BASIC ELECTRICAL

QUANTITIES; SYSTEM OF UNITS;

CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

CHAPTER - 2
 CHAPTER – 2 CONTENT
 History of Electricity and Electronics
 Electronic Components
 Units
 Scientific Notations
 Molecules and Atomic Structure
 Electric Charges
 The Motion of Electric Charge
 Electric Current
 Direct Current and Alternating Current
 Electric Potential and Voltage
 Voltage and Current Sources
 Resistance
 Relationship between the Temperature and
Resistance
 Wire Sizes
 Load Resistance
9/28/2022 Resistors 2
BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
 600 B.C., Greeks discovered that certain substances, when
rub with fur, caused other substances to be attracted to
them.
 Thales of Miletus (640 B.C. – 546 B.C.) – among the first to
observe the attraction of amber for small fibrous materials
and bits of straw.
AMBER – greek word is elektron, the root word for electricity.
 Sir William Gilbert (1544 – 1603) – many substances could
be electrified by friction
All fundamental properties of electricity and magnetism can be
traced to the state or motion of something called electric charge.
 Charles F. DuFay (1698 – 1739) – Frenchman –
Experimented the conduction of electricity
9/28/2022 3
BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
 Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790) – introduced the terms
positive (+) and negative (-) to describe the two types of
electricity
 Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736 – 1806) – proved the
laws of attraction and repulsion. Formulated the Coulomb’s
Law.
“The force acting between two charges is directly proportional to the
product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distances between the charges”
 Alessandro Volta (1796) – proved that electricity could be
produced if unlike metals separated by moistened paper
were brought into contact. First battery was made.
9/28/2022 4
BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
 Hans Christian Oersted (1777 – 1851) – a current-carrying
wire influenced the orientation of a nearby compass needle
– origin of magnetic field called electromagnetism.
 George Simon Ohm (1787 – 1854) – observed that the
electrical resistance of metallic conductors remains constant
over wide ranges of potential difference. Formulated Ohm’s
Law.
 Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867) – discovered the
electromagnetic induction. Formulated the Faraday’s Law.
 Heinrich Geissler (1814 – 1879) – developed “geissler tube”
– electrical discharges in rarefied gases produced different
colors.
9/28/2022 5
BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
 Sir William Crookes (1832 – 1919) – invented the first
cathode ray tube.
 Thomas Edison (1847 – 1931) – discovered the
incandescent light bulb.
 John Fleming (1904) – developed the vacuum tube rectifier
or diode.
 Lee de Forest (1873 – 1961) – patented the first vacuum
tube capable of boosting or amplifying small electrical
signals. He used triode tube.
 Walter Schottky (1938) – invented the first semiconductor
diode.
 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockly (1947)
– invented the transistor.
9/28/2022 6
BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
 Jean Hoerni, Jack Kilby, Kurt Lehovec, and Robert
Noyce (1958) – developed the Integrated Circuit
(IC).
 Ted Hoff (1971) – invented the microprocessor.
 Apple, Radio Shack, and Commodore (1977) –
three companies introduced personal computers.
 Motorola Corporation (1979) – began marketing a
powerful 16-bit microprocessor.
 Microsoft (1980) – introduced the MS-DOS disk-
operating system for personal computers.
9/28/2022 7
 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
 Semiconductors – these includes diodes, transistors
and integrated circuits
 Visual Display Device – these includes:
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) – for television sets
 Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD) – for calculators

 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) – usually used to indicate ON

or OFF status
 Resistor – made of either carbon-composite materials
or wound with special resistance wire and wrapped
around a ceramic-core form. It is rated by their ability
to resist the flow of current and dissipate heat .
9/28/2022 8
 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
 Capacitor – capable of storing an electric
charge and is popular in electronic circuits
where filtering is required.
 Inductors – are used in a wide variety of
applications. It is also known as:
 Coils
 Chokes

It is used to store energy in an electromagnetic

field

9/28/2022 9
 UNITS
LIST OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARD (SI)
UNITS
QUANTITY QUANTITY UNIT UNIT
SYMBOL SYMBOL
Capacitance C farad F
Conductance G siemens S
Electric Charge Q coulomb C
Electromotive Force E volt V
Energy, Work W joule J
Force F newton N
Frequency f hertz Hz
Inductance L henry H
Magnetic Flux  weber Wb
Magnetic Flux Density  tesla T
9/28/2022 10
 UNITS
LIST OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARD (SI)
UNITS
QUANTITY QUANTITY UNIT UNIT
SYMBOL SYMBOL
Power P watt W
Resistance R ohm 
Reactance X ohm 
Impedance Z ohm 

9/28/2022 11
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 A number written in scientific notation is expressed as
the product of a number greater than or equal to 1 and
less than 10, and is a power of 10

 To express a number in scientific notation, the decimal

point is moved until there is one significant digit to the
left of the decimal point.

 The result is then multiplied by the appropriate power

of 10 to return the quality to its original value.

9/28/2022 12
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Example 1.
72,300 = 7.23 x 104

Example 2.
0.0057 = 5.7 x 10-3

Example 3.
7.84 x 105 = 784,000

9/28/2022 13
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Prefixes for use with SI Units
Prefix Symbol Scientific Notation Value
tera T 1012 1,000,000,000,000
giga G 109 1,000,000,000
mega M 106 1,000,000
kilo k 103 1,000
milli m 10-3 0.001
micro  10-6 0.000001
nano n 10-9 0.000000001
pico p 10-12 0.000000000001
femto f 10-15 0.000000000000001

9/28/2022 14
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 To add or subtract numbers expressed in scientific
notation, it is necessary to convert numbers to a
common power of 10.

Example 4. Calculate the sum of (3.4 x 105) + (5.9 x 106)

0.34 x 106
+ 5.9 x 106
6.24 x 106 answer

9/28/2022 15
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 To add or subtract numbers expressed in scientific
notation, it is necessary to convert numbers to a
common power of 10.

Example 5. Calculate the difference of (8.4 x 103) - (4.7

x 102)

8.4 x 103
- 0.47 x 103
7.93 x 103 answer

9/28/2022 16
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 To multiply numbers expressed in scientific
notations, the exponents are added; to divide, the
exponents are subtracted.

Example 6. Calculate the product of (4 x 105) x (2.2 x 102)

(4 x 105) x (2.2 x 102) = (4 x 2.2) x 10(5 + 2)

= 8.8 x 107 answer

9/28/2022 17
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 To multiply numbers expressed in scientific
notations, the exponents are added; to divide, the
exponents are subtracted.

Example 7. Calculate the result of (6 x 106) / (3 x 102)

6 x 106 6 x 10(6 – 2)
3 x 102 = 3
= 2 x 104 answer

9/28/2022 18
 MOLECULES AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 Galileo (1564 – 1642) – discovered that when no force
is exerted on a body, it stays at rest or it moves with
constant velocity. This became known as Galileo’s Law
of Inertia.

 Mass – is a measure of inertia. It is a universal constant

equal to the ratio of a body’s weight to the gravitational
acceleration due to its weight.

 Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass

 Atom – is the smallest particle of matter

9/28/2022 19
 MOLECULES AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 Elements – are known types of atoms, presently equal
to over 100 types.
 Molecules – are the combination of atoms, example is
water (H2O).
 John Dalton (1808) – presented his version of atomic
theory entitled A New System of Chemical Philosophy.
He noted that matter consists of individual atoms,
atoms are unchangeable, and each element consists of
a characteristic kind of identical atoms.
 Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday proved that
electricity and matter are closely related using the
Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
9/28/2022 20
 MOLECULES AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 Their research in electrochemistry, now called
Electrolysis, help to establish the fact that “electricity
is atomic in character and that the atoms of electricity
are part of the atoms of matter”
 Ernest Rutherford (1911, English Scientist) –
established an atomic structure based on the principle
of the atomic being primarily an open space with all
the mass concentrated in a central core, called the
Nucleus.
 Niels Bohr (1913) – theory that the simplest atom,
hydrogen, consisted of a nucleus with a positively
charged particle, Proton,and a planetary negatively
charged, Electron, revolving in a circular orbit.
9/28/2022 21
 MOLECULES AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 The charge of a proton is equal in magnitude to that of
an electron.

 Bohr’s Model of a hydrogen atom:

Nucleus

Electron in
Orbit

9/28/2022 22
 MOLECULES AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 The orbits that the electrons revolve are called shells
 The number of electrons in each shell follows a
predictable pattern according to the formula, 2N2,
where N is the number of the shell.
 The atomic structure of a copper atom:

Valence
Shell

Valence
Electron

9/28/2022 23
 MOLECULES AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Properties of three particles

Particle Symbol Charge Mass
Proton p +e 1.6725485x10-27kg
Neutron n 0 1.6749543x10-27kg
Electron e- -e 9.109534x10-31kg

9/28/2022 24
 ELECTRIC CHARGES
 Law of Conservation of Electric Charge:
“The Algebraic sum of all electric charges in any
isolated system is a constant”
 There are two types of charges:
Positive – when there is a deficiency of
electrons
Negative – when there is as excess of electrons
 The charge of electron and proton are equal
 Static Electricity is the presence of a net positive
or a negative charge in a material
“Like charges repel each other, and unlike
charges attract each other”
9/28/2022 25
 ELECTRIC CHARGES
 Electrical Charge is measured in Coulombs, C
“One coulomb of charge is the total charge possessed
by 6.25x1018 electrons”

“A single electrons has a charge of 1.6x10-19 C”

 The equation for defining a charge in coulombs is

n
Q=
6.25x1018
Where: Q = charge, in coulombs
n = number of electrons
9/28/2022 26
 ELECTRIC CHARGES
Example 8. How many coulombs do 93.75x1016 electrons
represents?

Solution:
n
Q=
6.25x1018
93.75x1016
=
6.25x1018
Q= 0.15 C Answer

9/28/2022 27
 THE MOTION OF ELECTRIC
CHARGE
 When no external electric field is present, the valence
electrons move in a random motion
“The random motion of the free electrons from atom to atom is normally
equal in all directions so that no lost or gained by any particular part of
the material”
 When most of the electron movement takes place in the
same direction, so that one part of the material loses
electrons while the other gains, the net electron
movement or flow is called current
 The effective velocity of electrons is nearly 186,000
miles per second, the speed of light
9/28/2022 28
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Conductor – is a material that has the ability to

transfer charge from one object to another
– Materials through which charges move easily
– Good metal conductors have large numbers of free
electrons
– In particular, excellent conductors are silver,
copper, gold, and aluminum

9/28/2022 29
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Insulators – are materials that are poor conductors

have electrons that are tightly bound to individual
atoms
– It is used to prevent the wires from touching and to
protect us from electric shock.
– Insulators do not conduct because they have full or
nearly full valence shells and thus their electrons are
tightly bound.

9/28/2022 30
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Semiconductors – is intermediate between

conductors and insulators in its ability to transfer
charge.
– Silicon and germanium (plus a few other materials)
have half-filled valence shells and are thus neither
good conductors nor good insulators.

9/28/2022 31
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Current – is the rate of flow of charged particles

through a conductor in a specified direction.
 Ampere (A) – is the SI unit of electric current
“One ampere is equal to one coulomb of electric charge
passing a certain point in an electric circuit in one
second”
 The symbol of electric current is I.

9/28/2022 32
9/28/2022 33
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

The equation form is

I= Q
t

Where:
I = current, in amperes
Q = charge transferred, in coulombs
t = time, in seconds
9/28/2022 34
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Example 1. If 1.80 C of charge pass a certain point in a

conductor every minute, what is the electric
current?

I= Q
t
= 1.80 C
60.0 s
I= 30 mA

9/28/2022 35
 DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

 When a unidirectional current is unchanging or

changes negligibly, it is referred to Direct Current
(DC)
 If the magnitude of the unidirectional current
varies with time, it is called Pulsating Current
 If the magnitude and direction of the current
varies with time, it is referred to as Alternating
Current (AC)

9/28/2022 36
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

I
Direct Current, DC

0 t

Pulsating Direct Current

0 t
9/28/2022 37
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

+I
Alternating Current, AC

0 t

-I

9/28/2022 38
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VOLTAGE

Potential Energy…
– It is defined as energy possessed by a system by
virtue of position
– It is energy that can be stored for long periods of time
in its present form
– It is capable of doing work when it is converted from
its stored form into another form, such as kinetic
energy
– Its charge at a given point is directly proportional to
the charge itself
9/28/2022 39
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VOLTAGE

Work is the amount of energy converted from one form to

another, as a result of motion or conversion of energy
from potential to kinetic
Three things must occur for work to be done:
– A force must be applied
– The force must act through a certain distance
– The force must have component along the displacement
The SI unit of work is Joule, J

9/28/2022 40
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VOLTAGE

“One joule is equal to the work done by a force of one

newton acting through a distance of one meter”
Electric Potential or Potential Difference
– It is the amount of work required to move a unit charge from
one point to another.
– It is the measure of work per unit of charge
– The unit is joules per coulomb (j/C) or Volts (V)

“One volt is the potential difference between two points in an

electric circuit, when one joule of energy is required to move
one coulomb of electric charge from one point to another”

9/28/2022 41
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VOLTAGE

The equation form is

E= W
Q

Where:
E = the potential difference, in volts
W = energy, in joules
Q = electric charge, in coulombs
9/28/2022 42
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VOLTAGE

Example 2. What value of charge is moved between two

points if 0.44 J of energy is used and a
potential of 2.6 V is developed?

E= W
Q
Q = 0.44 J
2.6 V
Q= 0.169 C

9/28/2022 43
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VOLTAGE

 Voltage rise – represents when a source of emf or

device produces voltage

 Voltage drop – represents the energy used by the

free electrons while engaged in current flow

9/28/2022 44
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
SOURCES
 Voltage Source is a device capable of converting one
form of energy into electrical potential energy
 Five main types of Voltage Sources:
– Chemical Sources – convert chemical energy into electrical
energy
 Primary Cell – are nonrenewable voltage sources
 Secondary Cell – is capable of being recharged
– Solar and Photovoltaic Cells – is a semiconductor device
consisting of a thin layer of heavily doped P-typed silicon on
a heavily doped N-typed silicon wafer.
9/28/2022 45
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
SOURCES
– Thermoelectric Generation – is based on the principle that if
a metal rod is heated at one end, negatively charged
electrons flow from the hot end to the cooler end to reduce
their energy.
– Electromagnetic Generation – is capable of converting
mechanical energy to electrical energy. Example: generator
or dynamo
– Electrical Conversion (power supply) – is a device that
converts one type of electric potential or current to another.

9/28/2022 46
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
SOURCES
 Current Source …
– It is similar to a voltage source
– Provides a specified value of current through its terminals
regardless of the voltage across the terminals.

Fixed DC Variable DC AC Voltage Alternating

Voltage Supply Voltage Supply Supply Current Supply

9/28/2022 47
 RESISTANCE

 When there is electron flow, the atom collision increases

the temperature of the conductor, and some of the
potential energy is converted to heat energy;
 The property of the material that restricts the flow of
electrons is called Resistance, R
 The unit of measurement of resistance is Ohm, 
“Ohm is the resistance at zero degrees Celcius of a column of
mercury of uniform cross section having a mass of 14.4521
grams and a length of 106.3 cm”

9/28/2022 48
 RESISTANCE

 Four factors affecting resistance of any materials:

– The kind of material
– The length
– The cross-sectional area
– The temperature

“The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its

length, and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
area”

9/28/2022 49
 RESISTANCE

The equation form is

R=  L
A
Where:
R = resistance of material, ohm
L = length of the conductor, meters
A = cross-sectional area, m2
 = proportionality constant, ohm·meter

Resistivity = is the resistance of a conductor having

9/28/2022
unit length and unit cross-sectional area. 50
 RESISTANCE

Resistivities of Common Materials

Material Resistivity, ·m@20°C Description
Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8 Conductor
Copper 1.72 x 10-8 Conductor
Germanium 47 x 10-2 Semiconductor
Gold 2.45 x 10-8 Conductor
Mica 2.02 x 1010 Insulator
Silicon 6.4 x 102 Semiconductor
Silver 1.64 x 10-8 Conductor
Teflon
9/28/2022
3 x 1015 Insulator 51
 RESISTANCE

Example 3. What is the resistance of a piece of silicon 0.4

cm long with a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2?

R=  L
A
= (6.4 x 102 ·m) 0.004 m 2
0.0001 m
R= 25.6 k
• For small diameter of wire diameter is in mil; 1 mil = 0.001 in.
• Cross-sectional Area is in Circular Mill (CM) 1CM = 7.854x10-7 in2
• Area in CM = d2
9/28/2022 52
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TEMPERATURE AND RESISTANCE
“The higher the temperature, the greater the resistance”
 The increase in resistance for most metals is
approximately linear when compared with temperature
changes.
 The equation is:

R= R
T Where:
R = change in resistance
T = change in temperature
 = temperature coefficient of resistance
9/28/2022 = 1/(T + 20°C) 53
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TEMPERATURE AND RESISTANCE
Temperature Coefficients of Resistance and Conductor Materials
Material Temperature Coeff., Inferred Zero-
(@ 20°C) Resistance Temp (°C), T

Aluminum 0.0039 -236

Copper 0.00393 -234.5
Nichrome 0.0004 -2480
Nickel 0.006 -147
Platinum 0.003 -310
Silver (99.98% pure) 0.0038 -243
Steel, soft 0.0042 -218
9/28/2022 54
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TEMPERATURE AND RESISTANCE

Variation R ()
R2 T + T2
=
Resistance R1 T + T1
R
for Copper
T R2 = R1(1 + T)
R1 R2
Where:
T = t2 – t1
-234.5 °C 0°C T1 T2 T (°C)
234.5° + T1

234.5° + T2

9/28/2022 55
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TEMPERATURE AND RESISTANCE
Example 4. What is the resistance of a copper wire at
30°C if the resistance at 20°C is 4.31  and if
 @ 20°C = 0.00393?

R2 = R1(1 + T)
= 4.31[1 + 0.00393(30 – 20)]
R2 = 4.48 

9/28/2022 56
 WIRE SIZES
 Wires are manufactured in sizes numbered according to a
standard called the American Wire Gauge (AWG)
 The lower the AWG number indicates a greater cross-
sectional area in circular mils
 It is desirable to use wire of the smallest diameter consistent
with the minimum resistance that can be tolerated
 For such consideration as:
– Cost
– Weight
– Bulk

9/28/2022 57
 LOAD RESISTANCE

 The name given to any device connected across

an energy source is LOAD
 The amount of opposition to current flow offered
by the load is LOAD RESISTANCE

“Load always represents voltage drops in a circuit because

they absorb electrical energy and dissipate it as heat,
sound, light, or mechanical energy”

9/28/2022 58
 LOAD RESISTANCE

 Load resistance connected to a source

I
+
+
E _ R
_

9/28/2022 59
 RESISTORS

RESISTORS – are devices that conduct electricity but also

dissipate electric energy as heat.
 The power or wattage rating of the resistor determines its
size and shape.
 Two basic types of resistors:
o Fixed – have permanent ohmic values that can not be
changed
o Variable – could be change manually or by applying energy
such as heat or light.

9/28/2022 60
 RESISTORS

Specific purposes of resistors:

 When they are used to limit the flow of current to a safe
value, they are called current limiting resistors;
 When it divides the voltage into different values from a
single source, it is called bleeder resistor;
 If it performs the function of applying a load to a circuit,
it is called load resistor;
 When it is designed to open when the power rating of the
resistor is exceeded, it is called fusible resistors

9/28/2022 61
 RESISTORS

Four major categories of FIXED RESISTORS:

 Carbon-composition resistors
 The resistive element composed of:
 Graphite Powder – conductor
 Silica – insulator
 It is used in low-power application (under 1 watt)
 Has typical tolerance of 5% to 10%
 Film resistors
 Types
 Carbon Film – thin coating of resistive material on a ceramic insulator.
Less noise because of random electron motion
 Metal Film – provide very precise ohmic values, tolerance < 1%
 Metal-oxide Film – low noise and excellent temperature
9/28/2022 characteristics, made up of oxidizing tin chloride. 62
 RESISTORS

Four major categories of FIXED RESISTORS:

 Wire-wound resistor – made up of alloy of relatively high

resistivity and drawn into a wire with precisely controlled
characteristic.
 This wire is then wrapped around a ceramic-core form
 High stability and power ratings up to 250 watts.
 The ohmic value is usually stamped on the resistor case.
 Chip resistors – are designed for printed circuit board
 Also available in packages that resemble integrated circuit (IC).

9/28/2022 63
 RESISTORS

Three basic types of VARIABLE RESISTORS:

 Manual
 Rheostat – used to control the circuit current by varying

the amount of resistance in the resistance element

 Potentiometer – is used to control the voltage applied

across the circuit load

 Trimmer resistors – used where small and frequent

adjustments are necessary to maximize circuit

performance, usually made with a screwdriver

9/28/2022 64
 RESISTORS

Three basic types of VARIABLE RESISTORS:

 Heat
 Thermistor – resistor whose resistance varies with
temperature
 Ballast resistor – used to maintain a constant value of
current through a wide range of temperatures
 Optical
 Photoresistors – made up of semiconductor materials that
change resistivity as the level of light around the
semiconductor changes. As the light level increases, the
resistance decreases.
9/28/2022 65
 RESISTORS

RESISTOR COLOR CODE (Four Band)

First Significant Digit
Second Significant Digit
Multiplier
Tolerance

9/28/2022 66
 RESISTORS
Color Code for general purpose carbon-composition resistors
Color First Band Second Band Third Band Fourth Band____
1st Significant 2nd Significant Multiplier Tolerance Digit
Digit
Black - 0 100 -
Brown 1 1 101 -
Red 2 2 102 -
Orange 3 3 103 -
Yellow 4 4 104 -
Green 5 5 105 -
Blue 6 6 106 -
Violet 7 7 107 -
Gray 8 8 108 -
White 9 9 109 -
Gold - - 10-1 ±5%
Silver - - 10-2 ±10%
None - - - ±20%
9/28/2022 67
 RESISTORS

RESISTOR COLOR CODE (Five Band)

 Fifth band indicates reliability Factor
 Gives the percentage of failure per 1000 hours of
use

9/28/2022 68
 RESISTORS

RESISTOR COLOR CODE (Five Band)

First Significant Digit

Second Significant Digit
Third Significant Digit
Multiplier
Tolerance

9/28/2022 69
 RESISTORS
Color Code for five-band precision resistors
Color First Band Second Band Third Band Fourth Band Fifth Band
1st Significant 2nd Significant 3rd Significant Multiplier Tolerance
Digit Digit Digit
Black - 0 0 100 -
Brown 1 1 1 101 ±1%
Red 2 2 2 102 ±0.1%
Orange 3 3 3 103 ±0.01%
Yellow 4 4 4 104 ±0.001%
Green 5 5 5 105 ±0.5%
Blue 6 6 6 106 ±0.25%
Violet 7 7 7 107 -
Gray 8 8 8 108 -
White 9 9 9 109 -
Gold - - - 10-1 -
Silver - - - 10-2 -
9/28/2022 70
 RESISTORS

 Numerical labels are used on certain type of resistors

 Resistance value is stamped on the body of the resistor
 using R to designate the decimal point
 letters to designate tolerance as follows:
 F = ±1%
 G = ±2%
 J = ±5%
 K = ±10%
 M = ±20%
 First Three digits are used to resistance value
 Fourth digit specify the number of zeros.

9/28/2022 71
 RESISTORS

Example:
(a) 6R8M = 6.8  ±20%
(b) 3301F = 3,300  ±1%
(c) 2202J = 22,000  ±5%

9/28/2022 72
 TROUBLESHOOTING RESISTORS
 A common problem is fixed-resistor failure.
 Due to excess heat caused by too large current
 The interior device will either burn out or melt
 It will produce open circuit
 Another problem is cold solder joints
 Caused an open circuit also
 Due to improper soldering in printed circuit board
 Short circuited resistor
 Resistor value has effectively fallen to zero ohms
 Very dangerous because there is no resistance between the
two terminals of the power supply
9/28/2022 73
 TROUBLESHOOTING RESISTORS
 The most popular instrument used in
troubleshooting resistors is the ohmmeter
 Important notes to remember:
 Never used ohmmeter on an energized circuit;
 Power supply should be turned “OFF”;
 At least one lead of the resistor should be
disconnected;

9/28/2022 74
9/28/2022 75