COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON

UNIT 2
(Computer Network)
CHAPTER NO - 6

1. Evolution of Networking
2. Data Communication Terminologies
3. Transmission Media
4. Network Devices
5. Network Topologies and Types
6. Network Protocol
7. Mobile Telecommunication Technologies
8. Network Security Concepts
A computer network is a set of computers (nodes) and
The purpose of communication sources(hardware/software) among the users..
(Benefits of computer network)
• Facilitate communication through email / video conferencing / instant messaging
or any other mode.
• Share hardware devices like a printer or scanner
• Enable file sharing
• Share software or operating programs
• Share information
Disadvantages of computer network
Lack of robustness, security issue, cost of network
Evolution of Networking
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork): In 1969, The US govt. formed an
agency named ARPANET to connect computers at various universities and defense agencies. The
main objective of ARPANET was to develop a network that could continue to function efficiently
even in the event of a nuclear attack.
Interspace: is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate online
with real –time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.
Internet (INTERconnection NETwork): The Internet is a worldwide network of computer
networks. It is not owned by anybody. The internet has evolved from ARPANET. The internet is a
globally connected network system that utilizes TCP/IP to transmit information. following
services are instantly available through internet : Email, Web-enabled audio/video conferencing
services, Online movies and gaming , Data transfer/file-sharing, Instant messaging , Internet
forums , Social networking , Online shopping ,Financial services

Switching Techniques
Switching Techniques: Switching techniques are used for
transmitting data across networks. Different ways of
sending data across the network are:
Circuit Switching:
• First the complete end to end transmission path
is established between the source and the
destination computers. Then the message is
transmitted through the path.
• The main advantage of this technique is
guaranteed delivery of the message. Mostly
used for voice communication.
Packet Switching:
• Using the TCP protocol a single large message is divided into a
sequence of packets of size limits from 128 to 4096 bytes.
• Each packet is independent and has the address of
sender and destination.
• The IP (Internet protocol) does the routing for the packets. It
keeps track of all the different routes available to the
destination. If one route is not available it finds the alternate
route to the destination.
• At the destination, the TCP protocol re-assembles the packets
into the complete message.
sent to retransmit the same message.
Data Communication Terminologies
Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another.it is a
measure of the range of frequencies a transmitted signal occupies. In digital systems,
bandwidth is the data speed in bits per second. In analog systems, bandwidth is measured in
terms of the difference between the highest-frequency signal component and the lowest-
frequency signal component. Bandwidth is expressed in Hz, KHz, and MHz. The hertz (symbol:
Hz) is the derived unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI) and is defined as
one cycle per second. It is named after Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. Hertz are commonly expressed in
multiples: kilohertz (103 Hz, kHz), megahertz (106 Hz, MHz), gigahertz (109 Hz, GHz)
Communication Channel (Transmission media): A communication channel is either a physical
transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such
as a radio channel in telecommunications and computer networking.
Data transfer rate: DTR is the amount of data in digital form that is moved from one place to
another in a given time on a network. Data rates are often measured in megabits (million bits)
or megabytes (millionbytes) per second.
Bps bits per Bps bytes per
second second

Kbps kilobits per KBps Kilobytes per

second second

Mbps megabits per MBps megabytes per

second second

Gbps giga bits per GBps giga bytes per

second second

Tbps tera bits per TBps tera bytes per

second Second
Wired Networks - It is also known as Ethernet networks, that is most common type of LAN
technology. A wired network is simply a collection of two or more computers, printers, and
other devices linked by Ethernet cables/ any form of wired media. Ethernet is the fastest wired
network protocol, with connection speeds of 10 megabits per second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps or
higher. Computer must have an Ethernet adapter (sometimes called a network interface card, or
NIC) to connect with wire. Most of the network topology uses wired networks.
 Cable Twisted pair Coaxial cable Fiber optic

Signal form electricity electricity Light

cost least moderate High
speed Low moderate High
Ease of use Easy to install Professional installation Professional installation

reliability low moderate High

Real life application Telephone Tv cable Data transmission &
network telephone line
Data transmission 10Mbps – bps 100Mbps >100Gbps
rate
Data transfer range 100m 185m - 500m -

image

Transmission media
Wireless Networks – It uses high-frequency radio waves rather than wires to communicate.
Wireless allows for devices to be shared without networking cable which increases mobility but
decreases range.
Infrared Wave Transmission - Short Range Communication: Infrared waves can travel from a few
centimetres to several meters(Approx. 5m). Line of Sight Propagation: Infrared uses point to
point communication, both transmitter and receiver should be placed in line of sight of each
other and there should not be any obstacle in between. Cannot Penetrate Solid object. It is
Inexpensive mode of Communication. Secure : At a time only two devices can communicate
therefore information passed to one device is not leaked to another device.
Radio Wave Transmission:- Long Range Communication : Radio waves can cover distances
ranging from a few meters (in walkie-talkies) up to covering an entire city.
Omnidirectional: Radio waves are propagated in all directions. Therefore sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned. Penetrates Solid Objects. Inexpensive mode of
communication. Radio wave communication is insecure communication.
Microwave radio- a form of radio transmission that use. Ultra-high frequencies. It is a point- to-
point, rather than a broadcast, transmission system. Additionally, each antenna must be within
line of sight of the next antenna. Frequency Bands Maximum Antenna Separation
Analog/Digital 4-6 GHz 32-48 km Analog 10-12 GHz 16-24 km Digital 18-23 GHz 8-11 km Digital.
Satellite Communication- It provide worldwide coverage independent to population density.
Satellite ccommunication Systems offer telecommunication (Satellite Phones), positioning and
navigation (GPS), broadcasting, internet, Mobile, TV, etc.
It support Very Long Range Communication with Line of Sight Propagation . It Cannot Penetrate
Solid Objects. It is Very Expensive communication mode.
 Microwave link vs Optical fiber
Microwave link vs Optical fiber
Microwave which is also known as Radio links have been used by many companies for decades.
Most of the Mobile (Cellular) networks use microwave to connect their cell towers to their
backhaul networks. For mobile operators, a reason using microwave is not the speed which
microwave provides. It is used to connect their remote sites (Rural areas) , because microwave is
a faster and cheaper deployment option compare to fiber.

When more capacity (bandwidth) is required, fiber becomes more economical. Actual cost of
fiber deployments is laboring cost. Digging a trench and laying the fiber , getting the required
permissions from the land owners and from the municipalities. we have to dig a trench that’s
hundreds (or thousands) of kilometers long, or lease access to ducts that have already been laid
by infrastructure companies. Geography of the land is very important for the fiber deployments.
For example, when faced with a mountain or river, do we go straight across at great expense, or
do you make a diversion to the nearest bridge or tunnel? Combine all of these factors and you’ll
understand why most of the world’s terrestrial fibre networks are deployed alongside existing
roads and railways.
Network Devices
Computer hardware devices which are used to connect computers, printers, or any other
electronic device to a computer network are called network devices. These devices transfer data
in a fast, secure and correct way with some specific functionality over same or different
networks.
Some devices are installed on the device, like Internal modem, NIC card or RJ45 connector,
whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc.
NIC – This is at top among other networking devices and mostly used networking device. This is
also known as network adapter card, Ethernet Card and LAN card. It allows our PC to
communicate with other PCs. A PC uses parallel data transmission to transmit data between its
internal parts where as the media that connects this PC with other device/PCs uses serial data
transmission. A NIC converts parallel data stream into serial data stream and vice versa.

RJ-45 (Registered Jack – 45) is an eight wired connector that is

used to connect computers on a local area network (LAN),
especially Ethernet.
HUB – HUB is used to connect multiple computers in a single LAN network of one workgroup.
Generally HUBs are available with 4,8,12,24,48 ports.
When a hub receives signal on its port, it repeats the signal and forwards that signal from all
ports except the port on which the signal arrived. In below diagram leftmost node try to send
signal to rightmost node, but signals are distributed to all ports(nodes).

There are two types of HUB

Passive HUB:- It only forwards the signal on all ports without amplifying the signal.
Active HUB:- it forwards the signal with improvement in the quality of data signal by amplifying
it. That why such hubs need additional power supply.
Based on port type, there are two types of HUB:-
Ethernet HUB :- All ports have RJ-45 connectors.
Combo HUB :- Several different types of connectors such RJ-45, BNC, and AUI available as ports
in such HUB.
SWITCH –Switch is also used to connect multiple computers together in a LAN workgroup, just
like hub. Switches are available with 4,8,12,24,48,64 ports. Switch makes their switching
decisions by using application specific integrated circuits (ASICs).Due to switching decision
capability, switch sends signal to recipient only and that’s why switches are called as intelligent
hub. In below diagram leftmost node sending signal to rightmost node.

Modem – Modem is short for Modulator Demodulator. It’s an electronic device used to access
the Internet that modulates carrier waves to encode information to be transmitted and also
demodulates incoming carrier waves to decode the information they carry. Modulation means
digital to analog signal conversion and its vice versa is known as demodulation.
Repeater – In a network signal travels a long distance in transmission media. Due to resistance of
media signal becomes weak. Repeater is a networking device which regenerates the signal and
forwards these signal with more power.

Router – Routers operate in the physical, data link and network layers. Router is a networking
device which chooses the best optimal path from available pats to send the signals. It
interconnects different networks. The simplest function of a router is to received packets from
one connected network and pass them to second connected network.
Gateway – A networking device capable to convert protocols so that two different network
architecture based system can communicate with each other. It works as protocol convertor.

Hub Vs. Switch

A hub works on the physical layer (Layer 1) of OSI model while Switch works on the data link
layer (Layer 2). Switch is more efficient than the hub. A switch can join multiple computers within
one LAN, and a hub just connects multiple Ethernet devices together as a single segment. Switch
is smarter than hub to determine the target of the forwarding data. Since switch has a higher
performance, its cost will also become more expensive.
Router vs Gateway
Gateway regulates traffic between two dissimilar networks, while router regulator traffic
between similar networks. A router is a hardware device that forwards data packets between
computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
‰ Connection In One Network With Router - For example, there are 30 computers
connected inside Network A. All these computers communicate with each other. In
this situation, no gateway is needed. Because a router with a routing table that
defines the hops within those 30 computers is enough.
‰ Connection Between Different Networks With Gateway - In another hand, we
suppose that there are two networks, that are Network A and Network B. Computer
X from Network A wants to send data to Computer Y from Network B, then there
need to have both a Gateway A and a Gateway B so that the two networks will be
able to communicate
Wi-Fi cards - are small and portable cards that allow your computer to connect to the internet
through a wireless network. Wi- Fi transmission is through the radio waves, these signals are
picked up by Wi-Fi receivers such as computers and cell phones equipped with Wi-Fi cards. The
devices need to be within the range of a Wi-Fi network to receive the signals and produces a
wireless internet connection.
Once a connection is established between userand the network, the user is prompted with a
login screen and password for establishing is a secure connection. Wi-Fi cards can be external or
internal. If a Wi-Fi card is not installed inside your computer, you may purchase an external USB
antenna attachment and connect it to your device. Many computers and mobile devices are now
adays equipped with wireless networking capability and do not require a Wi-Fi card.
 CHAPTER NO - 7
Computer Network-II
Structure of a network- The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, network devices
along with communication channel is known as Network structure or Network topology.
Topology can be physical or logical
Physical Topology-physical layout of nodes and cables in the network.
Logical topology - the way information flows between different components.
Types of Physical Network Topologies
Bus Topology Mesh Topology
Star Topology Tree Topology
Ring Topology Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology
Nodes are connected through a common communication media like diagram given below

Advantages of a Bus topology

• Easy to install
• Minimal Cable
Disadvantages of a Bus topology
• Difficult reconnection
• Difficult to find the problem
• Difficult to add new devices
• Break stops all transmission of data

Star Topology
The star topology uses a separate cable for each node/workstation. The
cable connects the node to a central device typically a HUB.
Advantages of a Star topology
• Less expensive than mesh
• Easy to install, easy to configure
• If one link fails the network can still function
Disadvantages of a Star topology
• Everything depends on the hub

Ring Topology
In ring topology every computer is connected to the next computer in the
ring and each transmit the signal ,what it receives from the previous
computer. The messages flow around the ring in one direction.
Advantages of a Ring topology
x Easy to install
x Easy to reconfigure
Easy to detect a problem Disadvantages of a Ring topology
x Break means the whole system is dead
Mesh Topology
In mesh topology , separate cable is used to connect each device to
every other device on the network, providing a straight
communication path.
Advantages of a Mesh topology
• Avoid traffic since each link can carry its own data and none
are being shared
• If one link breaks, the rest of the network is still functional
• Easy to detect a problem in the network by discovering which
device is having problems and examining the link that connects to it.
Disadvantages of a Mesh topology
• A lot of cables are needed
• Too many cables means too much cost
• Too many cables means complex network
Tree Topology
In which a central root node (the top level of the hierarchy) is
connected to one or more other nodes that are one l e v e l lower in
the hierarchy
Advantages of a Mesh topology
• It is scalable.
• Easier fault identification and isolation.
Disadvantages of a Mesh topology
• Maintenance of the network
may be an issue when the network spans a great area. if the backbone fails, the entire network
is crippled.
Hybrid Topology
use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does
not exhibit one of the standard topologies
(e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).
 • Types of network
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) – communication between two- three mobile
devices or PC for personal purpose.
2. Local Area Network (LAN) – limited area (within building)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – within city
4. Wide Area Network (WAN) – within
multiple city/state/ countries

Personal Area Network(PAN) –

Spread in the proximity of an individual. Cover an area of a few meters radius. Set up using
guided media(USBcable) or unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared). Owned, controlled, and
managed by a single person.
Examples: A network of devices such as computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player, Camera etc.
Transferring songs from one cell phone to another is a PAN of two phones. Transferring files from
a PC to an MP3 playeris a PAN between the two.
Local Area Network (LAN) – LANs are the most frequently used/discussed networks.It is one of
the most common one of the simplest types of network.It is designed for small physical areas
such as an office, group of buildings.Any of different types of topologies can be used to design
LAN like Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
Characteristics of LAN
• private networks means no need of regulatory control.
• Operate at relatively high speed.
• Ethernet, Token ring etc type media access controls are used
• Connects computers in a single building, block or campus.
Advantages of LAN
• Resource Sharing
• Software Applications Sharing
• Easy and Cheap Communication
• Centralized Data
• Data Security
• Internet Sharing
Disadvantages of LAN
x High Setup Cost
x Privacy Violations
x Data Security Threat
x LAN Maintenance Job
x Covers Limited Area
Examples: A networked office building, school or home. Sometimes one building can contain
a few small LANs (Like some schools have independent LANs in each computer lab.).
Metropolitan Area Network(MAN):– Spread within a city . Cover an area of a few kilometres to
a few hundred kilometres radius. Set up using all types of all guided and unguided media.
Owned and operated by a government body or a large corporation.
Examples: A network of schools, or banks, or Government offices etc. within a city. A MAN is
usually formed by interconnecting a number of LANs and individual computers.
Wide Area Network (WAN) –Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers
across longer physical distances. The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all
computers together around the world. Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and
maintained by any single person or owner.

Characteristics of WAN
• Covers large distances(states, countries, continents).
• Communication medium like satellite, public telephone networks etc and routers
are used establish connection.
Examples: A network of ATMs, BANKs, National Government Offices, International Organizations'
Offices etc., spread over a country, continent, or covering many continents.
Advantages of WAN
• Long distance business can connect on the one network.
• Shares software and resources
• Messages can be sent very quickly to wide range of nodes
• Hardware devices can be shared.
Disadvantages of WAN
• Need a good firewall to restrict unauthorized access
• Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated.
• Maintaining a network is a full-time job
• Security is a mazor issue when many different people have the ability to use
information
Network Layout –
The plan or design or arrangement of network wings and nodes to be laid out is known as
network layout.
A good network layout provides the following features
™ Communication speed
™ File sharing
™ Back up and Roll back is easy
™ Software and Hardware sharing
™ Security
™ Scalability
™ Reliability
How to decide Network Layout –
The network layout can be best which provide less installation and maintenance cost as well as
easy installation and maintenance. It is only possible when it is properly designed, design with
shortest cable length and fulfill our network requirements.
How to decide Network Layout
Example
Freya Tech Corporation (FTC) is a professional consultancy company. The company is planning to
set up their new offices in India with its hub at Udaipur. As a network adviser, you have to
understand their requirement and suggest them the best network layout.

Physical Location of the blocks of FTC

Block to block distance (in m)

Block (From) Block (To) Distance
Human Resource Conference 110
Human Resource Finance 40
Conference Finance 80

How to decide Network Layout – Example

Block to block distance (in m)
Block (From) Block (To) Distance
Human Resource Conference 110
Human Resource Finance 40
Conference Finance 80

Possible bus topologies

a) Human Resource Conference Finance = 11

110+80 =190m

b) Conference Finance Human Resource =80+40 =120m

=

c) Finance Human Resource Conference =40+110=150m

All can be arranged in round robin manner

Ring topology will be discarded as it will increase the cable length
How to decide Network Layout – Example
Block to block distance (in m)
Block (From) Block (To) Distance
Human Resource Conference 110
Human Resource Finance 40
Conference Finance 80

Possible Star topologies

™ Here best layout is
a) Human Resource = 110+40 =150m b) finance to
conference and
Finance
Fina finance to Human
Conference
Confe
f rence Resource as it
=80+40 =120m
=80+ require minimum
Finance
cable length
b)
Conference
nfe
f rence Human R
Huma
H Resource ™ Tree topology will
be also same due
c) to only three
Conference
Confe
f rence
r = 80+110=190 m
blocks are here

Finance Human Resource

How to decide Server location– Example

Expected number of computers to be each block
Block Computer
Human Resource 25
Finance 120
Conference 90

Server location can be decided by seeing the number of computers/nodes required in each block
of network.
Server must be installed at the wing/block with Maximum number of Computers due to
maximum load/requirement of services in that block in whole network .So in above example
Server can be installed at Finance block.

How to decide hub/switch location

The answer is always switch when we can afford it. A Hub is always half-duplex, and simply acts
as a repeater. The resulting packet collisions, even with only 2 devices, will make it slower than
simply using a cable, whereas a switch intelligently directs traffic based on the Ethernet
address(MAC address), and is full duplex, resulting in full speed between any devices on the
network at the same time.
In general sense Hub or switch any device can be installed when there are more than one
computer in a wing/block.
 Network Protocols
Network protocols are sets of rules and regulations that dictate how to format , transmit and
receive data on computer network devices -like servers , routers to endpoints can communicate
regardless of the differences in their infrastructures, design or standards . To successfully send
or receive information, network devices must accept and follow protocol conventions
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)- also referred to as the Internet
Protocol Suite, is the World Wide Web's core communication system which enables every
Internet-based device to communicate with every other such devices simultaneously.
An IP address is the unique numerical address of a device in a computer network that uses
Internet Protocol for communication. The IP address allow you to pinpoint a particular device
from the billions of devices on the Internet.
Static IP Addresses-usually never change but they may be changed as a result of network
administration.
Dynamic IP Addresses-These IP addresses are temporary and assigned to a computer when they
get connected to the Internet each time
Two most used ip versions are ipv4 and ipv6. IPv4 is a 32-Bit IP Address. IPv6 is 128 Bit IP
Address. IPv4 is a numeric address, and its binary bits are separated by a dot (.) IPv6 is an
alphanumeric address whose binary bits are separated by a colon (:)
IPv4 ADDRESS CLASS –

Of the five address classes, three—Class A, B, and C—were designated for unicast single source–
to–single destination communication. Addresses in Class D were reserved for IP Multicast
applications, which allows one-to-many communication. Class E addresses were reserved for
experimental purposes.
How TCP/IP WORKS -worksTCP/IP is a two-layered program: the higher layer (TCP) disassembles
message content into small "data packets" that are then transmitted over the Internet to be
re-assembled by the receiving computer's TCP back into the message's original form.
TCP/IP and Higher-Level Applications - Many higher-level apps that ecommerce businesses need
to be familiar with utilize and/or are built on TCP/IP.
• FTP (the Internet's File Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP (the Internet's Hyper-text Transfer Protocol)
• Telnet, which enables logging on computers from remote locations
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
FTP – FTP, or File Transfer Protocol, is one of the standard internet protocols used to transfer data
files between a client(FTP client) and a server(FTP server) over a computer network. It was
developed in the early 1970s by Abhay Bhushan (alumni IIT Kanpur),while he was a student at
MIT. FTP was initially created to allow for the secure transfer of files between servers and host
computers over the ARPANET Network Control Program (a precursor to the modern
internet).Nowadays it is being used for uploading files on webserver after non anonymous
ftp(means username and password available with you).downloading is possible as anonymous
ftp(no password is required).FTP is available in two mode – text mode ftp(where user have to
give commands in text form) and GUI ftp(graphical interaction is possible).

Some of the more popular, and reliable, FTP Clients currently

operating in the industry are FileZilla ,WinSCP, Cyberduck ,gFTP

How to work on FTP – Here we are using Filezilla.

1. Download filezilla then Install filezilla
2. Open site manager from file menu and click on new site button
3. Type credential available of any domain
4. Press ok, It will connect our computer with remote computer ,screen will be something
like this

5. Left side pan will display the folder/files of our computer and right side pan will display
the file structure of remote computer through simple drag and drop we can download
upload(receive file from remote computer to local computer) or upload(sending file to
remote computer from local computer) the files.
 Practice site for FTP
Demo for Web-based Administration:
Location: http://demo.wftpserver.com:5466/ Username: demo-admin
Password: demo-admin
Demo for Web-based Client:
Location: http://demo.wftpserver.com/
Username: demo-user
Password: demo-user
Login using your own client with FTP, FTPS, SFTP protocol:
Location: demo.wftpserver.com Username:
demo-user
Password: demo-user
FTP Port: 21
FTPS Port: 990
SFTP Port: 2222
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is an open standard protocol that is mostly used to provide
connections over point-to-point serial links. The main purpose of PPP is to transport Layer 3
packets over a Data Link layer point-to-point link. PPP can be configured on:
Asynchronous serial connection like Plain old telephone service (POTS) dial-up
Synchronous serial connection like Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN) or point-to-
point leased lines.
PPP consists of two sub-protocols: Link Control Protocol (LCP): set up and negotiate control
options on the Data Link Layer (OSI Layer 2). After finishing setting up the link, it uses NCP.
Network control Protocol (NCP): negotiate optional configuration parameters and facilitate for
the Network Layer (OSI Layer 3).
Before a PPP connection is established, the link must go through three phases of session
establishment:
1. Link establishment phase: In this phase, each PPP device sends LCP packets to configure
and test the data link
2. Authentication phase (optional): If authentication is enabled, either PAP or CHAP will be
used. PAP and CHAP are two authentication protocols used in PPP
3. Network layer protocol phase: PPP sends NCP packets to choose and configure Network
Layer protocol (OSI Layer 3) to be encapsulated and sent over the PPP data link
HTTP - HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol and is used to transfer data across the Web. It
allow users of the World Wide Web to exchange information found on web pages. When
accessing any web page entering http:// in front of the address tells the browser to
communicate over HTTP.
How It Works-
It is a connectionless text based protocol. Clients (web browsers) send requests through request
object of http to web servers for web pages / images etc. Web server respond accordingly
through response object of http After this cycle(request – response), the connection between
client and server across the Internet is disconnected. A new connection must be made for each
request(means for each web page).
This diagram show the working http protocol. Working with dns server and working with web
Server both.
Remote login – A remote login facility permits a user who is using one computer to login to
remote computer or interact with a program on another computer. Command given at remote
location is processed by server and result displayed over remote location.

Telnet – Telnet is most popular protocol for accessing remote site/server. Using telnet client
software on our computer, we can make a connection to a telnet server (that is, the remote
host). Once our telnet client establishes a connection to the remote host, our client becomes a
virtual terminal, allowing us to communicate with the remote host from our computer. In most
cases, we need to log into the remote host, which requires that we have an account on that
system. Occasionally, we can log in as guest or public without having an account. Generally it is
used in unix based client server system to interact.
Wireless/Mobile Communication Protocol-
Wireless communications is a type of data communication that is performed and delivered
wirelessly between mobile devices.
The network architecture used is unique in that it separates the mobile network(s) from fixed
networks and provides connectivity between the two via the protocols specially used for
wireless/mobile communication which are not as wireless/mobile communication protocol.
E.g. of such protocols are GSM,GPRS and WLL.
GSM-Global System for Mobile Communications is a Standard developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) for 2G cellular networks for mobile phones.
It initially started as a circuit switching network, but later packet switching was implemented
after integration General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) technology as well. The widely-used GSM
frequency bands are 900 MHz and 1800 MHz.
GSM mobile use sim cards -Subscriber Identity Module card is a tiny, portable memory chip that
stores information about you as a cell phone user. On it, there’s a seventeen-digit code that
designates its country code of origin, the system carrier and a unique user ID.
How GSM works-
A Mobile Station: It is the mobile phone which consists of the transceiver, the display and the
processor and is controlled by a SIM card operating over the network.

Base Station Subsystem : It connects mobile station and network subsystem.

It consists of the Base Transceiver Station which contains the radio transceivers and handles the
protocols for communication with mobiles. It also consists of the Base Station Controller which
controls the Base Transceiver station and acts as a interface between the mobile station and
mobile switching centre.
Network Subsystem: It provides the basic network connection to the mobile stations. The basic
part of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile Service Switching Centre which provides access to
different networks like ISDN, PSTN etc. It also consists of the Home Location Register and the
Visitor Location Register which provides the call routing and roaming capabilities of GSM. It also
contains the Equipment Identity Register which maintains an account of all the mobile
equipment wherein each mobile is identified by its own IMEI number. IMEI stands for
International Mobile Equipment Identity.
GPRS-General Packet Radio Service systems In GSM cell
• there will always be idle radio capacity. Which is not being used and it stays unused until
other cell phone users decide to make phone calls. GPRS uses this idle radio capacity to
establish a data network to be used for data transmission(115 kbps).
• Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) & Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are two
major components of gprs network .
• The GGSN converts incoming data traffic from mobile users (via the SGSN) and forwards
it to the relevant network, and vice versa. The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) to
keep mobile users connected to the Internet and IP-based applications.
WLL: Wireless Local Loop
Initially, the telephones were connected via copper cables but with (WLL) protocol telephones
with will support can be used while roaming.

When somebody calls from WLL to another person, the Base Trans-Receiver
accepts the signal and sends it to Base-Station Controller.

Controller decodes them according to given code and sends it to Base Station Manager which
sends it to Telephone Exchange. This gets back to a specific customer on the same route via
different Trans-Receiver.
However, this was quite inefficient when it has to cover a bigger ground, probably that’s why it
became obsolete.
 Mobile Communication Technologies

Mobile processors, also known as chipset, is a component that controls everything going on in
your smartphone and ensures it functions correctly.
Processors based on specs – Cores and clock speed
A processor performance mostly depends on two specifications; the number of cores and the
clock speeds .A core is an element of the processor that implements and executes tasks.
Smartphones today, come with multiple cores. Each core is designed to handle and execute
tasks. More the number of cores, more and heavier apps it can e.g. dual-core (two), quad-core
(four) and octa-core (eight), hexa-core (six).etc.
Popular Entry-Level SoCs
x Snapdragon 665-The most popular affordable chipset that replaced Snapdragon 400
series.
x MediaTek Helio P70 has emerged as a popular alternative to Snapdragon chipsets.
Popular Mid-Range SoCs
x Snapdragon 765/ 765G is the first Qualcommchip set with an integrated 5G modem.
x MediaTek G90/ G90T- only popular MediaTek chipset in 2019.
x Popular High-End SoCs Snapdragon 865 -The latest Qualcomm flagship that will be a
part all 2020 flagships.
x Kirin 990 5G/ 990-This is the current Huawei flagship
x chipset in Mate 30 and P40- phones.
Email Protocols
Email –Electronic mail is a facility that allows users to transmit messages across the internet
in fast and secure manner.
 Email created using email client program->on press of send button ,it is delivered to sender’s
mail server through SMTP(Simple mail transfer protocol)->which further transmit the same
through internet to recipient’s mail server->whenever recipient’s email client program’s inbox is
opened,that email is delivered to inbox through POP3 (post office protocols 3rd version)->which
user will read in email client program.
SMTP – Most of the internet systems use SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to
another. SMTP is a push protocol and is used to send the mail to email server. it is usually used
with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, that let the user save messages in a server
mailbox and download them periodically from the server.An alternative to SMTP that is widely
used in Europe is X.400. Many mail servers now support Extended Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(ESMTP), which allows multimedia files to be deliver

The SMTP model is of two type :

• End-to- end method
• Store-and- forward method
The end to end model is used to communicate between different organizations whereas the
store and forward method is used within an organization.
POP3 – Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a standard mail protocol used to receive emails
from a remote server to a local email client. POP3 allows us to download email messages on our
local computer and read them even when we are offline. Note, that when we use POP3 to
connect to our email account, messages are downloaded locally and removed from the email
server. This means that if we access our account from multiple locations, that may not be the
best option for us. On the other hand, if we use POP3, our messages are stored on our local
computer, which reduces the space of email account uses on your web server.
Protocols for chat & video conferencing
VOIP – Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows us to make voice calls
using a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.
VoIP services convert our voice into a digital signal that travels over the Internet. If we are calling
a regular phone number, the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal before it reaches
the destination. VoIP can allow us to make a call directly from a computer, a special VoIP phone.
In addition, wireless "hot spots" in locations such as airports, parks, and cafes allow us to
connect to the Internet and may enable us to use VoIP service wirelessly.
Advantages:
• Less Cost
• Accessibility
• Flexibility
• Voice Quality
• Extra/Less Expensive Features
 Disadvantages:
• Reliable Internet Connection Required
• Power Outages/Emergencies
• Latency
Services provided by VOIP – (voice over internet protocol)
a) pc to phone ,
b) phone to pc,
c) voice to email,
d) ipphone,
e) toll free number,
f) call center applications,
g) vpn,unified messaging etc.
h) Phone to phone,
Protocols used for VOIP are
• Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)- connection management protocol developed by the
IETF
• H.323 - one of the first VoIP call signaling and control protocols that found
widespread implementation.
• Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)- transport protocol for real-time audio and video
data
• Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP)- sister protocol for RTP providing stream
statistics and status information
• Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP) - encrypted version of RTP
• Session Description Protocol (SDP) - file format used principally by SIP to
describe VoIP connections
Wireless technology

BASIS OF COMPRISON WI-FI WiMAX

Description Wi-Fi is an acronym for Wireless Fidelity. WiMAX is an acronym for Worldwide
It is a wireless networking technology Interoperability for Microwave Access. It also goes
that uses radio waves to provide by the IEEE name 802.16. It is a technology
wireless high-speed internet and standard for long-range wireless networking for
network connections. both mobile and fixed connection.
Protocol Uses CSMA/CA protocol Uses connection based MAC protocol.
Licensed and Exclusively unlicensed Can run on both licensed and unlicensed spectrum.
Unlicensed Spectrum
Data Transmission data at speeds up to 54 mbps. data at speeds upto 40mbps.
Rates

Channel Bandwidth fixed channel bandwidth of 20 MHz. flexible channel bandwidth - 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz.

IEEE Standards Defined under IEEE 802.11x standards Standardized under 802.16y family of wireless
where x is various Wi-Fi versions. networking where y refers to various WiMAX
versions.
Coverage coverage of up to 100 meters for Non-line of sight connectivity covers a radius of
outdoor applications and 30 meters above 25 kilometers (Km). For line of sight
for indoor coverage. connectivity coverage area of above 600- square
 Network Security Concepts
Network security software is the process of physical and preventative measures to protect the
networking infrastructure from authorized access, malfunction, destruction, misuse,
modification, or improper disclosure, thereby creating a secure platform for computers, users,
and programs to perform their permitted critical functions within a secure environment.
Network security threats types:
• Passive Network Threats: Passive cyber attacks employ non- disruptive methods so
that the hacker does not draw attention to the attack. Passive attacks are usually
data gathering operations, which means they usually employ some sort of malware
or hack that eavesdrops on system communications Activities such as wiretapping
and idle scans that are designed to intercept traffic traveling through the network.
• Active Network Threats: Active cyber attacks are often aggressive, blatant attacks
that victims immediately become aware of when they occur. Activities such as
Denial of Service (DoS) attacks and SQL injection attacks where the attacker is
attempting to execute commands to disrupt the network’s normal operation.
Viruses, worms, Trojan horse, spam, malware, Denial of Service attacks, and
password crackers are all examples of active cyber attacks.
Computer virus - is a malicious software program loaded onto a user's computer without the
user's knowledge and performs malicious actions.
COMMON TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES
1. RESIDENT VIRUS-Resident viruses set up in RAM and meddle with system operations.
They’re so sneaky that they can even attach themselves to anti- virus software files.
2. MULTIPARTITE VIRUS-This virus infects the entire system. Multipartite viruses spread
by performing authorized actions on operating system, folders, and programs.
3. DIRECT ACTION-This virus targets a specific file type, most commonly executable files
(.exe), by replicating and infecting files. Due to its targeted nature, this virus type is
one of the easier ones to detect and remove.
4. BROWSER HIJACKER-Easily detected, this virus type infects browser and redirects
you to malicious websites.
5. OVERWRITE -VIRUS-Like the name implies, overwrite viruses overwrite file content to
infect entire folders, files, and programs.
6. WEB SCRIPTING -VIRUS-This sneaky virus disguises itself in the coding of links, ads,
images, videos, and site code. It can infect systems when users download malicious
files or visit malicious websites.
7. FILE- INFECTOR-By targeting executable files (.exe), file infector viruses slow down
programs and damage system files when a user runs them.
8. BOOT SENETWORK- VIRUS-Network viruses travel through network connections and
replicate themselves through shared resources.
9. CTOR -VIRUS-One of the easier viruses to avoid, this virus hides out in a file on a USB
drive or email attachment. When activated, it can infect the system’s master boot
record to damage the system.

Network Security Concepts

Ways to prevent from computer virus –
• Open emails, even coming from friends, carefully
• Install anti-virus software and keep it upto date
• Scan system regularly
• Browse safely
• Download files carefully
A computer worm - is a malicious, self-replicating software program (popularly termed as
'malware') which affects the functions of software and hardware programs.
Different types of Computer Worms are:
Email Worms: Email Worms spread through infected email messages as an attachment or a link
of an infected website.
Instant Messaging Worms: Instant Messaging Worms spread by sending links to the contact list
of instant messaging applications.
Internet Worms: Internet worm will scan all available network resources using local operating
system services and/or scan the Internet for vulnerable machines. If a computer is found
vulnerable it will attempt to connect and gain access to them.
IRC Worms: IRC Worms spread through IRC chat channels, sending infected files or links to
infected websites.
File-sharing Networks Worms: File-sharing Networks Worms place a copy
of them in a shared folder and spread via P2P network.
Ways to prevent from computer worms
Since software vulnerabilities are major infection vectors for computer worms, be sure that
computer’s operating system and applications are up to date with the latest versions. Install
these updates as soon as they’re available because updates often include patches for security
flaws.
Phishing is another popular way for hackers to spread worms Always be extra cautious when
opening unsolicited emails, especially those from unknown senders that contain attachments
or dubious links. Be sure to invest in a strong internet security software solution that can help
block computer worms.
A Trojan horse - or Trojan, is a type of malicious code or software that looks legitimate but can
take control of computer. A Trojan is designed to damage, disrupt, steal, or in general inflict some
other harmful action on data or network.
Types of Trojan viruses
Backdoor Trojans - This type of Trojan allows hackers to remotely access and control a computer,
often for the purpose of uploading, downloading, or executing files at will.
Exploit Trojans -These Trojans inject a machine with code deliberately designed to take
advantage of a weakness inherent to a specific piece of software.
Rootkit Trojans -These Trojans are intended to prevent the discovery of malware already
infecting a system so that it can affect maximum damage.
Banker Trojans -This type of Trojan specifically targets personal information used for banking
and other online transactions.
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Trojans - These are programmed to execute DDoS attacks,
where a network or machine is disabled by a flood of requests originating from many different
sources.
Downloader Trojans -These are files written to download additional malware, often including
more Trojans, onto a device.
Ways to prevent from Trojan Hoarse
Never download or install software from a source you don’t trust completely Never open an
attachment or run a program sent in an email from someone you don’t know. Keep all software
on your computer up to date with the latest patches Make surea Trojan antivirus is installed and
running on compute
Spam - is any kind of unwanted, unsolicited digital communication that gets sent out in bulk
through email
Ways to prevent from spam
Never give out or post your email address publicly Think before click Do not reply to spam
messages
Download spam filtering tools and use anti-virus software
Cookies - are files that contain small pieces of data — like a username and password — that are
exchanged between a user's computer and a web server to identify specific users and improve
their browsing experience.
Shopping sites use cookies to track items users previously viewed, allowing the sites to suggest
other goods they might like .
Cookies can’t infect computers with viruses or other malware, although some cyber attacks can
hijack cookies and, therefore, browsing sessions.
Beware Third-Party Cookies-Third-party cookies let advertisers or analytics companies track an
individual's browsing history across the web on any sites that contain their ads. cookies
themselves aren't harmful.
Protection using firewall-
Firewalls are software programs or hardware devices that filter and examine the
information coming through your Internet connection. All messages entering or leaving the
intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not
meet the specified security criteria. we need a firewall to protect our confidential information
from those not authorised to access it and to protect against malicious users and accidents that
originate outside your network. One of the most important elements of a firewall is its access
control features, which distinguish between good and bad traffic.
There are various types of firewall. In ascending order, they are
Packet layer : This analyses network traffic at the transport protocol layer.
Circuit level : This validates that packets are either connection or data packets.
Application layer : This ensures valid data at the application level before connecting.
Proxy server : This intercepts all messages entering or leaving the network.
What Kind of Attacks Do Firewalls Protect Against?
Firewalls prevent cybercriminals from gaining access to your personal information. The issues
include, but are not limited to:
Backdoor Access: A backdoor refers to any security holes or bugs that, when exploited, allow
unauthorized control over the program. Even entire operating systems like Windows can have
backdoors, and an experienced hacker knows how to take advantage of them.
Remote Login Hijacking: A remote desktop allows you to connect and control your computer
from another location over the internet. However, hackers can hijack the login, access your
machine, and steal your files.
Email Abuse: This type of attack targets an individual in which the perpetrator sends thousands
of emails to clog the victim’s inbox. Spam email is also popular and while most is merely
annoying, some may contain viruses and malware.
Source Routing: When data packets are traveling through an online network, they are typically
“passed along” by multiple routers before reaching its destination. Some hackers take advantage
of this system by making malicious data packs look like they’re coming from a trusted source.
Many firewalls disable source routing for this reason.
HTTPS(Hyper text transfer protocol secure) - helps prevent intruders from tampering with the
communications between your websites and your users' browsers. It scramble the messages
using that "code" so that no one in between can read the message. It keeps our information
safe from hackers.
Https uses the "code" on a Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), sometimes called Transport Layer Security
(TLS) to send the information back and forth.
Essentially, we need three things to encrypt data:
• The data to be sent/encrypted
• A unique encryption key
• An encryption algorithm (a math function that garbles the data) symmetric encryption is
used in https. Asymmetric means we are using two different keys, one to encrypt and one
to decrypt.
This encryption is now done at TLS rather than SSL.
Cyber Crime - Any crime that involves a computer and a network is called a “Computer Crime”
or “Cyber Crime. Or in other term ,it is a crime in which a computer is the object of the crime
(hacking, phishing, spamming) or is used as a tool to commit an offense (child pornography, hate
crimes).
STEPS TO PROTECT YOURSELF AGAINST CYBER CRIME
1. Make sure your security software is current and update it regularly.
2. Lock or log off your computer when you step away.
3. Go offline when you don’t need an internet connection.
4. Consider sharing less online.
5. Think twice about using public Wi-Fi.
6. When in doubt, don’t click.
Phishing is a cyber attack that uses disguised email as a weapon. The attackers masquerade as a
trusted entity of some kind, The goal is to trick the email recipient into believing that the
message is something they want or need — recipient fills/send sensitive information like account
no, username ,password etc.
,then attacker use these.
How to prevent phishing
• Always check the spelling of the URLs before click
• Watch out for URL redirects, that sent to a different website with identical
design
• If receive an email from that seems suspicious, contact that source with a new
email, rather than just hitting reply
• Don't post personal data, like your birthday, vacation plans, or your address or phone
number, publicly on social media
Illegal downloading is obtaining files or computer resources that w do not have the right to use
from the Internet. Copyright laws prohibit Internet users from obtaining copies of media that we
do not legally purchase. These laws exist to prevent digital piracy, much of which is generally
conducted through Internet file sharing.
How to prevent illegal downloading
movie piracy has actually decreased significantly through BitTorrent and other traceable
methods, as the adoption curve of Netflix (and other) streaming options has increased. The
answer there is simple
- make it cheaper and easier to access media in a "legal" manner, and more people will utilize
those paths than the "illegal" paths
Child pornography is considered to be any depiction of a minor or an individual who appears to
be a minor who is engaged in sexual or sexually related conduct. This includes pictures, videos,
and computer-generated content. Even altering an image or video so that it appears to be a
minor can be considered child pornography.
Child pornography is a crime in India. IT Act, 2000 & Indian Penal Code, 1860 provides
protection from child pornography. The newly passed Information Technology Bill is set to make it
illegal to not only create and transmit child pornography in any electronic form, but even to
browse it.
With the growth in online services and internet use, there are many opportunities for criminals
to commit scams and fraud. These are dishonest schemes that seek to take advantage of
unsuspecting people to gain a benefit (such as money, or access to personal details). These are
often contained in spam and phishing messages.
Common types of online scams include:
• Unexpected prize scams,
• Unexpected money scams,
• Dating or romance scams,
• Threats and extortion scams,
• Jobs and investment scams, and
• Identity theft.
Do not respond to online scams or fraud. If you receive an email or SMS which looks like a scam,
the best thing to do is delete it. It is the best solution for online scam.
Cyber forensics is a way or an electronic discovery technique which is used to determine and
reveal technical criminal evidence.
Various capabilities of cyber forensics are.
• Computer forensics
• Computer exams.
• Data analysis.
• Database study.
• Malware analysis.
• Mobile devices.
• Network analysis.
• Photography.
• Video analysis.
Intellectual Property (IP) – is a property created by a person or group of persons using their own
intellect for ultimate use in commerce and which is already not available in the public domain.
Examples of IP Property which are, an invention relating to a product or any process, a new
design, a literary or artistic work and a trademark (a word, a symbol and / or a logo, etc.),
Intellectual Property Right (IPR) is the statutory right granted by
the Government, to the owner(s) of the intellectual property or
applicant(s) of an intellectual property (IP) to exclude others from
exploiting the IP commercially for a given period of time, in lieu of
the discloser of his/her IP in an IPR application.

Why should an IP be protected?

¾ IP is an assets and can be exploited by the owner for commercial gains
any manner
¾ IP owner may intend to stop others from manufacturing and selling products and
services which are dully protected by him
¾ IP owner can sell and/or license the IP for commercial
¾ IP can be used to establish the goodwill and brand value in the market.
¾ IP can be mention in resumes of it’s creator and thus show competence of
it’s creator
¾ IPR certificate establishes legal and valid ownership about an intellectual property
Kinds of IPRs
• Patent (to protect technologies - The Patent Act)
• Trade Mark (to protect words, signs, logos, labels –The Trade Mark Act)
• Design(to protect outer ornamental configuration –The Designs Act)
• Geographical Indications (GI) (to protect region specific product –The Geographical
Indications of Goods Act)
• Copyright (to protect literary and artistic work –The Copyright Act)
IPRs are protected in accordance with the provisions of legislations of a country specific. In
India, IPRs can be protected and monopolized as per the act. Some of them are
1. The Patent Act, 1970,
2. The Designs Act, 2000,
3. The Trade Mark Act, 1999,
4. The Geographical Indications of Goods Act, 1999,
5. The Copyright Act, 1957,
6. Protection of Integrated Circuits Layout and Designs Act, 2000,
7. Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001, and also Trade Secret
Hacking is identifying weakness in computer systems or networks to exploit its weaknesses to
gain access. Example: Using password cracking algo. to gain access to a system.
Types of hackers -
• Ethical Hacker (White hat): A hacker who gains access to systems with a view to fix
the identified weaknesses. They may also perform penetration Testing and
vulnerability assessments.
• Cracker (Black hat): A hacker who gains unauthorized access to computer systems for
personal gain. The intent is usually to steal corporate data, violate privacy rights,
transfer funds from bank accounts etc.
• Grey hat: A hacker who is in between ethical and black hat hackers. He/she breaks
into computer systems without authority with a view to identify weaknesses and
reveal them to the system owner.
• Script kiddies: A non-skilled person who gains access to computer systems using
already made tools.
 • Hacktivist: A hacker who use hacking to send social, religious, and political, etc.
messages. This is usually done by hijacking websites and leaving the message on
the hijacked website.
• Phreaker: A hacker who identifies and exploits weaknesses in telephones
instead of computers.
Cyber law is any law that applies to the internet and internet-related technologies. Cyber law
provides legal protections to people using the internet. This includes both businesses and
everyday citizens. Understanding cyber law is of the utmost importance to anyone who uses the
internet. Cyber law is important because it touches almost all aspects of transactions and
activities and on involving the internet, World Wide Web and cyberspace. Every action and
reaction in cyberspace has some legal and cyber legal angles.
Cyber Laws in India prevent any crime done using technology, where a computer is a tool for
cybercrime. IT Act 2000 was enacted and amended in 2008 covering different types of crimes
under cyber law in India.
The Information Technology Act, 2000 provides legal recognition to the transaction done via an
electronic exchange of data and other electronic means of communication or electronic
commerce transactions. Some of sections under it act 2000 are given below.

SECTION PENALTY
OFFENCE

67A Publishing images containing sexual Imprisonment up to seven years, or/and with fine
acts up to Rs. 1,000,000

Publishing child porn or predating Imprisonment up to five years, or/and with fine up
67B children online to Rs.1,000,000 on first conviction. Imprisonment
up to seven years, or/and with fine up to
Rs.1,000,000 on second conviction.

67C Failure to maintain records Imprisonment up to three years, or/and with fine.

68 Failure/refusal to comply with orders Imprisonment up to three years, or/and

with fine up to Rs.200,000

69 Failure/refusal to decrypt data Imprisonment up to seven years and possible fine.

70 Securing access or attempting to Imprisonment up to ten years, or/and with fine.

secure access to a protected system

71 Misrepresentation Imprisonment up to three years, or/and

with fine up to Rs.100,000

Computer Network
Full forms
1. P2P: Point to Point
2. MODEM: Modulation/Demodulation
3. AM: Amplitude Modulation
4. FM: Frequency Modulation
5. HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
6. HTTPS: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
7. SCP: Secure Copy Protocol
8. SSH: Secure Shell
9. SSL: Secured Socket Layer
Full forms
1. MIME: Multipurpose Internet Moil Extension
2. SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
3. POP: Post Office Protocol
4-. IMAP: Internet Message Access Protocol
5. FTP: File Transfer Protocol
6. URL: Uniform Resource Locator
7. GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications
8. SIM: Subscriber Identification Module
9. SMS: Short Message Service
Full forms
1. TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
2. IP: Internet Protocol
3. MAC: Media Access Control
4. LAN; Local Area Network
5. MAN: Metropolitan Area Network
6. WAN: Wide Area Network
7. NFC: Near Field Communication
8. NIC: Network Interface Card
9. NFS: Network File System
Full forms
1. ISP: Internet Service Provider
2. TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
3. CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
4. 3G: Third Generation
5. HTML: Hypertext Markup Language
6. XML: Extensible Markup Language
7. PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor
8- VoIP: Voice Over Internet Protocol
9. WWW: World Wide Web
Let's Revise
x Start here in points.
x A network is a collection of interlinked computers by means of a communication
system.
x The networks facilitate resource sharing, increased reliability, reduced costs, and
increased and fast communication.
x On the basis of geographical spread, networks can be classified into LAN (Local Area
Network), and WAN (Wide Area Network).
x Small computer networks that are confined to a localised area e.g., an office, a
building etc., are called LANs.
x A WAN is a group of computers that are separated by large distance and tied together.
It can even be a group of LANs that are spread across several locations and connected
together to look like a big LAN.
x On the basis of component roles, networks can be classified into: a peer-to-peer
network and a client-server network.
x A Client computer (or a client) is a computer or other device on the other device on
x the network that requests and utilizes network resources.
x A Server is a computer on network, dedicated to processing client requests.
x In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are equal; each can double up as a client as
x well as a non-dedicated server.
x A client/server network has computer(s) designated as server(s) and these are
dedicated servers. Clients do own job and the servers serve the requests of the clients.
x A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together. Hubs can be
either active hubs or passive hubs.
x A switch is a device that is used to segment networks into different sub-networks
called subnets or LAN segments.
x A bridge is a device that links two networks together.
x A router is a device that works like a bridge but can handle different protocols.
x A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.
x An access point (AP), also called wireless access point (WAP), is a hardware device
that establishes connection(s) of computing devices on wireless LAN with a fixed wire
network.
x The cloud is a generic term for the Internet.
x IOT is a phenomenon that connects the smart devices to the internet over wireless
connections.
x IOT technology uses other technologies like RFID, sensors, smart technologies like
controllers and specialized software.