iratory System an d Environments! © jyysj 1 1YSiOlogy 518] section 9 * Resp ressure of carbon dioxide fro; m hemogiog; is 52 mL% partial p carbon di is mm Hg. The carbon dioxide conten’ becomes 70 mL% when the partial pressure is about 400 mm Hg (Fig. 82.8)- oe” s the effect by which combi- globin di laces Haldane Effec Haldane effect i nation of oxygen with hemo: ess of oxygen conte; content i in, of the carbon dioxide th bloog oan’ the right. oe Significance of Haldane eff, fect CU Cation ¢ Haldane's effect is essential carbon dioxide from blood j for rey of lungs and uptake of ed the Y the S Grtral & pose saad) & ett Chandu cundzed tu. mayes WS Medkudlo- = ¢regulation of Respiration po INTRODUCTION 1 NTRODUCTION zpiation is a reflex process. But itcan be srtled voluntarily also. Voluntary arrest ‘insiration (voluntary apnea) is possible ‘tyra short period of about 40 seconds. “never, by practice, breathing can be ‘sted for a long period. At the end of that 04, he person is forced to breathe. However, normally, the quiet regular “ting takes place because of regulatory Sa nisms, te ration is regulated by two mecha- ts ae or neural mechanism. ical mechanism. Vie NOUS MECHANISM mex thay ud jeg msm that regulates respira- “rang gf 8Plalory centers, afferent ferent nerves, 1s NERVOUS MECHANISM m RESPIRATORY CENTERS m CONNECTIONS OF RESPIRATORY CENTERS INTEGRATION OF RESPIRATORY C m FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATO! gf CHEMICAL MECHANISM @ CENTRAL CHEMORECE! 0 @ PERIPHERAL CHEMOR C+ (espa centers hich contro! the rate, Bs lena | Passed ats | unu | , Apt | wud a : —_—— 2, Ossol estab, ENTERS ye respiration, Th situated in’reticular form ation of the brail stem (Fig. 83.1). D eo riding upon the si tion in the brainste 2 respiratory cer are classified into ne ‘groups - Ms centers whichr4re made up of Dorsal respiratory group of neurons ii, Ventral respiratory group of neurons. 2. Pontine centers which are: i, Pneumotaxic center, ii, Apneustic center) (oy @ MEDULLARY CENTERS Toawsen® C Chae i, Dorsal Respiratory Group of Neurons CSaunnon) \ Dorsal respiratory group of neurons are responsible for basic rhythm of respiration GC= Pons O~O \ | Q | i Medulla § Chemoreceptors \ \ ind Environment) 4 ‘ology jratory Syston a! a8 section 9 * ROS? — Prourotaric contor --—-f---- Apnoustic contor - Dorsal group neurons, Ventral group neurons \ —— Vagus nerve) FIGURE 83.1: Nervous regulation of respiration (see below for detai ols stimula- tion of these neuron: animals causes contraction of ingpiratory muscles and pro- longed insratony ii, Ventral Respirato Group of Neurons CE § 5 We ) (Baal respiratory group of neurons are ina- /e during quiet breathing in) ag active during forced breathin; i J ig) Durin forced breathing, these Neuron: stimulate both inspiratory’ muscles and expiratory muscles. Cétbctrca stimulation ifatory muscles ay ration//'S} causes contraction of expiratory musces and prolonged expiration a @ PONTINE CENTERS Pneumotaxic Center The pneumotaxic center controls the met lary respiratory centers, particularly the & sal groypyneurons. It acts through apnees* center. (ine pneumotaxic center inns apneustic center nf the dorsal group neurons is inhibited{fBecause gf ths 7 ration stops and expiration starts) Tus pneumotaxic center influences tf sw between inspiration and expiration. The pneumotaxic center inca respiratory rate by reducing the au" inspiration. e ses nolChapter a3 neumotaxic center f j on Froxpiration by inhibit spongeneriratory group of neurons Bh ysal eo Sy apneu ig center increases the depth acting directly on the dorsal i jration ‘ee rons : xf ea fation of apneustic center @ Stn Apneusis is an abnormal 3 rized by prolonged inspiration Cty sor. inefficient expiratio be NECTIONS OF 1 ORATORY CENTERS \ ret Pathway ‘oe nene bers from the respiratory cen- lene brainstem and descend in spinal “4ané terminate on the motor neurons ate anterior horn cells of ical and sortie segments of spinal cord) From the str neurons 94 spinal cord(two sets of fibers ari ‘{ Phrenic nerve fibers (C3 to C5) which Sspply the diaphragm. 2 The intercostal nerve fibers (T1 to T11) which supply the external intercostal muscles.) Ment Pathway EP ae ftom peripheral chemoreceptors “oreceptors are carried to the respi- Papi by the branches of glosso- vag 2 and vagus nerves. Vagal nérve a carry impulses from the stretch qf 78 Of lungs to the respiratory con- Ms, ting fespiratory centers receive “Aand Ul8es from different parts of the & suis the movements of tho- : lungs accordi y “Mane gangs accordingly throug fu Peg ye sLyt (Inspiratory ramp is the pattern of dischai 2 Costrncrher cnt, 4 wuptnalscn * Regulation of Respiration —— J INTEGRATION OF RESPIRATORY CENTERS Role of Medullary Centers Rhythmic discharge of inspiratory impulses Dorsal respiratory group neurons maintain the normal rhythm of respiration)by rhyth- mic discharge of impulses (actfon poten- tials), rece Ginuses are transmitted to the respiratory gmuscles by phrenic and int- ercostal nerves Inspiratory ramp | > Nap agra A ns char im dorsal respiratory group neu! acterized by steady incre of the action potential amplitude of th the action pot impulses of thi group neurons are called ins; signals. The impulses from d rons are produced only f seconds during which inspiratio After 2 seconds, the ramp signals stop abruptly and do not appear for a seconds. The switching off ramp signals causes expiration. At the end of 3 seconds, the inspiratory ramp signals reappear in the same pattern, and the cycle is repeated e of firing ator Significance of inspiratory ramp signals he significance of inspiratory ramp signals is that there is a slow and steady inspiration the filling of lungs with air is also Role of Pontine Centers nters regulate the (PBntine respiratory Ynedullary centers: apneustic centerSection 9 * Respiratory System and Environmental Ph ~~ _-r[lnspiration ‘ DEWAN te activity of dorsal group of eurong and the stimulation of this center, es prolonged inspiration, The pneumotaxic center inhibits the aphelstic center and restricts the duration of inspiration) @ FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATORY CENTERS The respiratory centers regulate the respi- ratory movements, by receiving impulses from various sources in the body. 4. Impulses from Higher Centers Higher centers alter the respiration by send- ing impulses directly to the dorsal group mowone( The impulses from various parts cerebral cortex such as anterior cingu- & gyrus, olfactory tubercle and poste- F orbital gyrus inhibit the respiration The impulses from motor area and-Sylvishrarga- of cerebral cortex cause forced breathing.) pulses from Stretch Receptors of ‘ungs: Hering-Breuer Reflex Hering-Breuer reflex is a protective reflex that restricts the inspiration and prevents overstretching of lung tissues. It is initiated by the stimulation of stretch receptors of air passage. Stretch receptors give response to give of the issues. (During inspiration, ere is stretching of lungs due to entrance of air resulting in stimulation of stretch rece- ig tors)Th inuiseom stretch receptors (ass through vagaff afferent fibers to respi- s “ralory centers and inhibit the dorsal group \ neurons. {So inspiration stops and expira- tion star }Fig. 83.2). )Thus, the overstretch- ing of lung tissues ie’prevented. 7— However, Hering-Breuer reflex does not operate during quiet beating operates, only when the tidal volumb—ificreases beyond 1,000 mL. Inhibition of OGN Impulses through vagal afferents Stimulation of stretch receptors in air passage FIGURE 83.2: Hering-B: = Dorsal respirato: Dashed red = Inhibition. inflation refey 3OUP Of neurons is reflex is also c: inflation refley)since oc! it irs due 49 inftation of lungs durifig inspira Tn(erere of this reflex is called Hering-Brevet defiaton reflex s it takes place during expiratio®) & Hering-Brever During‘expiration as the stretching of lunge” is abolisfied, the deflation of Jungs occug) 3. Nnpulses frdm ‘J’ Receptors of Lung G2 receptors are juxtacapillary recestos Which are present on the wall of the alveol and having close contact with the pulmonary capillaries. The stimulation of the ‘' receptors Pe duces a reflex response, which is char acterized by apnea Apnea is folowed hyperventilation) The Tole of ‘J’ receptors physiological, Sonditions is not clear. Ho ever, these{ receptors are responsi ta hyperventilation in the patients affects pulmonary congestion and left heart 4. Impulses from Irritant Receptors of Lungs rs, there is anos h nchi fol nd Besides stretch recept bro af type of (feceptors in the “afatntal (pout)nt receptors) The joles ed i be we gtd ae oe ‘guch_as ammonia and Me) of irritant recopiong produ oir" ventilation along with bron- as Hyperventilation along with so events further entry of =s025m the alveoli ron ful agents into the alveoli. is im pulses from Baroreceptors receptors are the receptors which nab rome to change in blood pressure. 2 pact 70 for details of barorecep- & ws ction ever arterial blood pressure increa- es paroreceptors are activated and send -pitory impulses to vasomotor center in redulla oblongata. This causes decrease inblood pressure and inhibition of respira- However, in physiological conditions, te role of aroreceptors in regulation of rexration is insignificant. &. Impulses from Chemoreceptors Chemoreceptors play an important role in te chemical regulation of respiration. The #als of the chemoreceptors and chemical ‘"aultion of respiration are explained later ‘this chapter. 1. Impulses from Proprioceptors ‘erorentors are the(receptors, which ale by ise to the change in the position by dy These receptors are(sjjuated in tendons and muscles) The proprio- tte areGtimulated duririg the muscular aferent ortexthrough som- “ses nerves (Cerebral cortex in turn bes p/Petventilation) by sending imp- ‘spiratory centers. Chapte " 8. Impulses from Thermoreceptors ermoreceptors are the cutaneous recep- cmvemich give response to change in the ae ental temperature. There are two Wye lemperature receptors, namely, Teceptors for cold and the 1 warmth. When the body is expose! or when cold water is applied over the the cold receptors are stimulated and, impulses to cerebral cortex via somatic afferent nerves. Cerebral cortex in turn sti= mulates the respiratory centers and causes hyperventilation. : eptors for to cold body, 9. Impulses from Pain Receptors The pain receptors are those wh response to pain stimulus. Whenev receptors are stimul sent to the cerebral a t nerves. Cer he respir ventilation. a o a, & CHEMICAL MECHANI The chemical mechanism o Tespiration is operated t receptors which give re changes in blood such =) Ce po (decreased PO,). —Hypercapnia (increased PCO.) 3, Increased hydrogen ion concentration, au’ Clee pore Types of Chemoreceptor®) jemoreceptors are classified into two groups: Pai Gud - 4. CentraXthemoreceptors. “Peripheral chemoreceptors.) mm CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS Tag Guomorocontors present in brain arecaied the central chemoreceptors, hese chemoreceptors See usted in thedulla cna se to dorsal respiratory group of neurons.Sectior ra Mechanism of Action main stimulant for the central chemore- he n Cie increased hydrogen ion con- Zéptors is the i centration) * —~ / However, i{hydrogen ion concentration ingré4ses in the blood, it cannot stimulate the central chemoreceptors pecause, the hydrogen ions from blood Gafhnot cross the bleod-brain barrie) and blood cerebrospinal fluid barrier. On the other nana( carbon dioxide increases in the blood, 1fcan easily cross the blood-brain barrier and blood cerebro- spinal fluid barrier and enter the interstic tial fluid of brain or the cerebrospinal ti) There, the carbon dioxide combines wi water to form carbonic acid. Since carbon- ic acid is unstable, it immediately dissoci- ates into hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion (Fig. 83.3). €6,+H,0—+ 4,00,» H+ Hoo, Mild effect Mild effect Increased H* in blood Stimulation of dorsal group of neurons Efferent impulses to respiratory muscles Increased ventilation n 9 * Respiratory System and Environmental Physiology The hydrogen jons stimutay cha aecont|Sporc ty send stimulator impulses ease in ratory group of neurons causing es ventilation )fincreased rate Bah ‘ breathingy{Because of this, the, bon dioxide is washed out ang to tion is brought back to normal\ FeSpirg, @ PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEpTo, RS, Chemoreceptors present in the caro aortic region are called periphera, ai receptors. Refer Chapter 70 for detaig AAS, Mechanism of Action ( \ \ Reduction in partial pr: the most potent stimu! eral chemoreceptors. ure of oxygen i for the perish Formation of HY ‘Slimulation of cent! " chemoreceP! FIGURE 83.3: Chemical regulation of respirationpler 83 & Regul tt lation of Respiration ' ne i 525 | Heri nerves. These — This provides enough oxygen and rectifies artic in oo respiratory centers, — the Jack of oxy i ic igen, reat al group of neurons and The peripheral chemoreceptors are Tyee the Je al group of neurons mildly, semsiten to the increased partial foi " ip impulses to respiratory — pressure of carbon satin increased eye ! ntilation) hydrogen ne concentra Bega sme Ir is usher.” a room i ah cook awh ——Aphyaf Ee te Pao OP a)