CARTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

• Maps are a form of graphic communication that like other

Cartographic Symbols graphic forms convey meaning primarily by symbols.
• Symbols are the graphic language of maps; the selection
and design of symbols are a major part of creating a
successful map.
• To represent spatial concepts, relationships, and
distributions, such as the pattern of population density in
By Tanzania, in words is extremely cumbersome and
generally ineffective; the reader simply cannot grasp the
E.H. Silayo relationship between area and distribution. A verbal
description must be read in linear fashion; that is, a
Department of Geomatics sentence must be read from start to finish to make sense,
not from the middle outward. But a map can be read in any
(ARU) order and still be understood. In fact, with a
• simple map, the meaning can be assimilated almost
instantly.

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• To interpret a map, the reader identifies the

Tables and even numbers placed on a map are not as symbols from the legend, recognizes the spatial
relationships between the objects symbolized; and
effective at showing a spatial distribution as symbols.
then interprets patterns.
• Because of this multilevel perception, the
cartographer must choose symbols that are distinct
and easily identified in the legend and must also
choose the symbol system that most effectively
portrays the relationships featured.
• Well-chosen symbols result in a map that is
readily understood because it states its message
clearly and unambiguously.
• A poor choice of symbolism produces a map that
is confusing and may even mislead the reader.
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CARTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS
• What is a Cartographic Symbol? • Cartographic symbols constitute a
– Cartographic Symbols are graphic marks on a map or chart to which
meaning is assigned. graphic language.
• The study of symbols distinguishes three • In use: a cartographic mark may be selected
perspectives, namely:
– Lexical, and assigned a meaning, e.g. a circle
– Functional, and representing a human settlement.
– Cognitive (MacEachren, 1995).
• Lexical refers to ‘meaning’. • To show a human settlement, the circle will
• Functional refers to anything that can carry be placed on the map at a spot where the
‘meaning’.
settlement can be found. In this way, the
• Cognitive applies to an individual, how he sees and
interprets symbols. symbols on maps are said to be locative.

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 Cartographic Symbols contd Cartographic Representation
• Given that the symbol stands for something, it can be said • Cartographic representation involves
to be representational. creating interpretable graphic summaries of
– Thus, the circle, standing for human settlements, will
communicate or transfer information from map maker spatial information.
to the map user.
• Symbols on a map show the position, the nature,
and sometimes the value of phenomena. All
symbols have location on the map, which
corresponds to the position of the object.
• Hence symbols are said to be locative,
representational and therefore communicative.

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The Structuring Process 1

The Occurrence of Objects in Real World
• Terrain features occur at Points, along Lines
• Just as there are a multitude of real world objects
on the earth’s surface, so too would there be as
and within Areas.
many symbols each representing a specific object. • Corresponding to these three types of
• But this would be difficult and confusing to symbols (or graphic elements), can be
understand so many and unstructured symbols. construed: namely Point, Line and area
The human mind understands quickly structured symbols.
order.
• Hence the need to study how objects occur in real
world with the view to ordering/structuring them.

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Point, line and area symbols Classification of point Symbols

• Point symbols represent location and • Point symbols can be classified according to
characteristics of features occurring at point their shapes/outlines as:
locations or relatively small areas in relation to
map scale. Examples include: a man hole, a well, – Geometrical/abstract symbols.
etc. In digital technology, a line is a sequence or – Pictorial/descriptive symbols.
stream of point coordinates (x, y) with a node at
each end (vector data). – Letter/text/number symbols
• Line symbols represent features which occur along
lines, such as roads, rivers, boundaries, etc.
• Area symbols represent a closed geographic
surface feature which occur within
polygons/boundary lines, e.g. a lake, a village, etc.

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 Geometric Symbols The Form of Geometric Symbols
• Geometric Symbols: Geometrical point symbols
– The form is important. Can be a square, a
circle, a triangle etc. Advantages:
- easy to construct
– A legend is necessary to explain the symbols
– Can be used for qualitative and quantitative
representations.
- proper location possible
– Require care when designing small symbols - do not occupy much space

Disadvantage:
no direct visual relation to the subject represented

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Usage of Geometric Point Symbols Pictorial Symbols

• Pictorial Symbols
• Two kinds of data are symbolized at points:
those that actually occur at points, such as – The outline of pictorial symbols resembles what
are represented. Hence from their appearances,
locations of places on small-scale maps, and
they are simple to understand.
data that are aggregated at a point, such as
totals for districts or other enumeration – Are used for qualitative information only
areas. In one sense, this is a function of – Are difficult to produce
scale. Cities, for example, actually cover – Are difficult to position on map.
area, but even a sprawling city like Dar es – Take too much space on maps
Salaam is merely a point on a small-scale – Obstruct other map detail.
world map.
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Examples of Pictorial Symbols

Pictorial point symbols

Advantage:
meaning is clear from the appearance of the symbol
Disadvantages:
- difficult to construct
- difficult to locate
- occupy relatively more space
- difficult to adjust the optical/visual weight
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 The letter symbol
• The letter symbol:
Symbols are scale related
– Use letters of the alphabet, Examples: Ag, Sch., Au,
etc. respectively for Silver, School and Gold. • Point, line and area symbols are related to
Advantages: the scale of a map. Explain:
– Are easy to create and use.
– Meaning must be explained through a legend.
a) area objects ⇒ point symbols (towns)
Disadvantages: b) area objects ⇒ line symbols (rivers)
– They mix up with map text.
– Do not have any visual impression. So are not much
used in cartography.

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The Structuring Process 2 GRAPHIC VARIABLES

• Various types of symbols are used on a map
• Graphic/Visual variables are graphic
to present the total information. Hence the
characteristics of symbols.
need to:
• Visual variables permit differentiation of symbols
– deploy systematic graphic similarities and
differences among the symbols to express by the characteristics and values they represent.
likeness and distinctions among the real world • Graphic variables are the grammar of the graphic
phenomena mapped. language. Symbols have characteristics that can be
• The graphic elements can be varied manipulated to suit the category of data being
systematically by deploying different mapped. The characteristics are referred to as
geometric variations called graphic/visual Visual /graphic Variables.
variables.
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The Graphic Variables The visual variables of symbols

• The Graphic Variables are:

– Form,
– Dimension (size),
– Colour (hue),
– Density/Value (brightness or lightness),
– Spacing/Texture, and
– Orientation

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 Likenesses and Distinctions The visual variables

• Graphic variables are used to express colour form

similarities and differences of mapped
phenomena/features. Hence, it is necessary
to: value
– Identify relationships and differences among
data elements, and
– To do proper data grouping (classification)
orientation
prior to symbol design.
size texture
31 Geoinformatics, Cartography and Visualization

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Form Dimension
• The form of a graphic symbol refers to the • Once the form of a symbol has been
external configuration of its geometric outline. selected, various sizes of the symbol can be
• Examples are: a circle, a square, a triangle, a generated to represent different magnitudes
rectangle, a plus sign, etc. Examples: or importance of a specific phenomena.

∆ • Example: see next slide
• These are used to distinguish/differentiate between
object types. They are used to map qualitative
information.

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An Example of Dimension as a Graphic Colour

Variable • The form and dimension of a symbol may
be held fixed or varied. Colour may then be
introduced to distinguish between one
feature and another.
• The colour may be either a series of the
50 100 150 250 Persons/km
2 same hue or different hues.
• Example:
• Note that this is quantitative mapping of
various amounts of the same feature.
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 Colour contd. Colour contd.
• Example: • But if different levels (value) of the same
colour is used, differences expressed will be
in amount/importance, while relationship
illustrated by the common form of the
symbol.
• In this case different colours are used to
distinguish different objects (colour as a This scheme is used to portray ordinal
variable) which are related (form of symbol information about a specific feature.
is the same).

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Spacing/Texture
Value/Density
• Graphic elements such as lines or dots are
• The value of a symbol refers to the amount systematically repeated over an area to
of lightness/saturation of the hue/black and produce a visual pattern. The orientation of
white used to cover an area of display. the elements is held fixed and separation
• Example: between adjacent lines varied
systematically, each separation being made
0% 20% 50% 80%

This may represent differences in exact to represent a certain level of a given data
amounts or relative importance of a specific type.
feature.
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An Example of Spacing as a Graphic

Variable Orientation

• The graphic elements are similar to those in

100-150 51-99 < 50
spacing but in this case, separation between
Persons/ km2
adjacent lines is held constant, and
directions changed to represent different
phenomena

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 The Use of the Graphic Variables
Examples of Orientation as a • Form, Dimension, Colour and Density can be applied
Graphic Variable to point and line symbols.
• Colour, Density, Spacing and Orientation can be used
to generate patterns as area symbols.
Soil type A Soil type B Soil type C • The graphic variables can be used to illustrate
Qualitative and/or Quantitative information.
• The variables are used to express similarities/relations
  and ∆ ∇ and differences of mapped phenomena.
• Hence the need to identify relations and differences
among data elements and to do proper data
grouping/classification prior to symbol design.
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The Use of Specific Graphic Variables Variation of Point Symbols

• Form - Used to indicate Qualitative differences • Variations of the basic symbol are possible by:
– Addition, or
• Dimension - Illustrates Quantitative differences
– Extension.
• Colour - Illustrates Qualitative, Quantitative
Addition:
and Associative aspects
• Example, if basic form is a circle, representing
• Density - Illustrates Quantitative attributes settlements, addition may be made to it to get
• Spacing - Illustrates Quantitative attributes various levels of settlements.
• Orientation - Illustrates Qualitative differences

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Examples of variation of the

Variation of Point Symbols contd.
basic forms of point symbols by Extension:
addition • Example, consider a square as a basic form
representing say a building. Extensions give
symbols representing the use of the buildings eg. a
 church and a mosque.

  

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 The Dimension of Point Symbols
Example of variation of the form
of a point symbol by extension • The size of the symbol can be varied to
represent relative importance of quantitative
information (ratio or ordinal information) .
• There should be sufficient difference in size
between symbols to create visual contrast
A building A church A mosque
• Threshold size of point symbols should be
taken into account.

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The Colour of Point Symbols Point, line and area symbols

• Point symbols can be achromatic or
coloured.
• For achromatic symbols, the distinguishing
factor between one symbol and another is Line symbols:
form. This poses design challenges of
achromatic map symbols.
• Size of a symbol Vs colour intensity and
value as well as its background. represent linear features
• What is the importance of these variations?
27 Geoinformatics, Cartography and Visualization

• Colour has its own variables, (see later).

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The Visual Variable of Line Symbols The Colour of a Line Symbol

• The form of a line symbol may be:
– Continuous Vs Interrupted. • The width of the line Vs Intensity and value
– Single Vs Double/Multiple lines, of colour used,
– Additive Vs Homogenous • Need to use strong colours for fine lines.

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 Point, line and area symbols The Area Symbol Vs Visual
Variables
Area symbols:
• Area symbols generated by repetition of
point or line symbols over a field of display
to produce visual patterns
• The proportion of dark to light depends on :
represent features of considerable areal – Varying line width or dot sizes, and
extent in relation to map scale
– Spacing of the individual graphic elements.
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Colour as an Area Symbol Patterns

• Distinction in area is basically by contrast in • Defn: A graphic symbol in which visible marks
colour. (points,lines, icons, etc.) are systematically
repeated over a section of display.
• The ability to distinguish differences in colour on
an area decreases as the area coloured decreases. • Hence three forms of patterns are possible:
– Line patterns,
– Hence the need to be cautious eg. on depicting large
– Dot patterns, and
water bodies and smaller ones on the same map.
– Miscellaneous patterns.
• Colour as an area symbol can be obstructive eg. in
• Dot patterns having more than 30 lines per
relief representation on topographic maps. centimetre are perceived as grey value (tonal)
areas or tints.
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Types of visual perception

Patterns on maps
• Patterns can be used to display qualitative 1. Associative
and quantitative information. 2. Selective
• Patterns can be visually disturbing (effect of 3. Ordered
orientation of the elements forming the 4. Quantitative
patterns).
Visual variables may have one or more of
– Use of coarse patterns Vs fine patterns.
these PERCEPTION PROPERTIES
– Use of dot patterns Vs line patterns. 40 Geoinformatics, Cartography and Visualization

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 Perception properties of visual
Selective perception?
variables I

1. Do symbols look different, but of similar

importance?If YES: ASSOCIATIVE
PERCEPTION

2. Can distinct groups of symbols easily be

separated?
If YES: SELECTIVE PERCEPTION
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Perception properties of visual

Types of geographic information
variables II
• NOMINAL (information on different
3. Can any specific order be recognised in nature/identity of things)
the symbols? • ORDINAL (information with a clear
If YES: ORDERED PERCEPTION element of order, though not
quantitatively determined)
4. Can the order be specified by amounts? • INTERVAL (quantitative information with
arbitrary zero)
If YES: QUANTITATIVE PERCEPTION
• RATIO (quantitative information with
absolute zero)
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Representation of nominal
Essence cartographic symbol design
information
Information
Industries
should be represented by a visual
variable with the food & beverages
Perception textiles
wood
property
Ratio Quantitative
Interval Ordered
Ordinal Ordered
Nominal Association

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(+/- Selection) 56 Geoinformatics, Cartography and Visualization

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 Representation of nominal Examples:
information nominal data: watersheds

Industries
food & beverages
textiles
wood

colour
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Nominal data: watersheds Absolute quantitative data: no. of inhabitants

value colour + brightness

size
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Relative quantitative data: population density

Application of Map Symbols
• In map making, it’s best to use symbols
which are well known (conventions and
national standards should be adopted). Do
not ‘re-invent the wheel’. Use existing
symbols and colour standards, and adopt
specifications developed by lead agencies.
• If special symbols are developed for a map,
they should be included in the map legend.
value
• Developing a symbol usually means
62 Geoinformatics, Cartography and Visualization
defining its colour, line weight and form.
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 References
• In general, the simpler the symbol the more Bernhardsen, T., (1992). Geographic Information Systems. Viak IT,
Myrene, Norway.
intuitive it becomes and the easier the map Kraak, M.J. and Ormeling, F.J., (1996). Cartography: Visualization of
it is to read. Spatial Data. Longman. Singapore and Essex.
Lawrence, G.R.P., (1979). Cartographic Methods. Methuen. London &
• Symbology: a set of rules which relate to New York.
MacEachren, A.M., (1995). How Maps Work - Representation,
how a symbol is used, e.g. Visualization and Design, The Guilford Press, New York and London.
Robinson, A.H., Sale, R.D., Morrison, J.L., and Muehrcke, P.C., (1984).
– An anchor which is up-side down means a shp- Elements of Cartography. John Wiley and Sons. New York.
Tyner, J.A., (2010). Principles of Map Design, The Guilford Press, New
wreck; York.
– A blue anchor means it is a safe place to more a Worm v d J. (2004). Introduction to Cartographic Visualization, GFM4,
Module 03 Lecture Slides, ITC, Enschede.
boat; http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/cartographic.html

– a red anchor means it is not a safe place to

more a boat, etc.

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THE END

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