CHAPTER 7

FLOWERING PLANTS (continuation)

Definition of terms:

Reproduction - the production of offspring by a sexual or asexual process.

Dispersal - the action or process of distributing things or people over a wide area.

Germination - the development of a plant from a seed or spore after a period of dormancy.

Pollination - is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female
stigma. The goal of every living organism, including plants, is to create offspring for the next
generation.
1.1. Angiosperm Reproduction
Almost everyone enjoys giving and receiving flowers, we appreciate their beautiful colors and sweet
odors. We are amazed by their many colors, shapes, and sizes. In some places, flowers are a sure sign of
warm spring days ahead. The development of a flower was a major event in the evolution of plants. Flowers
ensure that angiosperms can reproduce under a variety of conditions. Therefore, they are an important
reason for the success of angiosperms throughout the world.
1.1.1. Flower Structure and Function
A bouquet of flowers is likely to include a wide variety of flower types such as daisies, lilies,
and violets. In some flowers it is easy to identify the different parts.
Look at the picture below. The leaf-like structures at the base of a flower are sepals. Sepals
are usually green but can be other bright colors. The sepals enclose a flower before it opens. Inside
the sepals are leaf-like blades called petals. The petals, often white or brightly colored, surround
and protect the reproductive parts of a flower. They also attract insects to the flower.
A stamen is the male reproductive part of a flower. Notice that each stamen has a long thin
stalk called a filament. The filament supports the anther. The anther is a sac at the end of a stamen
that produces pollen. What develops inside polen grains?
Near the center of a flower are one or more pistils. A pistil is the female reproductive part
of a flower. The enlarged base of a pistil, called an ovary, contains ovules. Recall from Chapter 8
that ovules produce eggs. The slender stalk of the pistil is called a style. The style supports the
stigma, the sticky end of a pistil that collects pollen. Not all flowers have sepals, petals, stamens,
and pistils. Grass flowers, for example, do not have sepals or petals.
 Figure 1.2.1. Flower Structure
1.1.2. Pollination
Before an angiosperm can sexually reproduce, pollination must occur. Pollination in
angiosperms occurs when pollen from the male structure, or anther, is transferred to the female
structure, or stigma. The transfer of pollen within the same plant is called self-pollination. In garden
peas, pollen is transferred from an anther to a stigma in the same flower.
The transfer of pollen from one plant to another is called cross-pollination. In willows, pollen
from an anther on one tree is carried to a stigma on a different tree. Recall that cones are pollinated
only by the wind. So pollen reaches a female cone only when the wind blows. Some flowers also are
wind-pollinated. However, most flowers attract insects and other animals that transfer their pollen to
other plants.
Animals that transfer pollen are called pollinators. Birds and bats are important pollinators.
So are insects such as bees, beetles, butterflies, moths, and flies.
1.1.2.1. Animal Pollination
Animal pollinators are attracted by
a flower's color, odor, size, or shape. Bees
are especially attracted to yellow and blue
flowers such as tulips and violets.
Hummingbirds are attracted to red flowers.
Most pollinators feed on pollen or nectar, a
sugary liquid produced by a flower.

Suppose a bee is attracted to a Fig. 1.2.2.1. Bee sucking nectar on sunflower

flower by its bright color and sweet odor.
As shown in the picture, the bee enters the flower in search of pollen or nectar. As the bee
feeds on the flower, pollen from an anther sticks to its body. When the bee goes to the next
flower, some of the pollen brushes off its body onto the stigma. A sticky Iiquid produced by
the stigma traps the pollen. So the second flower is pollinated.
 Certain flowers have evolved special adaptations that promote pollination by
insects. Some flowers display bright markings, called honey guides, that direct insects to the
nectar inside. Many flowers have special shapes that form landing platforms for insects.

Some flowers have petals that form tubelike passageways that force insects to
follow a certain route through the flower. Along the route, an insect rubs against the anthers
and stigma. A few flowers even attract male insects by looking or smelling like female
insects!
1.1.2.2. Wind Pollination
Flowers pollinated by wind evolved
differently from those pollinated by animals.
Wind-pollinated flowers usually have dull
colors, little odor, and no nectar. As shown in
the picture, they often lack sepals and petals.
Without petals, their anthers and stigmas are
exposed to the wind. The anthers produce
very large amounts of pollen. As pollen is
carried through the air, some lands on the
stigma of other flowers. Grass, willow, Fig. 1.2.2.2. Wind Pollination
cottonwood, and oak flowers are all pollinated
by wind.

1.1.3. Fertilization
Pollination is an important step in angiosperm reproduction. But it is not the final step. Sperm
cells in the pollen must get to the egg in the ovule for fertilization to occur.

After a pollen grain reaches the stigma of a flower, chemicals on the stigma cause the pollen
grain to form a tube. As seen in the picture below, the pollen tube grows down through the style and
ovary to an ovule. Sperm produced by the pollen grain then travel through the pollen tube into the
ovule. A sperm fertilizes an egg inside the ovule. The fertilized egg, or zygote, is the beginning of a
new angiosperm.
 Fig. 1.1.3. Angiosperm Life Cycle

1.2. Angiosperm Growth and Development

You have probably eaten hundreds of oranges, apples, and peaches in your lifetime. Besides
providing you with a tasty snack, these fruits have other characteristics in common. They each come from a
flower, and they each contain one or more seeds. Flowers, fruits, and seeds are different stages in the life of
an angiosperm. In this lesson, you will learn how fruits and seeds help an angiosperm complete its life cycle.
You will also learn why the development of the fruit was an important event in plant evolution.
1.2.1. Fruits and Seeds
As you know, fertilization occurs inside an ovule in the ovary of a flower. After fertilization,
three changes take place in the flower. These changes are shown in the picture. First, by the process
of mitosis, the zygote grows into an embryo. Second, the ovule develops into a seed. Recall that a
seed is actually a mature ovule. Third, the ovary may enlarge or change color. As the ovary changes,
it becomes a fruit. Thus a fruit is a mature ovary that contains one or more seeds. The fruit is an
important adaptation that protects seeds and helps them survive in a variety of environments.
 Fig. 1.3.1. Flower to Fruit

You already know that apples and peaches are fruits, but so are peanuts, green beans, and
coconuts. Avocados, watermelons, and tomatoes are fleshy fruits. They are usually juicy and filled
with water. On the other hand, acorns, pea pods, and rice grains are dry fruits. Dry fruits are often
mistaken for seeds. Some fruits, such as strawberries and pineapples, are actually many fruits all
combined into one structure.
1.2.1.1. Seeds
Angiosperms produce as many different
kinds of seeds as they do fruits. Some seeds are
as big as a bowling ball, while others are smaller
than a grain of sand. But the seeds of all
angiosperms have three main parts. Look at
Figure 9-11. One part is the embryo. The embryo
has a root, stem, and two tiny leaves. The
second part of a seed is the cotyledon. It stores
food for the embryo. The embryo uses the food
to grow until its leaves can make food on their
own. The third part is the seed coat which
surrounds the embryo and cotyledons. Why is
the seed coat important?
1.2.2. Seed Dispersal Fig. 1.3.1.1. Seed Structure

Suppose a seed falls to the ground and germinates

next to its parent. Here the embryo competes with its much larger parent for water, sunlight, and space.
Under these conditions, it will probably not live very long. But if the seed is dispersed far away from its
parent, the embryo has a greater chance of survival. Seeds and fruits containing seeds have adaptations
that promote seed dispersal over a wide area.
1.2.2.1. Dispersal by Wind and Water
Many angiosperms produce
seeds or fruits that are adapted for
dispersal by wind. Milkweed seeds and
dandelion fruits have cottony parachutes
that carry them along on the slightest
breeze. Maple, elm, and ash fruits have
built-in wings that help them flutter away
from their parent plants. Most grasses
produce small, light- weight fruits that are
easily scattered by wind. Sometimes
entire plants, such as tumbleweeds, are Fig. 1.3.2.1. Dispersal By Wind
blown from place to place, dropping their
seeds as they go. Most seeds dispersed by wind are also dispersed by water. Water
disperses other seeds and fruits too. Coconuts, for example, are often carried by ocean
currents.
1.2.2.2. Dispersal by Animals
Many seeds are dispersed by
animals. A bird might eat the juicy berry
around a seed and then drop the seed to
the ground. A cow might swallow grass
grains and later deposit them with its
waste products several miles away.
Sometimes squirrels bury nuts and then
forget about them. Dogs often get seeds Fig. 1.3.2.2. Dispersal by Animals
and fruits with hooks or barbs caught in their
fur. But people probably disperse more seeds than any other animal. Every time a person
plants a garden, a farmer harvests crops, or someone eats an apple, human beings are
dispersing seeds.

1.2.2.3. Dispersal by Other Methods

Some angiosperms are able to disperse seeds on their own. Seeds of the "touch-
me-not" plants burst from the fruit even at the slightest touch. When the fruit of a pansy dries
up, it splits apart with a force that shoots its seeds through the air. On the other hand, the
fruit of mistletoe absorbs so much water that it bursts open, shooting its seeds as far as 15
meters away.
1.2.3. Seed Dormancy
Once a seed is dispersed, the embryo usually stops growing. The seed goes through a
period of inactivity called dormancy. Protected by its tough seed coat, a dormant seed can withstand
extremely hot or cold temperatures. It can live with little or no water. A seed may remain dormant for
many years. While dormant, some seeds may be eaten by animals or be decomposed by fungi. In
fact, of the thousands of seeds produced by a plant, only a few grow into a new plant.

1.2.4. Seed Germination

After a seed goes through dormancy, favorable conditions may cause it to germinate.
Germination begins when water enters the seed. The water causes enzymes to change food stored
in the cotyledons into glucose. By the process of respiration, the embryo breaks down the glucose
for energy. As the embryo uses the energy to grow, it becomes larger and breaks through the seed
coat.
Look at Figure 1.3.4. The root of the embryo pushes through the seed coat first. Root hairs
soon develop and absorb water from the soil. Meanwhile the stem pushes the cotyledons above the
ground. The embryo's two tiny leaves then start to grow. Once exposed to sunlight, the leaves turn
green and begin the process of photosynthesis. Now that the young plant can make its own food,
the cotyledons shrivel up.

Fig. 1.3.4. Seed Germination

1.2.5. Angiosperm Growth Period

Once a seed successfully germinates, its roots, stems, and leaves grow rapidly. Leaves
make food that is stored in the roots. Soon, flower buds open into flowers. Pollination and fertilization
then occur. Seeds develop inside fruits and are dispersed. These stages within the life cycle of an
angiosperm, from seed germination to seed formation, are called the growth period. Find the stages
of the growth period in picture above.
Angiosperms may be grouped by the length of their growth periods. An annual is a plant
that completes its growth period in one year. Annuals germinate, grow, flower, produce seeds, and
die all in one growing season. Sunflower, Corn, and petunia plants are annuals.
 A biennial is a plant that completes its growth period in two years. During the first year, a
biennial germinates and grows roots, stems, and leaves. During the second year, it flowers, produces
seeds, and dies. Carrot, onion, and cabbage plants are biennials.
A perennial is a plant that grows year after year and reproduces many times. Perennials
include woody plants such as cherry, oak, and birch trees. Rose, asparagus, and cactus plants are
also perennials.
1.3. Angiosperm Classification
There are over 250 000 different kinds of angiosperms on Earth. Suppose you had to classify
all these angiosperms. How would you do it? You might compare their flowers, seeds, and fruits.
You might also look for similarities or differences between their roots, stems, and leaves. Like you,
life scientists classify angiosperms (and all organisms) into groups based on characteristics they
have in common.

1.3.1. Monocots and Dicots

Angiosperms are divided into two major groups, or classes. This division is based on the
number of cotyledons in their seeds. Angiosperms that produce seeds with one cotyledon are called
monocotyledons, or monocots, for short. Look at the picture. Monocots include onions, tulips,
grasses, cattails, and palm trees. Altogether there are about 50 000 species of monocots.
Angiosperms that produce seeds with two cotyledons are called dicotyledons, or dicots, for short.
Look at the bean seed in the picture. A dicot seed usually has a groove where the seed splits into
two parts. Each part contains a cotyledon. Besides beans, other dicots include tomatoes, daisies,
peanuts, oak trees, and fruit trees. There are about 200 000 different species of dicots.

Fig. 1.4.1. Monocot and Dicot Comparison

 1.3.1.1. Flowers
As you know, classification is based on a variety of characteristics. Besides their
different types of seeds, monocots and dicots have different types of flowers, stem and
leaves. Monocot flowers have parts in threes or multiples of three. Dicot flowers have parts
in fours or fives or multiples of four or five. Generally, most monocot flowers have few parts,
whereas dicot flowers often have many parts. Suppose a flower has eight sepals, eight
petals, eight stamens, and four pistils. Would you classify the flower as a monocot or a dicot?
1.3.1.2. Stems
There are several differences between the stems of monocots and dicots. Recall
that an herbaceous stem is soft, green, and flexible, while a woody stem is hard, strong, and
rigid. Almost all monocots have herbaceous stems. Dicots, however, have both herbaceous
and woody stems. In addition, the vascular tissue is arranged differently in monocot and
dicot stems.

In monocots, phloem and xylem are arranged in bundles Scattered throughout the
stem. In dicots, phloem and xylem are arranged in bundles or layers that form one or more
rings in the stem.
1.3.1.3. Leaves
Both monocots and dicots have flat, broad leaves. But monocot and dicot leaves
differ in several ways. Recall that two parts of a broad leaf are the stalk, or petiole, and blade.
Most monocot leaves have no petiole, whereas dicot leaves almost always have a petiole.

Monocot leaves usually have long, narrow blades, but dicot leaves come in a great
variety of shapes. Finally, the veins of monocot leaves run side by side, or form a parallel
pattern. The veins of dicot leaves, however, usually form a netlike pattern.
1.3.2. Families of Monocots and Dicots
You have learned that organisms are classified into smaller and smaller groups based on
shared characteristics. A class of organisms, for example, is divided into orders, which in turn are
subdivided into families. All organisms classified in the same family are closely related and have
many characteristics in common.
Both classes of angiosperms-the monocots and the dicots -contain many different families.
The table below lists some well-known monocot and dicot families. As you would expect, the plants
in each family have similar characteristics. Consider the lily family. Most plants in this family are
perennials that grow from bulbs. They produce showy, trumpet-shaped flowers with three sepals,
three petals, six stamens, and one pistil. Their flowers are pollinated by insects and develop into
fruits that contain many seeds.

Table 1.4.2. Families of Angiosperms

Family Examples

Monocots

Lily Lily, Tulip, Daffodil, Asparagus, Onion

Grass Wheat, Rye, Corn, Oats, Rice, Sugarcane

Palm Coconut Palm, Date Palm

Sedge Nutgrass, Cottongrass, Umbrella Sedge

Orchids Ladyslipper, Vanilla Orchid

Dicots

Buttercup Buttercup, Columbine, Anemone

Mustard Mustard, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Broccoli

Rose Rose, Apple, Cherry, Peach, Strawberry

Sunflower Daisy, Dandelion, Aster, Lettuce