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Rinki Kapoor

CLASS 12 | PHYSICS
DERIVATIONS: MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
Expression for magnetic field at the Let 𝑅 = radius of coil.

centre of circular current carrying coil: Magnetic field is to be calculated at a distance 𝑥 from centre of
Consider a small element of length 𝑑𝑙 coil O

Consider a small current element of length (𝑑𝑙) at point A.

Current is outward at A

Small magnetic field at ‘P’ due to small elemental length (𝑑𝑙)

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90°
4𝜋 (𝑅 2 +𝑥 2 )
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
𝑑𝐵 = ⊙ 𝑟 = √𝑅2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝜃 = 90°
4𝜋 𝑟2
∫ 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐵 𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋 (𝑅02+𝑥 2) ... (1)
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝐵= ∫ ( ) ⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟 at point 𝑃
𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝐵⃗ can be resolved as (𝑑𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) along axis of loop and

𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∫ 𝑑𝑙 (𝑑𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) perpendicular to axis of loop.
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝜇0 𝐼 Consider an element of length ‘𝑑𝑙’ at diametrically opposite
𝐵= ( ) × 2𝜋𝑟
4𝜋 𝑟 2 end at ‘C’.
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 2𝜋𝐼
𝐵= 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = ( ) Here current is ⊗ inward, 𝑑𝑙, 𝑟, 𝜃 = 90° are same
2𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
Special Case: Magnetic field due to a sector of 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑅2 + 𝑥 2
current loop.
Here 𝑑𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 will be add up and 𝑑𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 will be cancelled
out, from diametrically opposite ends.

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ∫ × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
4𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑥 2 )
2
𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝜇0 𝐼 1
𝐵= × (𝑟𝜃) 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑅
2𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 𝐵=∫ 2 2
×
4𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑥 ) √𝑅2 + 𝑥 2
𝜇0 𝐼𝜃
𝐵= ( ) 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑅
4𝜋 𝑟
𝐵=∫ ( 3)
4𝜋 (𝑅2
+ 𝑥 2 )2
Expression for magnetic field strength at a
point on the axis of circular current 𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
𝐵= [ ∫ 𝑑𝑙 ]
carrying coil: 4𝜋 (𝑅2 + 𝑥 2 )3/2
𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
𝐵= ( 3 ) × 2𝜋𝑅
4𝜋 (𝑅2
+ 𝑥 2 )2

𝜇 2𝜋𝐼𝑅 2
𝐵 = (4𝜋0 ) 3 along axis of fix point 𝑃
(𝑅 2 +𝑥 2 )2

For N turns
Consider a circular coil such that current (𝐼) flows in it.
 𝜇0 2𝑁𝜋𝐼𝑅2 𝜇0 2𝐼
𝐵= [ ] 𝐵= ×
4𝜋 (𝑅2 + 𝑥 2 )32 4𝜋 𝑟

(ii) Magnetic field at a point inside the cylinder:

Ampere’s Circuital Law: Magnetic field at a point P inside the cylinder (r<R)
Statement:-This law states that line integral of a magnetic field Choose an Amperian loop as a circle coaxial with
⃗ ) around any closed path is equal to (𝜇0) times the total cylinder passing through P.
(𝐵
𝐼 𝐼𝑟 2
current threading the closed path. 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ( 2 ) × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 2
𝜋𝑅 𝑅
Mathematically,

⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮𝐵

Magnetic Circulation: ∮ 𝐵⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙 is called magnetic
circulation.

Applications of Ampere Circuital Law:

(A) Calculation of magnetic field due to a current through a Using Ampere’s circuital law
very long circular cylinder. 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼𝑟 2
⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
∫𝐵
𝑅2
Given: Current density is uniform, 𝑅 = radius of cylinder 𝜇 𝜇 𝐼𝑟 2
⃗ ||𝑑𝑙 | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 𝑟 0
∮|𝐵
𝑅2
𝐼
𝐽 = 𝑎 = uniform 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼𝑟 2
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑅2
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼𝑟 2
𝑅(2𝜋𝑟) =
𝑅2
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼𝑟
𝐵(2𝜋) =
𝑅2
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼𝑟
𝐵𝑖𝑛 = ∝𝑟
2𝜋𝑅 2

(iii) Magnetic field at a point on the wire:

Put 𝑟 = 𝑅
(i) Magnetic field at a point outside the cylinder (𝒓 > 𝜇0 2𝐼
𝐵= (𝜇 × ) × 𝑅
𝑹) 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑅2
𝜇0 2𝐼
𝐵= (𝜇𝑟 × )
Choose an amperian loop as a circle coaxial with the cylinder. 4𝜋 𝑅

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = +𝐼 … (1)

Using Amper’s circuital law

⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮𝐵

⃗ ||𝑑𝑙| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮|𝐵 Solenoid: It is a tightly wound helical wire where
neighbouring turns are closely spaced.

𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇0 𝐼

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= ( )
2𝜋 𝑟
Uses: It is used as a part of the apparatus for the
Multiplying and dividing by 2 production of magnetic field.
Long Solenoid: L>>r
𝜇0 2𝐼
𝐵=( )×( )
2 × 2𝜋 𝑟
 Each turn in solenoid, can be regarded as a circular loop Work done by magnetic forces:
which carries current and each turn has its own magnetic
field. (Fig)
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑚 . 𝑑𝑠

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑚 . × 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑊 = ∫(𝐹𝑚 . 𝑣)𝑑𝑡

As 𝐹𝑚 ⊥ 𝑣, so 𝐹𝑚 . 𝑣 = 𝐹𝑚 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° = 0

⃗ ))
(∵ 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵

𝑊=0
Magnetic field for tightly bound long solenoid
Work done by magnetic forces on a charged particle free to
move is always zero.

According to work energy theorem,

Work done by magnetic force = change in kinetic energy

0 = ∆𝐾. 𝐸.

This means that there would be no change in speed or 𝐾𝐸

Expression for magnetic field inside a
𝐹
But acceleration ≠ 0 because 𝑚 = 𝑎
solenoid:
∴ Hence it concludes that magnetic forces can change only
Using Ampere Circuital Law: Choose an amperian loop
direction of motion.
as a rectangle of length 𝑙 passing through 𝑃.

Let 𝑛 = number of turns/unit length of solenoid Trajectory of a charged particle in a

magnetic field:
Net current threading the loop = (𝑛𝑙)𝐼
It depends on the value of angle ′𝜃′ between velocity vector and
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑙𝐼 magnetic field vector.

Case I: When 𝜃 = 0° or 180°.

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝑛𝑙𝐼)
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑑 𝑑𝑎
In both case 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0

Force is zero. Charge moves in a straight line

∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° + ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° + ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° + 0
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑑
= 𝜇0 (𝑛𝑙𝐼)

∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝜇0 (𝑛𝑙𝐼) 𝜃 = 0°
𝑎𝑏

∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝑛𝑙𝐼)
𝑎𝑏

𝐵𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝑛𝑙𝐼)
𝜃 = 180°
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
Case II: When 𝜃 = 90°
Here, 𝑛 denotes number of turns/unit length
In both of these, 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
And 𝐹𝑚 ⊥ 𝑣 at every instant. As 𝑣 ↑, 𝑟 ↑, ratio remains same.

This force cannot change speed of particle but will change only Case III: When 𝜃 is other than 0°, 180° or 90°
direction of motion so, it will throw the charged particle in
circular path of radius r.

If 𝑟 = radius of circle

Then, magnetic Lorentz will provide centripetal force

𝑚𝑣 2 Velocity 𝑣 can be resolved as:

⇒ 𝑟
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
⃗
𝑣∥ = 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = component of velocity parallel to 𝐵
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
⃗
𝑣⊥ = 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = component of velocity perpendicular to 𝐵
This is radius of circular trajectory ⃗.
The component 𝑣⊥ throws the charge in a circular path ⊥ to 𝐵

The component 𝑣∥ will throw charge in a straight line path.

Resultant motion of changed particle is superposition of motion
due to 𝑣∥ and 𝑣⊥ .

𝜃 = 90°

Time taken to complete one circular trajectory

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑇=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 So the particles follow a helical path with axis of helix parallel
⃗.
to 𝐵
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇= (Time period doesn’t depend on 𝑟)
𝑣

2𝜋(𝑚𝑣)
𝑇=
𝑣𝑞𝐵

𝑇 ≠ 𝑓(𝑟, 𝑣)

2𝜋𝑚
𝑇=
𝑞𝐵

1 𝑞𝐵
𝑓= = Centripetal force for a helical path is provided by magnetic
𝑇 2𝑚𝜋
Lorentz force.
𝑞𝐵
𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 = = 𝛼𝐵
𝑚 Centripetal force = 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵

𝑞 𝑚𝑣⊥2
𝛼= = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵
𝑚 𝑟
⃗
Plane of circle is always ⊥ to 𝐵 𝑚𝑣⊥
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
⃗ ∥ 𝑍-axis then plane of circular trajectory is in
For example, if 𝐵
𝑚𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑋𝑌 plane 𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
Speed of particle does not change due to magnetic force
𝐹𝑚 (𝑊𝑚 = 0)

T is independent of 𝑟, 𝑣

2𝜋𝑟 𝑚𝑣
𝑇= ⇒𝑟=
𝑣 𝑞𝐵
Time period of a helical path
 2𝜋𝑟 Velocity of charged particle ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝐵
𝐸
𝑇=
𝑣⊥

2𝜋 𝑚𝑣⊥ Uses of velocity selector arrangement:

𝑇= ×
𝑣⊥ 𝑞𝐵
(1) It is used to measure charge to mass ratio.
2𝜋𝑚 (2) It is also used in mass spectrometer.
𝑇=
𝑞𝐵
Mass Charge
𝛼 2 He4 nucleus (∝ 4mp +2e
Pitch: It is the linear distance travelled by a charged particle 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
in the direction of magnetic field in one complete revolution. 𝑑 2
1H nucleus 2mp 𝑒
(Deuteron)
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 𝑣∥ × 𝑇 p Proton 1.67 x 10-23 kg 1.6 x 10-19
1
𝑒 Electron mp −𝑒
2𝜋𝑚 1836
𝑃 = (𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) × ( )
𝑞𝐵

Velocity Selector Arrangement: Derivation of Force on a Current Carrying

Wire in a Uniform Magnetic Field:
It is arrangement of crossed electric and magnetic fields in a
region which helps us to select from a beam of charged When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field,
particles, the particles of a specific velocity, irrespective of their electrons will experience a magnetic force. Since they are
charge and mass. confined to stay within the conductor the conductor will in turn
experience the same magnetic field.
𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ are crossed
Consider an element of wire of length 𝑑𝑙. Let ′𝐴′ be the cross-
𝑉 > 𝐸/𝐵 ⇒ 𝐹𝑚 > 𝐹𝐸 sectional area and ′𝑛′ be the number density of free electrons in
conductor.
𝑉 < 𝐸/𝐵 ⇒ 𝐹𝑚 < 𝐹𝐸

Total no. of free electrons in 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑙

⃗)
Force on each free electron = 𝑓 = −𝑒(𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵

(∵ electrons flow along the conductor opposite direction of

current)

If electric force and magnetic force magnitudes are equal then

charge will go undeflected

[|𝐹𝐸 | = |𝐹𝑚 |] ̂
But 𝑣𝑑 = −𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑙

𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 (𝐵) ̂ = Unit vector in direction of flow of current

Where 𝑑𝑙

𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° ̂ ×𝐵
⇒ 𝑓 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 (𝑑𝑙 ̂ = 𝑑𝑙
⃗ ) [∵ 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ ]

∴ 𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵
Force on element of length 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑓 × (𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑙)
(No matter charge is +ve or –ve) 𝐼
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝑛𝑑𝑙(𝑑𝑙 ⃗ ) = 𝑛𝐴𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
(𝑑𝑙 ⃗)
𝑛𝐴𝑒
 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑑𝑙 ⃗) 𝐹21 𝜇0 2𝐼1𝐼2
= ( )
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
Total force = 𝐹 = ∫ 𝐼(𝑑𝑙 ⃗)
Wire 1 is in uniform magnetic field of wire 2
⃗,
Force on a straight conductor of total length 𝑙 in uniform 𝐵
Magnetic field of 2 at wire 1
⃗⃗⃗ ] × 𝐵
𝐹 = 𝐼 [∫ 𝑑𝑙 ⃗
𝜇0 2𝐼2
𝐵2 = ( )
4𝜋 𝑟
⃗)
𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑙 × 𝐵
Wire 1 is in the magnetic field of wire 2
In scalar form, 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
⃗ 2 ), away from wire 2
𝐹12 = 𝐼1 (𝑙 × 𝐵
Force between two parallel conductors ⃗ 2)
𝐹12 = 𝐼1 (𝑙 × 𝐵
carrying current:
𝐹12 = 𝐼1 𝑙𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90°

𝜇0 2𝐼2
𝐹12 = 𝐼1 𝑙 ( )
4𝜋 𝑟

𝐹12 𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
=
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑅

Since, 𝐹12 = −𝐹21, so they obey Newton’s third law, if steady

Derivation of force between two parallel currents are flowing
infinite conductors carrying current:
𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹= ( )
4𝜋 𝑟

If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 1 ampere each

𝑟=1m

𝐹 2×1×1
Then = 10−7 × ⇒ 2 × 10−7 N/m
𝑙 1

Thus, 1 ampere is that much current which when flowing

through each of the 2 parallel linear conductors placed in free
spaced at a distance of 1 metre from each other will attract or
repel each other with a force of 2 × 10−7 N/m of their length.
Consider two long parallel conductors placed at 𝑟. These two
conductors are in the magnetic field of one another. Effective magnetic field due to two long
linear parallel current carrying conductors:
Magnetic field of wire 1 at a point P on the
wire:
𝜇0 2𝐼1
𝐵1 = ( )⊗
4𝜋 𝑟

Take a length 𝑙 of wire 2

Force on 2 due to current in wire 1 = 𝐹21 NOTE: When we have time-dependent currents and/or
charges in motion, Newton’s third law may not hold for forces
𝐹21 ⃗ 1 ), away from wire 1
= 𝐼2 (𝑙 × 𝐵 between charges and/or conductors. An essential consequence
of the Newton’s third law in mechanics is conservation of
momentum of an isolated system. This provided an ambiguity
can be solved if the momentum carried by fields is also taken
|𝐹21 | = 𝐼2 𝑙 𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° into account

𝜇0 2𝐼1
𝐹21 = 𝐼2 𝑙 ( ) .Torque on a Current Loop in a Magnetic
4𝜋 𝑟
Field:
Consider a rectangular current loop in a uniform magnetic 𝐹4 = 𝐼𝐵𝑦
field.

By Fleming’s left hand rule, force on 𝑐𝑑 will be perpendicular

inwards to both ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐𝑑 and 𝐵⃗.

∴ 𝐹3 and 𝐹4 are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.

𝜃 + 𝛼 = 90° Both these forces do not act in the same line

⃗
𝜃 is an angle between plane of coil and 𝐵 So they do not give any translational effect but they do
constitute a couple.
⃗
𝛼 is an angle between area vector of coil and 𝐵
Torque due to a couple:
Suppose coil is carrying a current 𝐼,

𝑥 = length of coil

𝑦 = breadth of coil

Force on 𝒅𝒂: 𝐹1 = 𝐵𝐼𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(180° − 𝜃)

𝜏
𝑑𝑎 and 𝑏𝑐 are horizontal = (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
× (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠)
𝐹1 = 𝐵𝐼𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (1)
𝜏 = (𝐼𝐵𝑦)(𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
It will be vertically upward along the axis
𝑑𝑦 = Area of rectangle
Force on 𝑏𝑐: 𝐹2 = 𝐼𝑥𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (2)
𝜏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
It will vertically downwards along the axis
But 𝜃 = 90° − 𝛼
These forces 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 have:
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(90 − 𝛼)
(a) Same magnitude
(b) Opposite direction 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
(c) And they both act in the same line, so they cancel each
other without giving any turning effect. For 𝑁 turns of coil,

𝑎𝑏 and 𝑐𝑑 are vertical 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐵𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼

⃗)
Force on 𝑎𝑏 = 𝐹3 = 𝐼(𝑦 × 𝐵 ⃗)
In vector form, 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼 (𝐴 × 𝐵

𝐹3 = 𝐼𝑦𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° # (Magnetic dipole moment vector of a coil carrying current)

∴ 𝐹3 = 𝐼𝐵𝑦 ⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜏=𝑀 ⃗

Compare with 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸⃗

This formula although proved for rectangular coil but it is true

for any shape of coil

Force will act perpendicularly out of the plane At rotational equilibrium,

(By Fleming’s left hand rule) 𝜏=0

⃗)
Force on 𝑐𝑑 = 𝐹4 = 𝐼(𝑦 × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝑀 ⃗ =0

= 𝐼𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° ⃗⃗ makes an angle 𝜃 = 0° or 180° with 𝐵.

𝑀
𝜃 = 0° ⇒ Stable equilibrium

𝜃 = 180° ⇒ Unstable equilibrium

Potential energy of current loop/magnetic dipole in uniform

magnetic field If pole pieces are made concave

⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝑈 = (−𝑀 ⃗)

Moving Coil Galvanometer:

It is a device which is used to detect current or is used to
measure very small currents. When soft iron piece is kept between pole pieces, the magnetic
field line bend more towards the centre of the iron piece.
Principle: When a current carrying coil is placed in a
magnetic field it experiences a torque.

Construction: It consists of a hollow rectangular coil, PQRS

consisting of a large number of turns of fine insulated copper
wire wound over a frame of light non-magnetic material
(Ballistic galvanometer) Radial magnetic field is produced by using:
A soft iron cylinder known as core is placed symmetrically (a) Concave shaped pole pieces.
within the coil. (b) Using cylindrical soft iron core.
The coil is suspended between two cylindrical concave shaped
Working and Theory of Moving Coil Galvanometer:
pole pieces by a thin flat phosphor bronze strip.
Let 𝐼 = Current in coil
This strip is highly elastic. The lower end of coil is connected to
hair shaped spring of phosphor bronze. 𝐵 = Magnetic field strength

𝐴 = Area of coil

𝑁 = Number of turns in the coil

Suppose for a moment, magnetic field is not radial due to flat

pole pieces.

Assume initially, that plane of coil is parallel to magnetic field

⃗
𝐵

∴ 𝜃 = 0° [𝛼 = 90°]

As the coil rotates 𝜃 and 𝛼 will change because normal will

also rotate.

Radial Magnetic Field: When a current 𝐼 is passed through the coil, deflecting torque is

𝜏𝑑 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1)

As 𝜃 increases, 𝜏𝑑 starts decreasing

Twist produced in helical (phosphor bronze) spring = 𝜃

The magnetic field in which at any position of coil, angle
Let restoring torque 𝜏𝑟 = 𝑘𝜃 (Restoring torque per unit twist)
between plane of coil and magnetic field is 0° (zero degree) is
called radial magnetic field. As 𝜃 increases 𝜏𝑑 decreases and 𝜏𝑟 increases
A stage comes when 𝜏𝑑 = 𝜏𝑟 Current Sensitivity: Deflection produced per unit current
through the coil of galvanometer.
When 𝜏𝑟 = 𝜏𝑑 , then coil comes in the state of equilibrium.
𝜃 𝑘
𝐼𝑆 = (𝐼 = 𝐺𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝜃)
𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑘𝜃 𝐼 𝑁𝐵𝐴

𝜃 𝜃(𝑁𝐵𝐴) 𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝑘𝜃 𝐼𝑆 = = =
𝐼= 𝐼 𝑘𝜃 𝑘
𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝜃 𝐼𝑆 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐼∝( ) 𝑘
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

This formula cannot be used in the galvanometer, used in the Voltage Sensitivity: Deflection produced in galvanometer
lab because in the lab setting magnetic field is radial. per unit voltage.

𝜃
In the lab setting: 𝑉𝑆 =
𝑉
Magnetic field is radial, 𝜃 = 0° for every position of coil.
𝜃
𝑉𝑆 =
Deflecting torque, when current 𝐼 is placed, 𝐼𝑅𝑔

𝜏𝑑 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝐼𝑆
𝑉𝑆 =
𝑅𝑔
(𝜏𝑑 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵

If coil turns by 𝜃

Restoring torque 𝜏𝑟 = 𝑘𝜃

At equilibrium,
Condition for a Sensitive Galvanometer:
𝜏𝑑 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
(1) 𝑁 should be large: But we cannot increase it beyond a
𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘𝜃
limit, because otherwise the coil become heavy/bulky. Also
𝑘𝜃 resistance of galvanometer will also increase.
𝐼= = 𝐺𝜃 (2) 𝐵 should be large: Horse shoe magnet is used.
𝑁𝐵𝐴
(3) 𝐴 (Area of the coil) should be large: But only upto a limit,
Here 𝐺 is the galvanometer constant we can increase 𝐴.
(4) 𝑘 should be small: Use of quartz or phosphor bronze strip
𝐼 ∝ 𝜃 → 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
is done.
Significance/Advantage of Radial Magnetic Field:

(a) The scale becomes linear (due to which measurements Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter:
become easy)
Ammeter is a device used for measuring currents.
(b) Sensitivity of galvanometer increases as torque becomes
maximum at any position of coil. Galvanometer can only measure very small currents [≈few 𝜇A]
𝐼 = 𝐺𝜃
𝑘 To convert galvanometer to Ammeter, the amount of current
𝐺= measured needs to be increased.
𝑁𝐵𝐴
Suppose when 𝐼𝑔 current is passed through galvanometer, a full
Properties of a Suspension Fibre Used in A
scale deflection takes place.
Galvanometer:

(a) High tensile strength

(b) It should not rust with time
(c) Has high electrical conductivity
(d) 𝑘(Restoring torque/twist) should be small
(e) The temperature coefficient should be small

Sensitivity of Galvanometer:
Let maximum safe value of current for galvanometer be 𝐼𝑔 and For this a resistance 𝑅 is connected in series with the
𝐺 = galvanometer resistance. galvanometer such that only safe current (𝐼𝑔 ) flows in the
circuit even when we supply voltage 𝑉.
Suppose we want to convert it into ammeter of range 0 to 𝐼.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅 + 𝐺)
It can be done by connecting a suitable low resistance 𝑆(shunt)
in parallel with galvanometer. 𝑉
𝑅=( − 𝐺)
𝐼𝑔
Value of 𝑆 is so adjusted that at peak current (𝐼) only safe value
𝐼𝑔 passes through galvanometer. So, the range of voltmeter has increased.

The remaining current (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 ) gets bypassed through shunt 𝑆.

Scale of galvanometer can be graduated to read potential

difference directly

Resistance of voltmeter is,

𝑨𝑻𝑸
𝑅𝑉 = 𝑅 + 𝐺 = 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ
𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆
It is connected in parallel with circuit. Being a high resistance
𝐼𝑔 𝐺 device it draws very small current
𝑆=
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔
𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝐺
𝑆𝐼
#1 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑆+𝐺
𝑉
𝑉𝑔 = ( )𝐺
𝑅+𝐺
#2 Net resistance of ammeter = 𝑅𝐴

1 1 1 Magnetic Dipole Moment of Revolving Electron:

= +
𝑅𝐴 𝐺 𝑆 A revolving electron is like a loop having definite magnetic
dipole moment
𝐺𝑆
𝑅𝐴 =
𝐺+𝑆

As 𝑆 ≪ 𝐺

Then 𝐺 + 𝑆 ≈ 𝐺 Speed of electron = 𝑣

𝐺𝑆
𝑅𝐴 = =𝑆 Let motion of electron is Anticlockwise
𝐺
Then motion of current is Clockwise
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑆
Let 𝑒 = charge on an electron revolving in an orbit of radius r
So, Ammeter is a low resistance device and is connected in with uniform speed 𝑣.
series in a circuit.
Expression for Magnetic Moment:
* Range of ammeter can be increased but it can not be
decreased Equivalent current = 𝑖 =
𝑒
𝑇

Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter: 𝑒 𝑒𝑣

𝑖= =
2𝜋𝑟
Consider a galvanometer with resistance 𝐺, which can tolerate ( ) 2𝜋𝑟
𝑣
maximum current 𝐼𝑔 and maximum potential difference 𝑉𝑔 .
Magnetic moment = 𝑀 = 𝐼𝐴
Then 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 (1) 𝑒𝑣 𝑒𝑣𝑟
𝑀= × 𝜋𝑟 2 =
2𝜋𝑟 2
We want to measure a potential difference, 𝑉 ≫ 𝑉𝑔
𝑒𝑣𝑟
𝑀=
2
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CLASS 12 | PHYSICS
DERIVATION: MAGNETISM
Relation between relative permeability and
magnetic susceptibility:
𝐵 = 𝐵0 + 𝐵𝑚

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝐼

𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 [1 + ]
𝐻

𝐵
= 𝜇0 [1 + 𝜒𝑚 ]
𝐻
𝜇
= 1 + 𝜒𝑚
𝜇0

𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑚