to
electromagnetic interference (EMI). They can also experience other kinds of
common electronics malfunctions such as corrupted memory and communication
failures.
Tuning:
The process of setting the optimal gains for P, I & D to get an ideal response from a
control system is called Tuning.

Procedure:
 Switch on the computer system as well as PLC control system.
 Open FLTP-Flow-PID-Control from FLTP file in Start button and then in programs.
 Click on the open button and the open the file of topology.
 Make connection of control system according to topology given in the figure below.
 Adjust the valves according to the experiment.

44
  Switch on the pump and observe the value of flow system in PV (process variable)
and SP (Set Point). The PV and SP are represented by Yellow and Red lines
respectively.
 Observe the initial values of PV and SP. Change SP value through Knob and
analyze the graphical response.
 Change the P, I and D value so that margin between PV and SP can be minimized.
 Perform 4 tests and minimize the difference between two lines of graph.
 Take snapshot of the graphical results at each test.

Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
 Ensure proper working of PLC control system.
 Carefully adjust the control system according to topology.
Observations and Calculations:
PLC is used to control several variables once or at the same time it can be used to
control other variables too. It is computer operated program and gives good result of what
input is applied to them. By closing the valves and directing the flow through it with
controlling flow rate through it, this system automatically adjusts the flow rate of the system
of what command is given to them.

Figure 46: Topology for flow control

Figure 47: Topology for flow control

45
Experiment 7:
Objective:
Analyze the dynamics of level system using proportional, integral and
derivative controllers in PLC control system.

Apparatus:
 PLC control system
Theory:
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a small, modular solid state computer with
customized instructions for performing a particular task. PLCs, which are used in industrial
control systems (ICS) for a wide variety of industries, have largely replaced mechanical
relays, drum sequencers and cam timers.

Figure 48: PLC System

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm

used in industry and has been universally
Figure 49:accepted in industrial control. The popularity of
PLC System
PID controllers can be attributed partly to their robust performance in a wide range of
operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which allows engineers to
operate them in a simple, straightforward manner. Process variable is the system
parameter that needs to be controlled. The set point is the desired or command value for
the process variable.

Figure 50: Diagram of Closed Loop System

The control design process begins by defining the performance requirements. Control
system performance is often measured by applying a step function as the set point
Figure 51: Diagram of Closed Loop System
command variable, and then measuring the response of the process variable. Commonly,
the response is quantified by measuring defined waveform characteristics. Rise Time is the
amount of time the system takes to go from 10% to 90% of the steady-state, or final, value.
Percent Overshoot is the amount that the process variable overshoots the final value,
expressed as a percentage of the final value. Settling time is the time required for the

46
process variable to settle to within a certain percentage (commonly 5%) of the final value.
Steady-State Error is the final difference between the process variable and set point. Note
that the exact definition of these quantities will vary in industry and academia.

Figure 52: Response of a typical PID closed loop system

Proportional Response:
Figure 53:
The proportional Response
component of a typical
depends PID
only on theclosed loopbetween
difference system the set
point and the process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The
proportional gain (K) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal. For
instance, if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would
produce a proportional response of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will
increase the speed of the control system response. However, if the proportional gain is
too large, the process variable will begin to oscillate. If K is increased further, the
oscillations will become larger and the system will become unstable and may even
oscillate out of control.
Integral Response:
The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a
small error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral
response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to
drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between
the process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when
integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal
toward zero.
Derivative Response:
The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable
is increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of
the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (T) parameter will cause the control
system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed
of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use very small
derivative time (T), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the
process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate
is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable.
Advantages of Using PLCs:
PLCs have been a standard element of industrial machinery design for many
decades. What advantages do PLCs offer that make them such a popular choice?

47
  PLCs are fairly intuitive to program. Their programming languages are simple
in comparison to other industrial control systems, which makes PLCs great for
businesses that want to minimize complexity and costs.
 PLCs are a mature technology with years of testing and analysis backing them
up. It’s easy to find robust research about many different PLC types and
comprehensive tutorials for programming and integrating them.
 PLCs are available at a wide range of price points, including many extremely
affordable basic models that small businesses and startups often use.
 PLCs are extremely versatile, and most PLC models are suitable for controlling
a wide variety of processes and systems.
 PLCs are completely solid-state devices, which means they have no moving
parts. That makes them exceptionally reliable and abler to survive the
challenging conditions present in many industrial facilities.
 PLCs have relatively few components, which makes them easier to
troubleshoot and helps reduce maintenance downtime.
 PLCs are efficient and don’t consume very much electrical power. This helps
conserve energy and may simplify wiring considerations.
Drawbacks of Using PLCs:
No technology is perfect for every scenario, and there are some applications for
which PLCs aren’t the best choice. Let’s look at some of the most significant potential
drawbacks of using PLCs.
 PLCs have less capacity to handle extremely complex data or large numbers of
processes that involve analog rather than discrete inputs. As manufacturing
facilities become more integrated and involved, increasing numbers of them may
shift toward a distributed control system or another alternative industrial control
method.
 PLCs from different manufacturers often use proprietary programming software.
This makes PLC programming interfaces less interoperable than they might be,
especially considering that their programming languages share common
standards (see below).
 PLCs, like many other types of electronic equipment, are vulnerable to
electromagnetic interference (EMI). They can also experience other kinds of
common electronics malfunctions such as corrupted memory and communication
failures.
Tuning:
The process of setting the optimal gains for P, I & D to get an ideal response from a
control system is called Tuning.

Procedure:
 Switch on the computer system as well as PLC control system.
 Open FLTP-Flow-PID-Control from FLTP file in Start button and then in programs.
 Click on the open button and the open the file of topology.
 Make connection of control system according to topology given in the figure below.
 Adjust the valves according to the experiment.

48
  Switch on the pump and observe the value of flow system in PV (process variable)
and SP (Set Point). The PV and SP are represented by Yellow and Red lines
respectively.
 Observe the initial values of PV and SP. Change SP value through Knob and
analyze the graphical response.
 Change the P, I and D value so that margin between PV and SP can be minimized.
 Perform 4 tests and minimize the difference between two lines of graph.
 Take snapshot of the graphical results at each test.

Safety Precautions:
 Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
 Ensure proper working of PLC control system.
 Carefully adjust the control system according to topology.
Observations and Calculations:
PLC is used to control several variables once or at the same time it can be used to
control other variables too. It is computer operated program and gives good result of what
input is applied to them. By closing the valves and directing the flow through it with
controlling flow rate through it, this system automatically adjusts the flow rate of the system
of what command is given to them.

Figure 54: Topology for flow control

Figure 55: Topology for flow control

49
References:
1. Ltd, P. P. (n.d.). Process Parameters Ltd. Retrieved from Process Parameters Ltd:
https://www.processparameters.co.uk/about-process-parameters/
2. Pyrosales. (n.d.). Pyrosales. Retrieved from Pyrosales:
https://www.pyrosales.com.au/about-us/
3. Instrumentation & Control Lab Manual
4. Hussein, E. (1987). Elemad 1987. Retrieved from
https://sites.google.com/site/elemad1987/omda
5. electrical4u. (n.d.). electrical4u. Retrieved from
https://www.electrical4u.com/potentiometer/
6. Reddy, S. B. (n.d.). Insta Tools. Retrieved from
https://instrumentationtools.com/about/
7. Coach, E. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://electronicscoach.com/liquid-level-control-
system.html
8. polycase. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.polycase.com/about-us

50