IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO.

2, JUNE 2020 439

An Integrated Converter With Reduced Components

for Electric Vehicles Utilizing Solar
and Grid Power Sources
Ankit Kumar Singh , Member, IEEE, Anjanee Kumar Mishra , Member, IEEE,
Krishna Kumar Gupta , Member, IEEE, Pallavee Bhatnagar , Senior Member, IEEE,
and Taehyung Kim , Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract— A novel integrated converter for electric vehicles v g , v b , v hv , and v PV Instantaneous grid, battery, dc
(EVs) is proposed in this article. For battery-charging opera- link, and solar PV voltages,
tion, the proposed converter system enables a complementary
deployment of the utility grid and a solar photovoltaic (PV)
respectively.
system. Since both sources (acting one at a time) utilize the v p = |v g | Rectified grid voltage.
same converter, the developed charging system, therefore, has a Vg,max Peak grid voltage.
smaller number of components. In addition, an inductor voltage v cs Instantaneous voltage across
detection (IVD) technique has been incorporated to correct the
power factor (PF) in continuous conduction mode (CCM), which capacitor Cs .
eliminates the need for a current sensor for PF correction i g , i b , i hv , and i PV Instantaneous grid, battery, dc
(PFC). The proposed system operates for all the modes required link, and solar PV currents,
for an EV, e.g., charging, propulsion (PRN), and regenerative respectively.
braking (RBG). In charging mode (with either grid or solar
PV), the proposed system operates as an isolated secondary i g,max Peak grid current.
ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC) converter. In PRN fL Line or grid frequency.
and RBG modes, it operates as a boost converter and a buck fs Switching frequency.
converter, respectively. Details of all these modes are described in L 1,PIN , L 1,P V ,
the article, along with the design of the components. In addition,
L 1,PRN , and L 1RB, Designation of inductor L 1 in
results of simulation and experimental studies are presented for a
1-kW setup based on the proposed configuration. A comparison PIN-charging, solar PV, PRN,
with other topologies shows the technoeconomic competence of and RBG modes, respectively.
the proposed system. Lm Magnetizing inductor of isolated
Index Terms— Bidirectional dc–dc converter solar PV system, transformer.
electric vehicles (EVs), inductor voltage detection (IVD), power
factor correction (PFC).
L m,PIN and L m,PV Designation of inductor L m
in PIN-charging and solar PV
N OMENCLATURE modes, respectively.
Pg , Pb , Pb , and Ppv Power at the grid side, nomi- i L1,PRN and i L1,RBG Instantaneous current through
nal charging power, PRN mode inductor L 1 in PRN and RBG
power, and solar PV power at modes, respectively.
maximum power point (MPP), i Lm,PIN and i Lm,PV Instantaneous current through
respectively. magnetizing inductor L m in PIN-
Vg , Vb , Vhv , and VPV Grid rms voltage, average battery charging and solar PV modes,
voltage, average dc-link voltage, respectively.
and solar PV voltage at MPP, i L1,PIN , i L1,PV ,
respectively. i L1,PRN , and i L1,RBG Peak-to-peak ripple current in L 1
of PIN-charging, solar PV, PRN,
Manuscript received January 31, 2020; revised April 18, 2020; accepted
May 23, 2020. Date of publication June 1, 2020; date of current version and RBG modes, respectively.
June 19, 2020. (Corresponding author: Ankit Kumar Singh.) i Lm,PIN and i Lm,PV Peak-to-peak ripple current
Ankit Kumar Singh and Krishna Kumar Gupta are with the Department through magnetizing inductance
of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineer-
ing and Technology, Patiala 147001, India (e-mail: [email protected]; L m in PIN-charging and solar
[email protected]). PV modes, respectively.
Anjanee Kumar Mishra and Taehyung Kim are with the Depart-
ment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Michigan at
d1 , d2 , d3 , and d4 Duty ratio in PIN-charging, solar
Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128 USA (e-mail: [email protected]; PV, PRN, and RBG, respectively.
[email protected]). Sa1 , Sa2 , and Sa3 Insulated gate bipolar transistor
Pallavee Bhatnagar is with the IES College of Technology, Bhopal 462008,
India (e-mail: [email protected]). (IGBT) switch.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TTE.2020.2998799 D1 , D2 , D3 , and D4 Rectifier diodes.

2332-7782 © 2020 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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 440 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO. 2, JUNE 2020

D5 , D7 , and D9 Body diode of switch Sa1 , Sa2 ,

and Sa3 , respectively.
P1 , P2 , and P3 on–off-based mechanical switch.
χ and π Percentage ripple current in
inductor L 1 and L m in the
PIN-charging mode.
γ Percentage ripple current in mag-
netizing inductor L m in the solar
PV mode. Fig. 1. Block diagram of the conventional solar PV and grid-based battery
ξ , η, and μ Percentage ripple current of charging.
inductor L 1 in solar PV, PRN,
and RBG mode, respectively.
k and δ Percentage ripple voltage
of capacitors Cs and Cb ,
respectively.

I. I NTRODUCTION

T O COMBAT the scarcity of fossil fuel and the envi-

ronmental issues due to carbon emissions from trans-
portation, research in electric vehicles (EVs) is a priority for
researchers worldwide. The major challenges for researchers Fig. 2. Configuration of the proposed power conversion system.
in EVs are how to reduce the cost, charger size, and charging
time. The main reasons for the high cost of these vehicles
are storage system (battery technology) and the charging
infrastructure (charger for the battery). The charging system
of EVs is made using power electronic converters and sensing
elements. The power electronic converters are composed of
semiconductor devices and passive components, and sens-
ing elements are composed of voltage and current sensors.
The cost of these components is usually high. Furthermore,
researchers are also concern about making the EVs sustain- Fig. 3. Block diagram of the proposed system.
able; thus, it is desirable to charge the EVs from sustainable
power sources. Hence, charging of EVs from solar photo-
voltaic (PV) arrays is a viable option for future [1]. source for battery-charging operation. As we know that solar
Solar PV generation is characterized by both diurnal and PV has the limitation of power intermittency, the reliability
seasonal variations. This requires a grid connection to ensure of the charger is sacrificed. To overcome this limitation of
reliable power supply for EV chargers. Workplaces like office a solar PV-based charger, Mouli et al. [2], Traube et al. [9],
buildings, industries, factories, and so on, where the solar Singh et al. [11], Carli and Williamson [12], Verma et al. [13],
panel can be installed on rooftops and car parks area are and Singh et al. [14] have proposed chargers with dual sources
ideal places for solar EV battery charging. There are a few (solar PV and grid). However, these EV chargers use a number
advantages to solar EV charging: 1) solar PV charging reduces of converters to integrate the sources. Lee et al. [15], Dusmez
power demand on the grid because solar power generated and Khaligh [16], and Singh and Pathak [17] have developed
locally and 2) the EV battery serves as energy storage for PV the reduced component-based EV chargers. However, all these
power and mitigates the problem of large integration of PV topologies do not have galvanic isolation and accept only a
into a distribution grid system [2], [3]. A key requirement of an single source (grid) for charging.
EV battery charger is that all power sources, namely, solar PV In contrast to the approaches found in the literature sur-
and grid must be isolated from the battery [4], [5]. To charge vey, this article proposes a new solar powered and grid-
the EV from solar PV and grid, at least three converters are based single-stage isolated integrated converter for onboard
generally used [6]. First, a dc–dc converter is utilized for applications, as shown in Fig. 2; its equivalent block diagram
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) operation of the solar is shown in Fig. 3. The important features of the proposed
PV. The output solar PV (after MPPT) is connected to the out- charging system are described as: 1) two sources (solar PV
put of the grid interfaced converter (second converter), which and grid) for charging operation, which enhances the reliability
forms a dc link, and then, a bidirectional dc–dc converter (third of the charger; 2) achieves all operational modes of EVs
converter) is connected between the dc link and the battery with one converter; 3) galvanic isolation between the battery
[1], [7]. The block diagram of such a conventional system is and the power sources for personnel safety and protection of
shown in Fig. 1. components; and 4) reduced cost of electricity per unit of
Biswas et al. [8], Traube et al. [9], and Venkatramanan and charging. Moreover, the proposed charging system utilizes an
John [10] have developed EV chargers that use only solar PV inductor voltage detection (IVD)-based control technique for

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 SINGH et al.: INTEGRATED CONVERTER WITH REDUCED COMPONENTS FOR EVs UTILIZING SOLAR AND GRID POWER SOURCES 441

Fig. 4. Equivalent circuit representation for PIN-charging operation. Fig. 5. Equivalent circuit representation for the solar PV-charging operation.

PFC operation in the continuous conduction mode (CCM),

which eliminates a current sensor requirement and further
enhances the compactness of the charging system to make the
system more attractive for onboard applications. The proposed
system is targeted toward the development of low-cost power-
dense solutions suitable mainly for light EVs (LEVs), such as
e-scooters (standing/self-balancing and folding types), e-bikes,
e-golf carts, e-rickshaws, and other types of e-three-wheelers. Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit representation for the PRN mode of operation.

II. O PERATING M ODES OF THE P ROPOSED C ONVERTER

principle for this mode is similar to the PIN-charging mode.
In this section, we discuss converter operation in each During this mode, the converter performs the MPPT oper-
mode, namely, plug-in (PIN) charging, solar PV charging, ation, and the battery is charged through maximum power.
propulsion (PRN), and regenerative braking (RBG). The cir- In this case, the maximum power varies as solar irradiation
cuit configuration of the proposed system has been shown changes. The circuit representation during this mode is shown
in Fig. 1(a). To investigate the working principle of the in Fig. 5. Moreover, the developed system is an onboard
proposed converter in each mode, some assumptions have charging system in which the complete proposed integrated
taken beforehand: 1) each mode is operating in CCM and converter is lying in the premises of the EV. Therefore,
2) the circuit elements (inductors, capacitors, diodes, and the two terminals of the solar panel are always available
switches) are ideal, which means that the series resistances of separately and can be utilized to charge other separate battery
capacitors and inductors are negligible. Also, diodes voltage banks when the targeted EV charging is not required. The
drop, parasitic capacitance, and ON-state resistance of the switch Sa3 , therefore, plays an additional role in optimizing
switch are neglected. the performance of the PV panel during such situations.

A. PIN-Charging Mode C. PRN Mode

This mode is activated only when the solar power is not In this mode, the battery drains its stored charge by sup-
available, the solar PV will be disconnected by applying a low plying energy to the dc-link capacitor. The SPST switches
signal to the switch Sa3 , and the converter operates as an iso- P2 and P3 are in the ON-state. Inductor L 1 is charged when
lated secondary ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC). switch Sa1 is turned on, and the path of the current thorough
The single-pole single-through (SPST) switches P2 and P3 are L 1 is shown by a solid line in Fig. 6. Moreover, when switch
in the OFF-state during this mode, and the SPST switch P1 is Sa1 is turned off, inductor L 1 supplies its stored energy to the
in the ON-state. When semiconductor switch Sa1 is turned on dc-link capacitor Chv and path of current shown with dotted
by the pulsewidth modulation (PWM) signal, inductor L 1 and lines.
magnetizing inductor L m are charged, and the current of both
inductors follows the path indicated by solid lines in Fig. 4.
During this process, the capacitor Cb provides energy to the D. RBG Mode
load (battery). When switch Sa1 is turned off, inductors L 1 In this mode, the battery is charged through the regeneration
and L m supply energy to the capacitor Cs and output (load), process of the motor drive system. The energy stored in the dc
respectively. link is supplied to the battery, which ultimately increases the
driving range of the charge. The SPST switches P2 and P3 are
in the ON-state. When switch Sa2 is turned on, inductor L 1 is
B. Solar PV-Charging Mode
charged by dc-link source, and the path of the current through
This mode will be activated when solar power is above L 1 is shown in Fig. 7 with a solid line. When the switch Sa2
a threshold value. In this mode, the SPST switch P1 and is turned off, inductor L 1 is discharged by supplying its stored
switch Sa3 are in the ON-state, and the SPST switches energy to the battery, and the path of the current during this
P2 and P3 are in the OFF-state. The converter operational process is shown in dotted lines in Fig. 7.

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 442 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO. 2, JUNE 2020

1) PIN-Charging Mode: In this mode, when switch Sa1 is

ON , the voltage across inductor L 1 is obtained as
  di L1 i L1,PIN i L1,PIN
v L1 = v g  = L 1 = L1 = L1 . (1)
dt t d1 Ts
Solving for L 1 in this mode, which is denoted as L 1,PIN ,
the following expression of L 1,PIN is given as:
Vg d1
L 1,PIN = (2)
i L1,PIN fs
Fig. 7. Equivalent circuit representation for the RBG operation.
keeping i L1,PIN (peak-to-peak ripple current in the inductor)
TABLE I
=χ% i g and d1 = (Vb /Vg + Vb ) in (2), we obtain expression
D ESIGN S PECIFICATION OF THE P ROPOSED C ONVERTER
for L 1,PIN as
Vg2 d1 Vg2 Vb
L 1,PIN = = (3)
Pg f s χ Pg fs χ% Vg + Vb
where i g = ((Pg /Vg )), Vg is the root-mean-square (rms) value
of the grid voltage, Pg is the power at the grid side, d1 is the
duty cycle of switch Sa1 , and f s is the switching frequency,
respectively.
The condition of maximum ripple current through the
inductor is determined at the rated conditions, i.e., Vb = Vb,max
and grid power Pg = Pg,max for the minimum value of the
grid voltage (Vg,min ). The input inductor√ L 1,PIN is designed
TABLE II
for the minimum peak grid voltage ( 2Vgmin ). Using (3),
D ESIGN S PECIFICATION OF S OLAR PV S YSTEM
the calculated value of L 1,PIN is 3.5 mH for the permitted
current ripple of 30% of the grid current (i g ).
2) Solar PV Mode: The value of inductor L 1 in the solar
PV mode is determined by a similar expression used in the
PIN-charging mode, which is denoted as L 1,PV . The expression
of L 1,PV is
VPV d2
L 1,PV = (4)
i L1,PV f s
keeping i L1,PV = ξ % of the solar PV current. The duty cycle
d2 is defined as
Vb
d2 = (5)
VPV + Vb
III. D ESIGN OF PASSIVE E LEMENTS substituting (5) into (4), we get the expression for L 1,PV as
AND S TRESS A NALYSIS 2
VPV Vb
L 1,PV = (6)
PPV f s ξ % VPV + Vb
This section deals with the design methodology of the
passive elements, which is an important aspect of designing where PPV and VPV are the solar PV power and the output
a new charging system, because, in the proposed charging voltage of the panel at the maximum power point (MPP),
method, some passive elements are utilized for more than one respectively. Assuming up to 30% of ripple current, the value
mode. Therefore, the selected value of a particular component of L 1,PV is calculated as 3.63 mH.
is decided by considering all modes. Furthermore, the design 3) PRN Mode: When the switch Sa1 is ON, the voltage
of the components is accomplished by assuming that the across inductor L 1 is given as
converter operates in the CCM. The parameters used for di L1 i L1,PRN i L1,PRN
designing the components are shown in Tables I and II. Vb = L 1 = L1 = L1 . (7)
dt t d3 Ts
Moreover, the peak voltage and current stresses in the switch-
Solving for L 1 using (7), the inductance value, which is
ing components are also discussed in this section.
denoted as L 1,PRN in the PRN mode, is calculated as
d3 Ts Vb d3 Vb
L 1,PRN = = (8)
A. Design of Inductor L 1 i L1 i L1,PRN f s
The inductor L 1 is operated in all the modes; therefore, where i L1,PRN is η% of the battery current (i b ) and d3 =
the largest value determined from all modes is chosen as a (1 − (Vb /Vhv )). Assuming η = 30%, L 1,PRN is calculated
final value for the system. 2.65 mH.

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 SINGH et al.: INTEGRATED CONVERTER WITH REDUCED COMPONENTS FOR EVs UTILIZING SOLAR AND GRID POWER SOURCES 443

4) RBG Mode: When switch Sa2 is ON, the voltage across The value of capacitor Cs is determined at the peak grid
inductor L 1 is obtained as voltage (Vg,max ) and at the nominal battery voltage (Vb ).
di L1 i L1,RBG i L1,RBG Assuming that the voltage ripple across Cs is 5% of v cs ,
Vhv − Vb = L 1 = L1 = L1 . (9) the capacitance value of Cs is calculated as 0.823 μF and
dt t d4 Ts
selected as 1 μF.
Solving for L 1 using (9), the inductance value, which is
denoted as L 1,RB in the RBG mode, is calculated as D. Design of Capacitor Cb
(Vhv − Vb )d4 Ts (Vhv − d4 Vhv )d4 The design and selection of capacitor Cb are decided
L 1,RB = =
i L1 f s i L1,RBG by considering the second-harmonic (100-Hz) voltage ripple
Vhv d4 (1 − d4 ) in Cb . Therefore, the design equation of Cb is obtained as
= (10)
i L1,RBG f s follows [19]:
Pb
where i L1,RBG = μ% of the dc-link current (i hv ) and Ib Vb Pb
d4 = (Vb /Vhv ). Assuming μ = 30%, L 1,RBG is calculated Cb = = = (17)
2ωVcb 2ωδ%Vb 2ωδ%Vb2
as 2.63 mH. The final value of L 1 is selected as follows:
where the ripple voltage Vcb is defined as δ%Vb , ω = 2π f L ,
L 1 = max(L 1,PIN L 1,PV L 1,PRN L 1,RBG ) = 3.63 mH. (11) and f L is the line (or grid) frequency (50 Hz) in Cb . The
capacitance value of Cb using (17) is chosen as 1200 μF for
B. Design of Magnetizing Inductance L m a 5% voltage ripple.
The design of magnetizing inductance is decided by the
PIN-charging and solar PV modes. E. Design of Capacitor Chv
1) PIN-Charging Mode: The value of the magnetizing The design equation of dc-link capacitor Chv is given as
inductor L m , which is designated as L m,PIN , is calculated using follows [20]:
following expression as [18]: d3
Chv = (18)
(1 − d1 ) Vg2 1 Vb R f s V hv
Vhv
L m , PIN = Vb = (12)
i Lm,PIN f s Pg π% f s Vg + Vb where Vhv is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage in the capacitor
where i Lm,PIN is π% of i g and i g = ((Pg /Vg )). Pg is the Chv , d3 = (1 − (Vb /Vhv )), and R = (Vhv 2
/Phv ). Using (18),
active power at the grid side. The turn ratio of the high- the capacitance value of Chv is determined as 83.5 μF for a
frequency transformer (HFT) is selected as unity for this 5% voltage ripple (Vhv = 5% of Vhv ). The selected value of
design. The value of L m,PIN for a permitted current ripple Chv is 100 μF.
of 30% is calculated as 3.5 mH. The peak voltage and current stresses in the semiconductor
2) Solar PV Mode: The design expression for L m , which and mechanical switches are necessary to determine the ratings
is designated as L m,PV in this mode, will be the same as the of the switches. The peak voltage and current stresses in
PIN-charging mode, which is obtained as switches for all modes are shown in Tables III and IV. Based
on peak stresses in the switches, the rating of the devices can
(1 − d2 ) V2 1 Vb be chosen. The selection of each switch ratings is discussed
L m , PV = Vb = PV (13)
i Lm,PV f s PPV γ f s Vmp + Vb in the following.
where i Lm,PV is γ % of i pv and i pv = ((PPV /VPV )). PPV is the The switch Sa1 is utilized in PIN-charging, solar PV, and
solar PV power corresponding to the MPP. The value of L m,PV PRN modes. The voltage stresses on Sa1 in PIN-charging, solar
for a permitted current ripple 30% is calculated as 3.23 mH. PV, and PRN modes are (Vg,max + Vb ), (VPV + Vb ), and Vb ,
The final value of L m is selected as respectively. Therefore, the voltage rating of Sa1 is selected
as max((Vg,max + Vb ), (VPV + Vb ), Vb ). The current rating of
L m = max(L m,PIN, L m,PV ) = 3.5 mH. (14) Sa1 is decided as max((i g,max + i Lm,PIN T s + (i Lm,PIN /2)),
(i PV T s +(i PV /2)+i Lm,PV T s +(i Lm,PV /2)), (i L1,PRN T s +
C. Design of Capacitor Cs (i L1,PRN /2)). The switch Sa2 conducts only in the RBG
The design equation of capacitor Cs for k% of voltage ripple mode. Therefore, its current rating is decided based on this
in v cs is expressed, as shown in the following equation [19]: mode only. With reference to Tables III and IV, the maximum
Vb d1 (t) voltage stress on the switch Sa2 is Vhv . Therefore, its voltage
Cs = (15) rating is decided by the dc-link voltage Vhv . The voltage
kv cs (t) f s R L
ratings of switch Sa3 and diode D8 are selected from max
where v cs is the voltage across capacitor Cs . By substituting d1 , (Vg,max , Vb ), while the current rating of Sa3 and D8 is decided
v cs (t) = |v g (t)|, and equivalent load resistance R L = Vb2 /Pb based on this mode only since they are conducting only in
into (15), we can obtain an expression of Cs as this mode. From Tables III and IV; a voltage rating of the
 
Vb Vb switch P1 is selected as Vhv , and the current rating is selected
Cs = as i gmax max(1, (Vg,max /Vb )). The voltage rating of the switch
k|(v g (t)| fs Pbb | Vg | +Vb
V2
P2 is selected by max((|Vg,max − Vb |), (|VPV − Vb |)), and the
Pb current rating of switch P2 is selected as max (i L1,PRN T s +
= . (16)
k f s (|Vg |(|Vg | + Vb ) (i L1,PRN /2), i L1,RBG T s +(i L1,RBG /2)). The switch P3 does

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 444 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO. 2, JUNE 2020

TABLE III
P EAK V OLTAGE AND C URRENT S TRESSES ON S EMICONDUCTOR AND M ECHANICAL S WITCHING D EVICES IN PIN AND S OLAR PV C HARGING

TABLE IV
P EAK V OLTAGE AND C URRENT S TRESSES ON S EMICONDUCTOR AND M ECHANICAL S WITCHING D EVICES IN PRN AND RBG M ODES

not have high voltage stress, and its current rating is same as
the current rating of the switch P2 since the peak currents in
the both switches are the same.

IV. C ONTROL S TRATEGY

In this section, the control logics for various modes of the
proposed converter are discussed with relevant waveforms and
block diagrams. The PIN-charging mode uses a proportional–
integral (PI) controller in combination with an IVD technique. Fig. 8. Control structure of the proposed system for PIN-charging and solar
The solar PV mode utilizes a duty cycle perturb-based MPPT PV modes.
controller. The logics of PRN and RBG modes have been
implemented with dual-loop PI controllers. although all these control techniques [19], [25]–[28] still
require a current sensing circuit that results in large size of
circuit implementation compared with voltage-mode control
A. Control Technique for PIN-Charging and SPV Modes methods. In this work, PFC in the CCM is implemented using
Conventional control techniques for power factor correc- IVD [29], as shown in Fig. 8. The inductor voltage is sensed
tion (PFC) on the grid side require both voltage and cur- by placing a small winding on the same inductor core, and
rent sensing circuits [21]–[24]. To reduce the complexity of the sensed signal is rectified to have only a positive part,
conventional control techniques for PFC, some authors have which is called rectified inductor voltage. The IVD technique
proposed a reduced number of sensing circuits [25]–[28] for is very simple, cost effective, and comparable to the circuit
PFC operation. Nonlinear carrier (NLC) control technique is implementation of the voltage mode control technique, which
one good example of reducing the sensing circuit. In this is desirable for onboard charger (OBC) application.
technique, switch, diode, or inductor current is sensed and The voltage across inductor L 1 in a switching period can
compared with carrier waveforms in each switching cycle be obtained as
to achieve high power factor (PF) conditions. The NLC
v L1 = v g (d1 ) + (v g − v cs − v b )(1 − d1 ) (19)
waveforms depend on converter topology to determine which
current is sensed. In other methods, a linear negative ramp where d1 is the on-duty ratio. When the inductor volt-
carrier is used to simplify the carrier generation [27], [28] age v L1 is rectified, the rectified inductor voltage v ∗L1 is

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 SINGH et al.: INTEGRATED CONVERTER WITH REDUCED COMPONENTS FOR EVs UTILIZING SOLAR AND GRID POWER SOURCES 445

written as
 d1 Ts
1
v ∗L1 = v g d1 = v ∗L1 (τ )dτ . (20)
Ts 0
The voltage drop across switch is given as

Rs d1 Ts ∗
i s Rs = Rs i g d 1 = v L1 (τ )d1 τ (21)
L1 0
where i s and Rs are the switch current and switch resistance,
respectively.
Then
Fig. 9. Control signal waveforms in the PIN-charging mode.
vg L1
= . (22)
ig Ts
When unity PF condition is achieved, the emulated input
resistance Re is written as
vg
Re = , Then, L 1 = Re Ts . (23)
ig
The input voltage of the isolated SEPIC in CCM operation
is given as
1 − d1
v g = vb . (24)
d1 Fig. 10. Control logic of the PRN and RBG modes.
For the unity PF
v b 1 − d1
ig = . (25) method is easy to implement in both simulation and hardware
Re d 1
studies [30]–[33].
Combining (2), (3), (5), and (7), a new relation is derived as We connect the grid source whenever a solar PV is not
 d1 Ts available (night and bad weather conditions). The presence
Rs v b Rs
(1 − d1 ) = v ∗L1 (τ )d1 τ. (26) of the grid source is decided by the sensed voltage v g . Then,
Re Re Ts 0
a solar PV is disconnected to through the switch Sa3 , and when
To obtain the duty ratio d to satisfy (8), the mean value of the we disconnect the grid (daytime or bad weather conditions),
inductor rectified voltage v ∗L1 is defined as the sensed v g is zero, the switch Sa3 will be ON, and battery
 d1 Ts charging will be a solar PV source.
Rs
vq = v ∗L1 (τ )d1 τ. (27)
Re Ts 0
Then, v q is compared with the period carrier signal v c (t), B. Control Strategy for PRN and RBG Modes
which is obtained by replacing d with t/Ts , and v c (t) is The control objective for PRN mode is to regulate constant
defined as dc link for efficient working of vehicle drive arrangement.
  The PRN mode exploits the dual-loop PI controller, as shown
t
v c (t) = v m 1 − ; 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts in Fig. 10. The error between reference dc-link voltage Vhv ∗
Ts
v c (t + Ts ) = v c (t) (28) and sensed dc-link voltage v hv is given to the outer loop
PI controller. The error signal between the generated signal
where v m = (Rs v b /Re ). (reference battery current i b ) from the outer controller and the
As shown in Fig. 9, at the beginning of switching period, measured battery current i b is supplied to the inner PI con-
a clock pulse sets the flip-flop (FF), which turns on the switch troller. The output of the inner PI controller is compared with
Sa1 (see Fig. 9). At t = d1 Ts , the negative slop-based carrier the high-frequency saw-tooth carrier signal for the generation
waveform v c (t) becomes equal to v q (t), which is an integral of PWM pulses for switch Sa1 .
signal of a rectified inductor voltage waveform v ∗L1 . Then, FF Fig. 10 also comprises the control logic required to obtain
gets reset, which turns off the switch Sa1 , as shown in Fig. 9. the RBG mode of operation. This control has also involved
The solar PV panel generates variable power depending dual loops to implement the operation effectively. The control
upon variation in solar irradiation; therefore, we cannot con- logic of RBG mode uses the torque or speed as the reference
nect the solar PV array directly to the battery. The isolated components to utilize the energy generated by the motor inertia
SEPIC dc–dc converter is connected between the battery and to charge the battery during the RBG operation. The output of
the solar PV panel to optimize the performance of solar the outer PI controller is a reference charging power, which
PV source (to track the maximum power) according to the produces reference battery current (reference power/battery
environmental conditions. To track the maximum power, a per- voltage) for the inner current controller. The inner PI controller
turb and observe (P&O)-based technique is used. The P&O is common for PRN and RBG modes. The output and inner

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 446 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO. 2, JUNE 2020

Fig. 12. Simulation results of the PIN-charging mode. (a) Voltage waveform
Fig. 11. Simulation results of the PIN-charging mode. (a) v g and i g . across capacitor Cs . (b) Voltage waveform across switch Sa1 .
(b) v b . (c) ib .

controller is compared with the saw-tooth carrier signal for

generation PWM pulses to switch Sa2 .

V. S IMULATION AND E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS

In this section, the findings of simulation and experimental
results are discussed. The simulation study was performed on
the Simulink platform of MATLAB. The experimental studies
were carried out using field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-
based dSPACE-1104 controller The parameters used for both
simulation and experimentation are given in Tables II and V.

A. Simulation Results
The simulation of the proposed converter in various operat-
ing modes is accomplished through 1-kW charging power with Fig. 13. Simulation results of the solar PV mode. (a) Solar irradiation.
48 V. The rated ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery is (b) Solar PV power. (c) v b . (d) ib .
selected as 42 Ah, the rms value of the grid voltage is 150 V,
and the rated dc-link voltage is 150 V. 3) PRN Mode: In this mode, the energy stored in the
1) PIN-Charging Mode: The relevant waveforms of this battery during PIN-charging and RBG modes mode is used to
mode are presented in Fig. 11. The in-phase nature of the accelerate the vehicle through charging the dc-link capacitor.
grid voltage (v g ) and current (i g ) have perfectly a sinusoidal The relevant waveforms of this mode are shown in Fig. 14.
nature, as shown in Fig. 11(a), which shows the effectiveness The control objective of this mode is to keep the dc-link
of the control strategy. The battery voltage (v b ) with 20% SOC voltage (v hv ) constant irrespective of any variation in the
and the battery current (i b ) are shown in Fig. 11(b) and (c), system. To check the validity of this mode, a step load
respectively. The battery voltage is around 50 V, and the variation from 1 to 1.5 kW is applied while regulating v hv
average battery current with 1-kW charging power is 20 A. The at a reference value, i.e., 150 V, as shown in Fig. 14(a). The
voltage waveform across capacitor Cs is shown in Fig. 12(a). variation in the dc-link current (i hv ) with a load is shown
The peak voltage across this capacitor is the same as the peak in Fig. 14(b). v b and i b are shown in Fig. 14(c) and (d),
grid voltage (212 V). The voltage across switch Sa1 is the sum respectively.
of grid voltage and the battery voltage (v g + v b ), as shown 4) RBG Mode: The simulated response of the developed
in Fig. 12(b). system when braking energy is recovered to charge the battery
2) Solar PV Battery Charging: The PV parameters for the is shown in Fig. 15. This mode is emulated based on a
proposed converter system are given in Table V. The simulated simplified representation of energy recovery from the dc-link
waveforms of this mode are shown in Fig. 13. The MPPT capacitor without a motor drive. Therefore, v hv is decreasing
operation is validated through step variation of solar irradiation when the RBG mode is emulated to send recovered energy
from 500 to 1000 W/m2 , as shown in Fig. 13(a), and the back to the battery to test the proposed converter and con-
corresponding variation of the maximum PV power varies trol strategy. The v hv variation rate is adjusted according to
from 400 to 800 W, respectively, as shown in Fig. 13(b). the amount of the recovery power. For this simplified test,
The waveforms of v b and i b are shown in Fig. 13(c) and (d), the battery is charged with 12-A current, which is kept constant
respectively. v b is nearly 50 V, and i b varies from 7.6 to 15.1 A. through closed-loop operation irrespective of the v hv variation.

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 SINGH et al.: INTEGRATED CONVERTER WITH REDUCED COMPONENTS FOR EVs UTILIZING SOLAR AND GRID POWER SOURCES 447

Fig. 17. Experimental waveforms of the PIN-charging mode.

Fig. 14. Simulation results of the PRN mode. (a) v hv . (b) ihv . (c) v b . (d) ib .

Fig. 18. Power quality measurement of the converter in the PIN-charging

mode.

Fig. 15. Simulation results of RBG mode. (a) v hv . (b) v b . (c) ib .

Fig. 19. Experimental waveforms of the voltage across capacitor Cs and

current through inductor i L1 .

the low-frequency ripple current depends on the value of the

inductive filter, which is connected in series with a battery
terminal. A power quality analysis of the proposed converter
Fig. 16. Snapshot of the experimental setup. in PIN-charging mode is shown in Fig. 18. The input PF is
near to the unity, while total harmonic distortion (THD) in
the grid current is 4.8%. The high PF and low THD show the
B. Experimental Results effectiveness of the converter operation in PIN-charging mode.
In this section, the experimental results of the proposed The voltage waveforms across capacitor Cs are the same as the
converter are described. The power and voltage specifications rectified v g , and the current through inductor L 1 is the same
for experimental validation are the same as the simulation as rectified i g shown in Fig. 19. The control signal waveforms
specifications. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 16. during the PIN-charging mode are shown in Fig. 20. The
1) PIN-Charging Mode: The waveforms of this mode voltage waveforms across switch Sa1 and diode D6 are shown
are presented in Fig. 17. i b , v b , v g , and i g are shown at in Fig. 21. The voltage across the switch and diode is a sum
channels 1–4. For 1-kW charging power, v g and i g are in the of the input and output voltages, i.e., (v g + v b ).
same phase, with sinusoidal shape, which is an indication of 2) Solar PV Battery Charging: The battery charging from
exact agreement between the simulation and hardware results. solar PV power is shown in Fig. 22. i b , v b , solar PV
v b is around 50 V, and i b has low-frequency ripple (100 Hz) power (Ppv ), and solar PV current (i pv ) are shown at
due to the single-stage charging method. The magnitude of channels 1–4 in Fig. 22. This mode is validated by applying

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 448 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO. 2, JUNE 2020

Fig. 20. Experimental control signal waveforms of the PIN-charging mode. Fig. 23. Experimental waveforms of the PRN mode.

Fig. 24. Experimental waveforms of switch Sa1 and diode D7 in the PRN
Fig. 21. Experimental waveforms across switch Sa1 and diode D6 . mode.

Fig. 25. Experimental waveforms of the RBG mode.

Fig. 22. Experimental waveforms of solar PV battery charging.

4) RBG Mode: The energy recovered through RBG process

is utilized to charge the battery to increase the driving range
step variation of the solar irradiation. The solar irradiation
per unit charge. The waveforms of this mode are shown
is varied from 500 to 1000 W/m2 . The maximum power of
in Fig. 25. i b , v b , i hv , and v hv are shown at channels 1–4.
PV is doubled with a twofold increase of solar irradiation,
This mode is validated by varying the v hv , and the battery is
which shows that MPPT is working effectively in the hardware
charged with a constant current. As aforementioned, this mode
system as well. v b is around 49.5 V, and the i b varies from
is simplified without a motor drive. v hv is decreasing when the
7.47 to 15.05 A.
RBG mode is emulated to send recovery power back to the
3) PRN Mode: The waveforms of this mode are shown
battery to test the proposed converter and control strategy.
in Fig. 23. i b , v b , i hv , and v hv are shown at channels 1–4.
The v hv variation rate is adjusted according to the amount
The dynamic performance of this operation mode is realized
of the recovery power. i b is kept at 12 A during the recovery
and examined by a step load change from 1 to 1.5 kW. v hv at
period.
CH4 is strictly regulated at the desired value of 150 V, which
indicates the effectiveness of the closed-loop operation. The
VI. C OMPARATIVE S TUDY
hardware results match well with the simulation results, which
indicates accurate performance of the proposed converter A comparative study of the proposed converter with existing
system both in simulation and experiment. The waveforms solar PV and grid-based converters has been performed, and
across switch Sa1 and diode D7 are shown in Fig. 24; both Tables V–VII summarize the results. The comparison has been
switch and diode tolerate a voltage stress of v hv . done for the buck-boost operation, the number of components,

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 SINGH et al.: INTEGRATED CONVERTER WITH REDUCED COMPONENTS FOR EVs UTILIZING SOLAR AND GRID POWER SOURCES 449

TABLE V
C OMPARATIVE S TUDY OF THE P ROPOSED C ONVERTER W ITH E XISTING C ONVERTERS

and the galvanic isolation. In [2], a solar-powered 10-kW

charger is proposed without PRN and RBG modes utilizing
a large number of components. To achieve two operational
modes, an additional converter is required. In [11], a Z-source
PV and grid-based isolated topology have been proposed for
EV charging, which utilizes 13 switches, two inductors, and
one isolated transformer. Nevertheless, it does not achieve all
operational modes of EVs. The converter in [9] has the same
configuration, as shown in Fig. 1, employing three converters
for the EV battery charging. Verma et al. [13] have proposed
a very compact charging solution for EVs. However, it has
two major limitations: 1) the MPPT operation is accomplished
with a buck converter, and hence, the MPPT operation cannot
be achieved for a wide variation of PV output voltage and
2) to achieve other operational modes of EVs, it requires
an additional converter. Recently, Singh et al. [14] have
proposed a grid and solar PV-based converter, which achieves
all operational modes of EVs and has galvanic isolation in each
mode. However, this topology operates as a flyback converter
in the PRN and RBG modes. The flyback converter has a
serious problem for high-power applications due to high
stresses (voltage and current) on the switching components in
each mode, as shown in Table VII. In addition, an efficiency
comparison of the proposed converter with the converter
in [14] is shown in Fig. 26. The proposed converter has slightly
lower efficiency in the PIN-charging mode compared with the
converter in [14]; this is due to an additional mechanical switch
in the main current path compared with [14]. In PRN and
RBG modes, the proposed converter has a higher efficiency
(2%–3%) compared with the converter in [14]. The reason
behind Fig. 26 results is that converter in [14] operates as a
Fig. 26. Efficiency comparison of the proposed converter with converter [14].
flyback converter in PRN and RBG modes, while the proposed (a) PIN-charging mode. (b) PRN mode. (c) RBG mode.
converter operates as a conventional boost converter and buck
converter in PRN and RBG modes, respectively. For a given
output power, the efficiency of the proposed converter, and the In a similar line of reasoning, the efficiency of the converter
converter in [14] are closed to each other in the PIN-charging in [14] in PRN or RBG modes is much lower than in
mode. Therefore, a peak current through the inductors of both the PIN-charging mode. Therefore, the design of the iso-
converters will be almost the same, and hence, the cross- lated transformer of the converter in [14] is decided by the
sectional area of the magnetic core and winding thickness PRN or RBG modes, and hence, the converter’s isolated
will be approximately the same as well. The cross-sectional transformer is of higher weight and size.
area of the core and winding thickness of an inductor are In addition, a cost ($) analysis of the proposed converter
proportional to the peak current as well as to an rms current for against the existing converters is shown in Fig. 27. The cost
a given saturation flux density [17]. Therefore, both converters analysis is accomplished based on the number of passive
have inductors of approximately the same size and weight. components and switches. This cost of components may vary

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 450 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO. 2, JUNE 2020

TABLE VI
M AXIMUM P OSSIBLE P EAK V OLTAGE AND C URRENT S TRESSES IN THE S WITCHES FOR PRN AND RBG M ODES

TABLE VII
M AXIMUM P OSSIBLE P EAK V OLTAGE AND C URRENT S TRESSES IN THE S WITCHES FOR PRN AND RBG M ODES

Fig. 27. Cost ($) analysis of proposed converter with the selected existing converters.

at the end of final product implementation due to the mass complementary to each other). Both power sources utilize the
purchase of components, the quality of the components, and same part of the converter for charging operation, which leads
so on. The cost of individual components as well as the total to the system having a smaller number of components and
cost of all the components is presented in Fig. 27. In the making the converter more desirable for onboard applications.
proposed system, due to the smaller number of passive com- During day time, solar PV can be the main source for charging,
ponents and switches as well as the reduction of the current and during night time, the grid power can be utilized for
sensor for PFC operation in CCM mode, the total cost of the battery charging. Moreover, the proposed system utilizes the
components is significantly less compared with the existing IVD technique for PFC, which eliminates one sensor require-
converters. ment for PFC. The elimination of the sensor requirement will
make the converter more compact. The proposed converter
VII. C ONCLUSION is validated in each mode through computer simulations and
In this article, a novel onboard power integrated converter experiments. The results obtained from both the simulations
that reduces the component count for EVs has been proposed. and experiments are in close agreement with each other, which
The proposed system can utilize solar PV and a grid source further validates the effective design of the hardware system
as an input for battery charging (not simultaneously, but and the control loop parameters.

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 SINGH et al.: INTEGRATED CONVERTER WITH REDUCED COMPONENTS FOR EVs UTILIZING SOLAR AND GRID POWER SOURCES 451

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[13] A. Verma, B. Singh, A. Chandra, and K. Al-Haddad, “An implementa- Ankit Kumar Singh (Member, IEEE) received the
tion of solar PV array based multifunctional EV charger,” in Proc. IEEE B.Tech. degree from Uttar Pradesh Technical Uni-
Transp. Electrific. Conf. Expo (ITEC), Jun. 2018, pp. 531–536. versity, Lucknow, India, in 2008, the M.Tech. degree
[14] A. K. Singh, K. A. Chinmaya, and M. Badoni, “Solar PV and grid based from the National Institute of Technology (NIT)
isolated converter for plug-in electric vehicles,” IET Power Electron., Hamirpur, Hamirpur, India, in 2013, and the Ph.D.
vol. 12, no. 14, pp. 3707–3715, Nov. 2019. degree from IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, India, in 2018.
[15] Y.-J. Lee, A. Khaligh, and A. Emadi, “Advanced integrated bidirectional He was a Lecturer with the Electrical Engineering
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Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 3970–3980, Oct. 2009. of Technology & Management, Lucknow, from 2009
[16] S. Dusmez and A. Khaligh, “A charge-nonlinear-carrier-controlled to 2011. He is currently an Assistant Professor with
reduced-part single-stage integrated power electronics interface for the Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology
automotive applications,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 63, no. 3, (TIET), Patiala, India. His research interests are in battery charging of electric
pp. 1091–1103, Mar. 2014. vehicles, renewable energy, and bidirectional dc–dc converters.
[17] A. K. Singh and M. K. Pathak, “Single-phase bidirectional AC/DC
converter for plug-in electric vehicles with reduced conduction losses,”
IET Power Electron., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 140–148, Jan. 2018.
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converter-fed brushless DC motor drive,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
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[19] A. K. Singh and M. K. Pathak, “Integrated converter for plug-in electric
vehicles with reduced sensor requirement,” IET Electr. Syst. Transp.,
vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 75–85, Jun. 2019. Anjanee Kumar Mishra (Member, IEEE) received
[20] D. Hart, Power Electronics. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill, the M.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees in power electronics
2011. and electrical machines and drives (PEEMD) from
[21] W. Tang, F. C. Lee, and R. B. Ridley, “Small-signal modeling of average IIT Delhi, New Delhi, India, in 2015 and 2020,
current-mode control,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 8, no. 2, respectively.
pp. 112–119, Apr. 1993. He is currently a Research Fellow with the Depart-
[22] G. Sen and M. E. Elbuluk, “Voltage and current-programmed modes ment of Computer Science and Electrical Engineer-
in control of the Z-source converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 46, ing, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI, USA.
no. 2, pp. 680–686, Mar. 2010. His areas of interest include renewable energy, elec-
[23] V. S. C. Raviraj and P. C. Sen, “Comparative study of proportional- tric drives, special machines, dc–dc converter, hybrid
integral, sliding mode, and fuzzy logic controllers for power converters,” energy storage systems, electric vehicles, and power
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 518–524, Mar. 1997. quality improvement in grid-interactive renewable energy systems.

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 452 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 6, NO. 2, JUNE 2020

Krishna Kumar Gupta (Member, IEEE) received She has coauthored a book Multilevel Inverters (Academic Press, Elsevier).
the B.Tech. degree in electrical engineering, Her research interests pertain to power converters, photovoltaic systems,
the M.Tech. degree in power systems, and the Ph.D. LED-based lighting, and electric vehicles.
degree from the Maulana Azad National Institute of
Technology, Bhopal, India, in 2005, 2007, and 2014,
respectively.
He is currently with the Electrical and Instrumen-
tation Engineering Department, Thapar Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Patiala, India. He has
coauthored two books: Multilevel Inverters (Acad-
emic Press) and Modeling and Control of Power
Electronics Converter System for Power Quality Improvements (Academic
Press). His research interests include power electronics for renewable energy,
multilevel inverters, and LED-based lighting systems.
Dr. Gupta was a recipient of the Young Scientist Award conferred upon by
the Government of Madhya Pradesh, India, in 2015. He was also awarded by
the Confederation of Indian Industry for his contribution to teaching.

Taehyung Kim (Senior Member, IEEE) received

Pallavee Bhatnagar (Senior Member, IEEE) was the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
born in Bhopal, India. She received the B.E. degree Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA,
in electrical engineering from the Lakshmi Narain in 2003.
College of Technology, Bhopal, in 1998, and the He was a Senior Research Engineer with the
Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical Samsung Electronics Digital Appliances Research
Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute of Center in 2003. From 2004 to 2005, he was a Post-
Technology, Bhopal, in 2015. Doctoral Researcher with the Advanced Vehicle,
From 1999 to 2001, she was an Assistant Engineer Power Electronics, Suwon, South Korea, and Motor
with All India Radio, Bhopal. From 2001 to 2005, Drive Laboratory, Texas A&M University. In 2005,
she was the Head (Product Development) of Nucleus he joined the Department of Electrical and Computer
Electro-Enterprises Limited, Bhopal. In 2005, she Engineering, University of Michigan at Dearborn, Dearborn, MI, USA, where
joined the National Thermal Power Corporation of India, New Delhi, India, he is currently an Associate Professor. In 2014, he visited Chung-Ang
as Engineer, where she worked for one year. Thereafter, she took up teaching University, Seoul, South Korea, as an invited Brain-Pool Research Scholar.
and has now taught for more than a decade. In 2019, she was a Research His research interests include electric and hybrid electric vehicles, power
Scientist with the Skoltech Center for Energy Science and Technology electronics, and motor drives.
(CEST), Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia. She Dr. Kim was a recipient of the 2012 Second Prize Paper Award from the
is currently the Dean (Academics) of the IES College of Technology, Bhopal. IEEE Industry Applications Society (Annual Society’s Best Magazine Article).

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