MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES

- AMEM 201 –
Lecture 2: Industrial Materials & their Properties

DR. SOTIRIS L. OMIROU

Choosing materials

What is it? What is it

used for?

What materials Why choose

are used? that material?

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 A saucepan for
cooking

metal
plastic

conductor insulator
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A dustpan and brush for cleaning

plastic plastic

light and rigid flexible

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 A glass for drinking

glass

waterproof

easy to clean

A lightbulb for seeing in the dark

glass metal

transparent conductor

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 Industrial Materials

Four basic categories:

– metals
– ceramics
– polymers
– composites

Other useful materials are:

natural rubber/leather, glass, wood, cotton, silk

and wool

Industrial Materials

Criteria for selecting the right material:

Properties of the material

Deterioration-
Deterioration-rate

Cost

Manufacturing
process that can be used to make products
depend on the mechanical and physical properties of the
materials

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 Industrial Materials
Metals & Alloys

Alloys are composed of two or more elements (at least one element is metal)
metal)

Alloys can be divided into two basic groups:

1. ferrous (iron alloys)

2. Nonferrous

Steel is an alloy of iron. It contains 0.02 to 2.11 % carbon. It may also have
manganese, chromium and nickel to enhance the properties of the metal

Cast iron is also an alloy of iron, carbon (2 to 4 %) and silicon (0.5 to 3 %)

Gray cast iron is used in blocks and heads of internal combustion engines

Industrial Materials

Ceramics: Compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements – oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbon.

Types:

– Traditional ceramics – clay for brick, tile and pottery, silica for glass
products and alumina and silicon carbide for abrasives used for grinding

– Newer ceramics – tungsten carbide and titanium carbide for cutting tools
and grinding abrasives

– Crystalline ceramics are formed from powders and then sintered

* Sintering – heating to a temperature below the melting point to achieve

bonding between the powders

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 Industrial Materials

Polymers

– Compounds consisting of carbon plus one or more other elements such as hydrogen,
hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine

– Thermoplastic polymers soften when heated and when cooled, they are hard again –
polyethylene bags, PVC pipes and nylon

– Thermoset polymers char and burn when heated – plastic cups and dishes made of
melamine.

Composites
composite material is a mixture of two or more materials with properties superior to
to the
materials of which it is made,
made, ex. Concrete (rocks, sand and cement)

- reinforced plastics
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Properties of Materials

Materials are chosen for their characteristics or properties.

Examples:
– glass for windows
– plastic for insulators
– copper for electrical wires.

Common properties:
– strength
– hardness
– density
– ability to conduct electricity / heat
– resistance to corrosion

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 Properties of Materials
Mechanical properties of materials

Strength, Toughness, Hardness, Ductility,

Elasticity, Fatigue and Creep

Physical properties

Density, Specific heat, Melting and boiling point,

Thermal expansion and conductivity,
Electrical and magnetic properties

Chemical properties

Oxidation, Corrosion, Flammability, Toxicity, … 13

Properties of Materials
Mechanical properties determine the behavior of a material
when subjected to mechanical forces

STRENGTH is the ability of a material to keep its own shape when a

force is applied. There are four kinds of forces:
forces:

Tension is a force that pulls on a piece of material, e.g. pulling a

spring

Compression is a force that pushes on or squeezes a material,

e.g. squeezing s sponge

Shear force acts on a material like a pair of scissors. One part of

the material slides in one direction and the other part
part slides in
the opposite direction

Torque or torsion is the twisting force, e.g. using a wrench to

turn a bolt
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 Properties of Materials

Tension Compression Shear

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Properties of Materials

TENSION TEST

Most common mechanical stress-strain test

Used to ascertain several mechanical properties

that are important in design

A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a

gradually increasing tensile load that is applied
uniaxially along the long axis of the specimen.

A standard specimen is shown in the figure below.

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 Properties of Materials

The specimen is mounted by its

ends into the holding grips of
the testing apparatus

Tensile testing machine

– To elongate the specimen at
a constant rate
– To continuously and
simultaneously measure the
instantaneous load and the
resulting extension
– Load using load cell
– Extension using
extensometer

Takes few minutes and is

destructive. 17

Properties of Materials
Engineering Stress (σ) =
Instantaneous applied load (F) /
Original Area (Ao
(Ao)
)
F
σ =
A0

Engineering strain (ε
(ε)

li = instantaneous length

lo = original length
li − l 0 ∆ l
ε = =
l0 l0

Compression Test (Similar to tensile test, compressive load) 18

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 Properties of Materials
Stress – Strain Diagram (animation)

animation
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Properties of Materials
Failure in Tension, Young’s modulus and Tensile strength

In the linear elastic

range: Hooke’s law

σ=Eε
E: Young’s modulus

If E is large => material is stiff.

if E is small => material is elastic.
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 Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties: TOUGHNESS

– Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy without

breaking.

Toughness is an estimate of how much energy is consumed

before the material fractures.

Toughness = the strain energy = area under the stress-

stress-strain curve

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Mechanical properties: TOUGHNESS

• Approximated by the area under the stress-strain

curve.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larger toughness
stress, σ (metals)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, ε

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 Mechanical properties: DUCTILITY

Measures how much the material can be stretched before fracture

Ductility = 100 x (Lf – Lo)/Lo

High ductility: platinum, steel, copper

Good ductility: aluminum
Low ductility (brittle): chalk, glass, graphite

- Walkman headphone wires: Al or Cu?

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Mechanical properties: HARDNESS

resistance to plastic deformation by indentation

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 Brinell Hardness Test

Widely used for

testing metals and
nonmetals of low to
medium hardness

A hard ball is
pressed into
specimen surface
with a load of 500,
1500, or 3000 kg

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Brinell Hardness

2F
HB =
πDb (Db − Db2 − Di2 )

Where,
HB = Brinell Hardness,
F = indentation load, kg
Db = diameter of ball, mm,
Di = diameter of indentation, mm

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 Rockwell Hardness Test

(1) initial minor load and (2) major load.

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Mechanical properties: FATIGUE

The phenomenon leading to fracture under repeated or fluctuating stress. Fatigue

fractures are progressive beginning as minute cracks and grow under the action of
fluctuating stress

Modes of fatigue testing

Try to break a paper clip by using a cyclic loading;

notice the appearance and propagation of cracks 28

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Mechanical properties: CREEP

If a material is kept under a constant load over a long period of time,

it undergoes permanent deformation. This phenomenon is seen in many
metals and several non-metals.

For most materials, creep rate increases with increase in temperature.

The phenomenon does not have much direct implication in manufacturing,

but has significant use in design of parts that, for example, carry a load
permanently during their use.

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Electrical properties

– Materials that offer very little resistance to the flow of electricity

electricity
are conductors,
conductors, e.g. silver and copper

– Materials that resist the flow of electricity most strongly are

insulators,
insulators, e.g. plastic and rubber

– Materials that can be attracted by a magnet are called magnetic

materials,
materials, e.g. iron, nickel etc

Thermal properties

Properties related to the ability of a material to conduct heat.

Copper and aluminum are the two best conductors of heat
Insulation is a layer of material used to prevent the movement ofof
heat
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Physical properties:

Density = ρ = mass/volume

Applications:

Why is steel a good material for the wrecking ball used to demolish
demolish old
buildings?

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Physical properties:

Melting point
This is the temperature at which the material changes phase
from solid to liquid.

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Physical properties:

Specific heat
The amount of heat energy that will raise the temperature of a
unit mass of the material by 1°C.

Applications :

In machining and forming processes, a lot of heat is generated due to

deformation and friction between the tool and workpiece.
If the specific heat of the work piece is low, then its temperature will
rise very rapidly, resulting in poor surface finish. So extra or more
efficient coolants may be required.
Likewise, if the specific heat of the tool material is low, the tool will
heat up rapidly, leading to lower tool life.

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Physical properties:

Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is the quantity of heat that passes
in unit time through unit area of a plate, when its opposite faces are
subject to unit temperature gradient

Applications :

Titanium is used in many designs where light, hard and strong metal
components are required, e.g. in aircraft components. However, it is
not easy to machine (e.g. using milling machines) in part due to its
poor thermal conductivity – the high temperature gradients causes very
high temperature near the point of cutting, which rapidly heats the tool
cutting edge and destroys the tool.
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Physical properties:

Thermal expansion
The linear coefficient of thermal expansion is defined as the
proportional change in a material’s length when its temperature
changes by 1°C:

coefficient of linear thermal expansion = α = ∆L/(L ∆T)

Applications :

In machine tools where different components are made of different

components, the assembly may jam, or become too loose and vibrate,
when the temperature changes. Their design must account and
compensate for the different rates of thermal expansion for the
materials.
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Summary

Materials have different mechanical, physical, electrical properties

Knowledge of materials’ properties is required to

Select appropriate material for design requirement

Select appropriate manufacturing process
Optimize processing conditions for economic manufacturing
…

Reference: Chapter 2, Chapter 3, Mfg Engg & Tech, Kalpakjian & Schmid
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