HP1000 – Psychology Core Concepts Chapter 1 Notes

Chapter-opening problem: How would psychology test the claim that sugar makes children hyperactive?
- Question that should be answered by the end of the chapter (Self-note: testing the effect of sugar on
the behavioural outcome of hyperactivity?)

1.1 Key Question – What is Psychology and What Is It NOT?

1.1 Core Concept – Psychology is a broad field, with many specialties, but fundamentally psychology is
the science of behaviour and mental processes

Internal mental processes (observed indirectly) – e.g. thinking, feeling and desiring

External observable behaviours – e.g. talking, smiling and running

Scientific component of psychology – the science of psychology is based on objective, verifiable

evidence, not just opinions of experts and authorities

Three ways of doing psychology:

1. Experimental/Research Psychologists – Psychologists who do research on basic psychological

processes – as contrasted with applied psychologists.
2. Teachers of Psychology – Psychologists whose primary job is teaching, typically in high schools,
colleges, and universities.
3. Applied Psychologists – Psychologists who use the knowledge developed by experimental
psychologists to solve human problems.

Applied psychological specialties – Industrial and Organizational (I/O), Sports, School, Clinical and
Counseling, Forensic, Environmental

Psychology is not psychiatry – Virtually all psychiatrists, but only some psychologists, treat mental
disorders – and there the resemblance ends. Psychiatry is a medical specialty, not part of psychology at
all. Psychiatrists view patients from a medical perspective, psychologists view people from a
psychological perspective. E.g., clinical and counseling psychologists are likely to view the people they
are helping as clients rather than patients.

Pseudo-psychology – Erroneous assertions or practices set forth as being scientific psychology.

Six Critical Thinking Skills that should be asked when confronting new ideas:

1. What is the source?

2. Is the claim reasonable or extreme?
3. What is the evidence? - Anecdotal evidence is not scientific evidence
4. Could bias contaminate the conclusion? - E.g., emotional bias, confirmation bias
5. Does the reasoning avoid common fallacies?
6. Does the issue require multiple perspectives? E.g., psychological, economic, sociological
perspectives
1.2 Key Question – What are Psychology’s Six Main Perspectives?

1.2 Core Concept – Six main viewpoints dominate modern psychology – the biological, cognitive,
behavioural, whole-person, developmental, and sociocultural perspectives – each of which grew out of
radical new concepts about mind and behaviour.

Biological perspective – The psychological perspective that searches for the causes of behaviour in the
functioning of genes, the brain and nervous system, and the endocrine (hormone) system.

- The mind is viewed as a product of the brain in this perspective.

- Our personalities, preferences, behaviour patterns, and abilities alll stem from our physical
makeup.
- E.g., procrastination, from this perspective, may result from a certain type of brain chemistry,
which could be inherited.
- Two variations on the biological theme – neuroscience and evolutionary psychology
o Neuroscience – The field devoted to understanding how the brain creates thoughts,
feelings, motives, conciousness, memories and other mental processes.
o Evolutionary psychology – A relatively new specialty in psychology that sees behaviour
and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptations for survival and
reproduction.

Cognitive perspective – Another of the main psychological viewpoints distinguished by an emphasis on

mental processes, such as learning, memory, perception, and thinking, as forms of information
processing.

- A brief history:
- Introspection – The process of reporting on one’s own conscious mental experiences.
- Introspection was used to study what Wundt and his students proposed to be the basic
‘elements’ of consciousness, including sensation and perception, memory, attention,
emotion, thinking, learning, and language.
- Structuralism – A historical school of psychology deovted to uncovering the basic structures
that make up mind and thought. Structuralists sought the ‘elements’ of conscious
experience.
- Functionalism – A historical school of psychology that believed mental processes could best
be understood in terms of their adaptive purpose and function. (A perspective of a critic of
Wundt and of Structuralism)
- However, both above perspectives agreed on introspection, which however was their
greatest point of vulnerability as the introspective method was subjective and thus could be
argued as non-scientific.
- E.g., procrastination, from this perspective, points out that procrastinators often underestimate
how long a project might take (expectation), and that they may also be victim of confirmation
bias by remembering the times they previously successfully procrastinated and not the times
they failed. Procrastinators may also tell themselves they do their best work under pressure,
interpreting their behaviour as not a problem.

Behavioural perspective – A psychological viewpoint that finds the source of our actions in
environmental stimuli, rather than in inner mental processes.
 - Behaviourism – A historical school (as well as modern perspective) that has sought to make
psychology an objective science by focusing only on behaviour – to the exclusion of mental
processes.
- e.g., procrastination, in this perspective, explains that the delay of dreaded work, is due to the
likely expenditure of that time on enjoyable things that grants us instant gratification. Tackling
the work at the last minute and managing to pull it off also rewards us with feelings of success,
which further exacerbates this behaviour.

Whole-person perspectives – A group of psychological perspectives that take a global view of the
person: Included are psychodynamic psychology, humanistic psychology, and trait and temperament
psychology.

- Psychodynamic psychology – A clinical approach emphasizing the understanding of mental

disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts.
- Psychoanalysis – An approach to psychology based on Sigmund Freud’s assertions, which
emphasize unconscious processes. The term is used to refer broadly both to Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory and to his psychoanalytic treatment method.
- e.g. procrastination, a person’s pattern of self-defeating behaviour, might be interpreted in
this perspective as motivated by an unconscious fear of failure.
- Most psychoanalysts today are physicians with a specialty in psychiatry and advanced
training in Freudian methods. (I.e. the difference between psychologist and psychoanalyst)
- Humanistic psychology – A clinical approach emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and
free will.
- While psychoanalytic emphasizes sinister forces in the unconscious, humanistic psychology
emphasizes the positive side of our nature.
- It proposes innate needs for growth and goodness and emphasizes the free will people can
exercise to make choices affecting their lives and growth. Your self-concept and self-esteem
have a huge influence on your thoughts, emotions, and actions, all of which ultimately
impact the development of your potential.
- Trait and temperament psychology – A psychological perspective that view behaviour and
personality as the products of enduring psychological characteristics.
- The fundamental idea of this group says: Differences among people arise from difference in
persistent characteristics and internal dispositions called traits and temperaments
- E.g. procrastination in this perspective might be explained in terms of the extent to which a
person possesses the trait of conscientiousness.

Developmental Perspective – One of the six main psychological viewpoints, distinguished by its
emphasis on nature and nurture and on predictable changes that occur across the lifespan.

- In this perspective, psychological change results from interaction between heredity (nature; the
biological perspective) written in our genes and the influence of our environment (nurture;
behavioural perspective). Developmental psychology is where the two forces of biological and
behavioural psychology meet.
- Big idea of developmental psychology: People change in predictable ways as the influences of
heredity and environment unfold over time. I.e. humans think and act differently at different
times of their lives.
 - Procrastination, in this perspective, is normal for teenagers as they are still learning how to
juggle multiple responsibilities and accurately estimate how long things take to complete; All
while simultaneously coping with their changing bodies and social worlds.

Sociocultural perspective – A main psychological viewpoint emphasizing the importance of social

interaction, social learning, and culture in explaining human behaviour.

- The idea of social influence is center stage in this perspective.

- Culture – A complex blend of language, beliefs, customs, values, and traditions developed by a
group of people and shared with others in the same environment.
- Cross-cultural psychologists – Those who work in this specialty are interested in how
psychological processes may differ among people of different cultures.
- Cross-cultural psychologists have also begun the long task of reexamining the ‘laws’ of
psychology across cultural and ethnic boundaries. (Since earlier psychology developed in north-
america and europe, within similar culture, which lead to ‘cultural blindness’ in the science.)
- Sociocultural perspectives adds an additional concept on top of the previous perspectives: The
power of situation; where the social and cultural situation in which the person is embedded can
sometimes overpower all other factors that influence behaviour.
- E.g., certain cultures place greater emphasis on meeting deadlines, which influences the
behaviour (such as procrastination) of an individual in that culture.
1.3 Key Question – How do psychologists develop new knowledge?

1.3 Core Concept – Psychologists, like all other scientists, use the scientific method to test their ideas
empirically.

Scientific method – A four-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions
designed to control biases and subjective judgements.

1. Develop a hypothesis
2. Gathering objective data
3. Analyzing the results
4. Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the results

Empirical investigation – An approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as
research data.

Theory – A testable explanation for a set of facts or observations. In science, a theory is not just
speculation or a guess.

Hypothesis – A statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study, a statement predicting the
relationship among variables in a study. The term literally means ‘little theory’, because it often
represents only one piece of a larger theoretical explanation. Alternatively, a hypothesis can just be an
interesting idea that piques our curiosity – as in our study of the effects of sugar on children. To be
testable, a hypothesis must be potentially falsifiable.

Operational definitions – Objective descriptions of concepts involved in a scientific study. Operational

definitions may restate concepts to be studied in behavioural terms (e.g. fear may be operationally
defined as moving away from a stimulus.) Operational definitions also specify the procedures used to
produce and measure important variables under investigation (e.g. ‘attraction’ may be measured by the
amount of time one person spends looking at another).

Collecting objective data – investigating a question empirically means collecting evidence carefully and
systematically, using methods designed to avoid false conclusions cause dby our expectations, biases,
and prejudices. This allows the data we obtain to be applicable/generalizable to a larger group of people
with more confidence.

Analyzing the Results and Accept or Reject the Hypothesis – Collected data is then analyzed by some
type of mathematical or statistical formula to declare whether our hypothesis has been supported. Else,
we will reject it.

Publish, Criticize, and Replicate the Results – Critics may look for flaws in the research design: Did the
experimenters choose the participants properly? Were the statistical analyses done correctly? Could
other factors account for the results? Alternatively, they may decide to check the study by replicating it.
In research, this refers to doing a study over to see whether the same results are obtained. As a control
for bias, replication is often done by someone other than the researcher who performed the original
study.

Fives types of psychological research – There are several specific ways a researcher can collect objective
data within the scientific method. We should choose the method best suited to the particular
hypothesis and resources.

1. Experiments – the scientific use of this word applies to a particular set of procedures for
collecting information under highly controlled conditions. This careful design means that an
experiment is the only type of research method that can reliably determine a cause-effect
relationship.
a. An independent variable is operated independently by the researcher, while keeping all
other variables constant. The dependent variable, which is the observed
effects/outcome of the variation of the independent variable can then be said to
depend on the independent variable.
b. Independent variable – A stimulus condition so named because the experimenter
changes it independently of all the other carefully controlled experimental conditions
c. Dependent variable – The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects
in a study.
d. Experimental group – Participants in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment
of interest.
e. Control group – Participants who are used as a comparison for the experimental group.
The control group is not given the special treatment of interest.
f. Random assignment – A process used to assign individuals to various experimental
conditions by chance alone
2. Correlational study – A form of research in which the relationship between variables is studied,
but without the experimental manipulation of an independent variable. Correlational studies
cannot determine cause-and-effect relationship
a. In correlational research you look for a ‘natural experiment’ that has already occurred
by chance in the real world. This is to circumvent the limitations posed by ethics in
conducting certain experiments.
b. As further control, we should try to match the groups of our participants as much as
possible in every aspect except for that of our independent variable
c. Three types of correlation:
i. Positive correlation – A correlation indicating that the variables change
simultaneously in the same direction: As one grows larger or smaller, the other
grows or shrinks in a parallel way.
ii. Negative correlation – A correlation indicating that the variables change
simultaneously in opposite directions: As one becomes larger, the other gets
smaller.
iii. Zero correlation: When two variables have no relationship to each other.
d. Note: Correlation does not necessarily mean causation
3. Surveys – A technique used in descriptive research, typically involving seeking people’s
responses to a prepared set of verbal or written items.
a. The easy access to many people is also the source of the survey’s biggest disadvantage:
vulnerability to a variety of biases
i. Social desirability bias
ii. Wording of the questions can also create other biases
iii. The sample – how well do the respondents represent the general population
iv. Survey conditions – Anonymous? Might the setting of completion of the survey
bias their responses?
4. Naturalistic observation – A form of descriptive research involving behavioural assessment of
people or animals in their natural surroundings
a. For when researchers want to know how people act in their natural surroundings (in
contrast to the artificial conditions of a lab)
b. The conditions are far less controlled, but the best naturalistic observations follow a
carefully thought-out plan through use of systematic procedures for observation and
data collection and by careful training of observers to minimize expectancy bias
c. The advantages are that the behaviours that naturally occur often reveal insights not
found in a laboratory setting, and it may also be more cost effective in some situations.
d. The disadvantages include lack of control over the environment, meaning causal
conclusions cannot be made. It can also be time-consuming and expensive to conduct a
well-designed naturalistic study.
5. Case studies – Research involving a single individual (or, at most, a few individuals)
a. Conducted on one or a few individuals with rare problems and unusual talents.
b. Disadvantages include its subjectivity, small sample size, and lack of control over
variables that could affect the individuals under study. These limitations severely restrict
the researcher’s ability to draw conclusions that can be applied to other individuals, but
 the case study can still sometimes give us valuable information that could not be
obtained otherwise.

Controlling biases in psychological research

1. Emotional bias – involves an individual’s cherished beliefs, strong preference, unquestioned

assumptions, or personal prejudices
2. Expectancy bias – can also affect scientists’ conclusions when they observe only what they
expect to observe
3. Placebo – Substance that appears to be a drug but is not. Placebos are often referred to as
‘sugar pills’ because they might contain only sugar, rather than a real drug.
4. Double-blind study – An experimental procedure in which both researchers and participants are
uninformed about the nature of the independent variable being administered.

Ethical Issues in Psychological Research

- Informed consent – Insures that research participants are informed of the procedures of the
research, as well as any potential dangers involved, so they may opt out if desired.
- Deception – Guidelines do allow for deception under some conditions, provided no substantial
risks are likely to accrue to the participants.
- Animal studies – Researchers should weigh the cost of any discomfort caused to animals against
the value of the information sought in the research