BY NM

OUTLINE OF LESSON PLAN

PROTECTION OF FEEDERS

2.1 Over current and earth fault protection

2.2 Pilot wire protection

2.3 Carrier current protection

GENERATOR PROTECTION

2.4 Biased differential protection

2.5 Earth fault protection

2.6 Negative sequence protection

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

2.7 Transformer Differential protection

2.8 Buchholz Relay

BUSBAR PROTECTION

2.9 Frame-earth Protection

 PROTECTION OF FEEDERS

2.1 Over current and earth fault protection

It is customary to have two elements of over current and one element of earth fault protection
system in the most elementary form of protection of three phase feeders. Different types of feeders
employ the over current protection along with the directional relay so that proper discrimination of
an internal fault is possible. Some examples are illustrated below.

2.1.1Application of directional relays to parallel feeders

Using figure shown below, parallel feeders with the relays placed at the load side of both the
lines use directional element which respond to a direction away from the bus bars. Similarly,
the relays placed at the source side do not require any directional element.

2.1.2Application of directional relays to ring mains

A similar concept of discrimination is also utilized in the figure of ring main feeder below, and
a feeder fed from both the sides. It can be observed that relays placed near the bus connecting the
sources, don not have any directional feature, where as the rest of the buses, respond to a direction
always away from the source. It is good practice to locate a fault any where among different sections
of the feeders and check whether that particular section only is isolated without disrupting the
power flow in other sections. 2.1.3Over current protection radial system

2.2 Pilot wire schemes for feeder protection

In differential protection scheme, the current entering at one end of the line and
leaving from other end of the line is compared. The pilot wires are used to connect the
relays. Under normal working condition, the two currents at both ends are equal and pilot
wires do not carry any current, keeping relays inoperative. Under an internal fault
condition, the two currents at both the ends are no longer same, this causes circulating
current flow through pilot wires and makes the relay to trip.
The various schemes used with this method of protection are,
1. Merz-Price Voltage Balance System
2. Translay Scheme

2.2.1 Merz-Price Voltage Balance System

The figure below ,shows Merz-Price voltage balance system used for the three phase
feeders.
Under normal condition, current entering the line at one end is equal to current leaving
from the other end. Therefore, equal and opposite voltages are induced in the secondaries
of C.T.s. at the two ends resulting in no current flow, through the relay.
Under fault condition, two currents at the two ends are different. Thus the secondary
voltages of both the end C.T.s differ from each other. This circulates a circulating current
through the pilot wires and the relays. Thus the relays trip the circuit breakers to isolate the
faulty section.
The advantages of this method are as follows
1. It can be used for parallel and ring main system
2. It provides instantaneous protection to ground faults.
The limitations of this method are as follows
1. The C.T.s used must match accurately.
2. The pilot wires must be healthy without discontinuity.
3. Economically not suitable as the cost is high due to long pilot wires.
4. Due to long pilot wires, capacitive effects adversely bias the operation of the
relays.
5. The large voltage drop in the pilot wires requiring better insulation.

2.2.2 Translay Scheme

The translay relay is another type of differential relay. The arrangement is similar to
overcurrent relay but the secondary winding is not closed on itself. Additionally copper
ring or copper shading bands are provided on the central limb as shown in the figure below.
In this scheme, two such relays are employed at the two ends of feeder as shown in the
figure below.

The secondaries of the two relays are connected to each other using pilot wires. The
connection is such that the voltages induced in the two secondaries oppose each other. The
copper coils are used to compensate the effect of pilot wire capacitance currents and
unbalance between two currents transformers.
Under normal operating conditions, the current at the two ends of the feeder is same.
The primaries of the two relays carry the same currents inducing the same voltage in the
secondaries. As these two voltages are in opposition, no current flows through the two
secondaries circuits and no torque is exerted on the discs of both the relays.
When the fault occurs, the currents at the two ends of the feeder are different. Hence
unequal voltages are induced in the secondaries. Hence the circulating current flows in the
secondary circuit causing torque to be exerted on the disc of each relay. But as the
secondaries are in opposition, hence torque in one relay operates so as to close the trip
circuit while in other relay the torque restricts the operation. Care must be taken so that, at
least one relay operates under the fault condition.
Role of copper ring: Mainly relays may operate because of unbalance in the current
transformers. The copper rings are so adjusted that the torque due to current induced in the
copper ring due to primary winding of relay is restraining and do not allow the disc to
rotate. It is adjusted just to neutralize the effect of unbalance existing between the current
transformers. The copper rings also neutralize the effect of pilot capacitive currents.
Though the feeder current is same at two ends, a capacitive current may flow in the pilots.
This current leads the secondary voltage by 90o. The copper rings are adjusted such that no
torque is exerted on the disc, due to such capacitive pilot currents. Therefore in this scheme
the demerits of pilot relaying scheme is somewhat taken care of.
The advantages of this scheme are,
1. Only two pilot wires are required.
2. The cost is very low.
3. The current transformers with normal design can be employed.
4. The capacitive effects of pilot wire currents do not affect the operation of the
relays.

2.3 Carrier Current unit protection system

2.3.1The basic block diagram and various components

The
Schematic diagram of the carrier current scheme is shown below. Different basic
components of the same are discussed below.

The Coupling capacitor

These coupling capacitors (CU) which offer low reactance to the higher frequency carrier
signal and high reactance to the power frequency signal. Therefore, it filters out the low (
power) frequency and allows the high frequency carrier waves to the carrier current
equipments. A low inductance is connected to the CU, to form a resonant circuit.

Wave Traps

The Wave traps ( also known as Line Trap) are inserted between the busbar and the
connection of the CU. These traps are L and C elements connected in parallel, and they
are tuned in such a manner that they offer low reactance to the power frequency signals
and high reactance to the carrier waves. They ensure that neither of these different
frequency signals get mixed up before being received at the bus bar.

Both the CU and the Wave traps are protected from switching and lightening surges, with
the help suitably designed Spark Gaps or Varistors.

Frequency spacing

Different frequencies are used in adjacent lines and the wave traps ensure that carrier
signals of other lines do not enter a particular line section. Therefore, proper choice of
frequency bands for different lines are adopted.

Transmitter Unit

In a Transmitter unit, the carrier frequency in the range of 50 to 500 KHz of constant
magnitude is generated in the oscillator, which is fed to an amplifier. Amplification is
required to overcome any loss in the coupling equipments, weather conditions, Tee
connections in the lines of different size and length. The amplifier and the oscillators are
constantly energized and a connection is made between the two with the help of a control
unit.

Receiver Unit
The Receiver unit consists of an attenuator and a Band pass filter, which restricts the
acceptance of any unwanted signals. The unit also has matching transformer to match the
line

impedance and that of the receiver unit.

MODULATOR

The Modulator modulates, the 50 Hz power signals with high frequency carrier waves and
the modulated signal is fed to an amplifier. The amplifier output is transmitted via a CU.
It takes half a cycle of power signal to produce requisite Blocks of carrier as shown above.
The Schematic of CCE
The CTs connected to the transmission line feed the Summation block which consist of
Network sequence filters. It transforms the CT output to a single phase voltage signal that
is representative of the fault condition. The voltage signal is used to control the output from
the local transmitter unit, through the starting relay known as Starter. It therefore initiates
comparison between the local transmitter output and the signal received from the remote
receiver in the comparator. The comparator output condition then initiates the Trip relay.
The principle of Phase Comparison is one of the methods that involve decision of tripping.
As shown above, the presence of blocks of carrier signals abort any tripping and its absence
initiates the tripping. Therefore, in a section of transmission line, where CTs at both end
buses are connected 180 degree out of phase, an absence of carrier signal can only be
possible if an internal fault has occurred. However, it can be seen that such absencve of
carrier blocks is not possible for an external fault.

2.3.2 Application advantages and multiple roles of CCE

Pilot channel such are carrier current over the power line provides simultaneous tripping
of circuit-breakers at both the ends of the line in one to three cycles. Thereby high speed
fault clearing is obtained, which improves the stability of the power system. Besides there
are several other merits of carrier current relaying. There are :
 1. Fast, simultaneous operating of circuit-breakers at both ends.
2. Auto-reclosing simultaneous reclosing signal is sent thereby simultaneous (1 to
3 cycles) reclosing of circuit breaker is obtained.
3. Fast clearing prevents shocks to systems.
4. Tripping due to synchronizing power surges does not occur, yet during internal
fault clearing is obtained.
5. For simultaneous faults, carrier current protection provides easy discrimination.
6. Fast (2 cycle) and auto-reclosing circuit breakers such as air blast circuit
breaker require faster relaying. Hence, the carrier current relaying is best suited for fast
relaying in conjunction with modern fast circuit breaker.
7. The carrier current equipment is used for several other application besides
protection. They are as follows
(a) Station to station communication. In power station, receiving stations and sub-
stations telephones are provided. These are connected to carrier current equipment
and conversion can be carried out by means of "Current Carrier Communication".
(b) Control. Remote control of power station equipment
by carrier signals.
(c) Telemetering.

2.3.4 Media used for protection signaling

• Power - line - carrier circuits

• Pilot wires

GENERATOR PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION

• The range of size of generators extends from a few hundred KVA to more than
500MVA

• Small and Medium sized sets may be directly connected to the distribution
system
A larger unit is usually associated with an individual transformer, through which the set is
coupled to the EHV transmission system. No switchgear is provided between the generator
and transformer, which are treated as a unit.

2.4 Biased Differential scheme (Merz-Price Scheme) for protection of Generators.

This is most commonly used protection scheme for the alternator stator windings.
The scheme is also called biased differential protection and percentage differential
protection. The figure below shows a schematic arrangement of Merz-Price protection
scheme for a star connected alternator.

The differential relay gives protection against short circuit fault in the stator winding of a
generator. When the neutral point of the windings is available then, the C.T.s may be
connected in star on both the phase outgoing side and the neutral earth side, as shown in
the above figure. But, if the neutral point is not available, then the phase side CTs are
connected in a residual connection, so that it can be made suitable for comparing the current
with the generator ground point CT secondary current. The restraining coils are energized
from the secondary connection of
C.T.s in each phase, through pilot wires. The operating coils are energized by the tappings
from restraining coils and the C.T. neutral earthing connection.
The similar arrangement is used for the delta connected alternator stator winding, as
shown below.
 This scheme provides very fast protection to the stator winding against phase to phase
faults and phase to ground faults. If the neutral is not grounded or grounded through
resistance then additional sensitive earth fault relay should be provided.
The advantages of this scheme are,
1. Very high speed operation with operating time of about 15 msec.
2. It allows low fault setting which ensures maximum protection of machine
windings.
3. It ensures complete stability under most severe through and external faults.
4. It does not require current transformers with air gaps or special balancing
features.

2.5 Earth fault protection of Generators.

The neutral point of the generator is usually earthed, so as to facilitate the protection of
the stator winding and associated system. Impedance is inserted in the earthing lead to limit
the magnitude of the earth fault current. Generators which are directly connected to the
transmission or distribution system are usually earthed through a resistance which will pass
approximately rated current to a terminal earth fault. In case of generator-transformer unit,
the generator winding and primary winding of a transformer can be treated as an isolated
system that is not influenced by the earthing requirements of the transmission system.

Modern practice is to use a large earthing transformer (5-100 KVA) – the secondary
winding which is designed for 100-500V is loaded with a resistor of a value, which when
referred through the transformer ratio, will pass a suitable fault current. The resistor is
therefore of low value and can be of rugged construction. It is important that the earthing
transformer never becomes saturated, otherwise a very undesirable condition of ferro
resonance may occur

EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

• Earth fault protection can be obtained by applying a relay to measure the transformer
secondary current by connecting a voltage measuring relay in parallel with the
load
resistor

2.5.1 Restricted earth fault protection

Generally Merz-Price protection based on circulating current principle provides the

protection against internal earth faults. But for large costly generators, an additional
protection scheme called restricted earth fault protection is provided.
When the neutral is solidly grounded then the generator gets completely protected
against earth faults. But when neutral is grounded through earth resistance, then the stator
windings gets partly protected against earth faults. The percentage of windings protected
depends on the value of earthing resistance and the relay setting.
In this scheme, the value of earth resistance, relay setting, current rating of earth
resistance must be carefully selected. The earth faults are rare near the neutral point as the
voltage of neutral point with respect to earth is very less. But when earth fault occurs near
the neutral point, then the insufficient voltage across the fault results in a low fault current,
that is less than the pickup current of relay coil. Hence the relay coil remains unprotected
in this scheme. As it is able to protect a restricted portion of generator winding from earth
faults, it is called a restricted earth fault protection. It is usual practice to protect 85% of
the winding.
The restricted earth fault protection scheme is shown in the above figure.
Consider that earth fault occurs on phase B due to breakdown of its insulation to earth, as
shown in the Fig. 1. The fault current If will flow through the core, frame of machine to
earth and complete the path through the earthing resistance. The C.T. secondary current Is
flows through the operating coil and the restricted earth fault relay coil of the differential
protection. The setting of restricted earth fault relay and setting of overcurrent relay are
independent of each other. Under this secondary current Is, the relay operates to trip the
circuit breaker. The voltage Vbx is sufficient to drive the enough fault current If when the
fault point x is away from the neutral point.
If the fault point x is nearer to the neutral point then the voltage Vbx is small and not
sufficient to drive enough fault current If. And for this If, relay can‟t operate. Thus part of
the winding from the neutral point remains unprotected. To overcome this, if relay setting
is chosen very low to make it sensitive to low fault currents, then wrong operation of relay
may result. The relay can operate under the conditions of heavy through faults, inaccurate
C.T.s, saturation of C.T.s etc. Hence practically 15% of winding from the neutral point is
kept unprotected, protecting the remaining 85% of the winding against phase to earth
faults.
Let us see the effect of earth resistance on the percentage of winding which remains
unprotected. Consider the earth resistance R is used to limit earth fault current. If it is
very small i.e. the neutral is almost solidly grounded, then the fault current is very high.
But high fault currents are not desirable hence small R is not preferred for the large
machines.
 For low resistance R, the value of R is selected such that full load current passes
through the neutral, for a full line to neutral voltage V. In medium resistance R, the earth
fault current is limited to about 200A for full line to neutral voltage V, for a 60 MW
machine.
In high resistance R, the earth fault current is limited to about 10 A. This is used for
distribution transformers and generator-transformer units. Now higher the value of earth
resistance R, less is the earth fault current and less percentage of winding gets protected.
Large percentage of winding remains unprotected.
Let V= Full line to neutral voltage
I = Full load current of largest capacity generator
R = Earth resistance
The value of the resistance R is,
R = V/I
And the percentage of winding unprotected is given by,
% of winding protected = (I0R/V)×100

Where, Io = Maximum operating current in the primary of C.T.

If relay setting used is 15% then Io is 15% of full load current of the largest machine
and so on.
Example 1 : A generator is protected by restricted earth fault protection. The generator
ratings are 13.2 kV, 10 MVA. The percentage of winding protected against phase to
ground fault is 85%. The relay setting is such that it trips for 20% out of balance.
Calculate the resistance to be added in the neutral to ground connection.

Solution : The given values,

VL = 13.2 kV Rating = 10 MVA
From rating, calculate the full load current,
I = Rating in VA / (√3 VL) = (10x106)/(√3 x 13.2 x 103)
= 437.386 A
Relay setting is 20% out of balance i.e. 20% of the rated current activities the relay.
Io = 4387.386 x (20/100) = 87.477 A
= Minimum operating current
V = Line to neutral voltage = VL/√3
= (13.2 x 103)/√3 = 7621.02 V
 % of winding unprotected = 15% as 85% is protected
... 15 = (RIo/V) x 100
... = ((R x 87.477)/7621.02) x 100
... R = 13.068 Ω
Example 2 : A star connected 3 phase, 12 MVA, 11 kV alternator has a phase reactance of
10%. It is protected by Merz-Price circulating current scheme which is set to operate for
fault current not less than 200 A. Calculate the value of earthing resistance to be provided
in order to ensure that only 15% of the alternator winding remains unprotected.
Solution : The given values are,
VL = 11 kV Rating = 12 MVA
Rating = √3 VL IL
... 12 x 106= √3 x 11 x 103 x IL
... IL = (12 x 106)/ (√3 x 11 x 103)
= 629.8366 A = I = rated current
V = VL/√3 = (11 x 103)/√3 = 6350.8529 V
% Reactance = (IX /V) x
100 Where X=
reactance per phase and
I = rated current
... 10 = (629.8366X / 6350.82529 ) x 100
... X = 1.0083 Ω
... Reactance of unprotected winding
= (% of unprotected winding) x (X)
= (15/100) x 1.0083
= 0.1512 Ω v=
Voltage induced in unprotected winding
= (15/100) x V = 0.15 x 6350.8529

=
952.6279 V
i = Fault current
= 200 A
Z = Impedance offered to the fault
 = v/i= 952.6279/200
= 4.7631 Ω ...........(1)
Z = r + j (reactance of unprotected winding)
Z = r + j (0.1512) Ω
... │Z│= √(r2 + 0.15122) .............(2)
Equation (1) and (2),
4.7631 = √(r2 + 0.15122)
... 22.6875 = r2 + 0.02286
... r2 = 22.6646
... r = 4.7607 Ω
This is the earthing resistance required.

2.5.1The unrestricted earth fault protection

The unrestricted earth fault protection uses a residually connected earth fault relay.
It consists of three C.T.s, one in each phase. The secondary windings of three C.T.s are
connected in parallel. The earth fault relay is connected across the secondaries which
carries a residual current. The scheme is shown in the figure below.
Where there is no fault, under normal conditions, vector sum of the three line currents
is zero. Hence the vector sum of the three secondary currents is also zero.

So if Irs, Iys and Ibs

C.T.
secondary
currents then
under normal
conditions we can write,
Īrs+ Īys + Ībs = 0
The sum of the three currents is residual current IRs which is zero under normal
conditions. The earth fault relay is connected in such a way that the residual current
flows through the relay operating coil. Under normal condition, residual current is zero so
relay does not carry any current and is inoperative. However in presence of earth fault
condition, the balance gets disturbed and the residual current IRs is no more zero. If this
current is more than the pickup value of the earth fault relay, the relay operates and opens
the circuit breaker through tripping of of the trip circuit.
In the scheme shown in the figure, the earth fault at any location near or away from
the location of C.T.s can cause the residual current. Hence the protected zone is not
definite. Such a scheme is hence called unrestricted earth fault protection.
2.5.2 Generator and Transformer Unit Biased Differential Protection

In a high voltage transmission system, the bus bars are at very high voltages than
the generators. The generators are directly connected to step up transformer to which it is
connected, together from a generator transformer unit. The protection of such a unit is
achieved by differential protection scheme using circulating current principle. While
providing protection to such a unit, it is necessary to consider the phase shift and current
transformation in the step up transformer.
The figure in the following page, shows a biased differential protection scheme used
for generator transformer unit. The zone of such a scheme includes the stator windings, the
step up transformer and the intervening connections.
The transformer is delta-star hence the current transformers on high voltage side are delta
connected while those on generator side are star connected. This cancels the displacement
between line currents introduced by the delta connected primary of the transformer. Where
there is no fault, the secondary currents of the current transformer connected on generator
side are equal to the currents in the pilot wires from the secondaries of the delta connected
current transformers on the secondary of main transformer. When a fault occurs, the pilot
wires carry the differential current to operate the percentage differential relay.
For the protection against the earth faults, an earth fault relays is put in the secondary
winding of the main step up transformers as shown. In such a case, differential protection
acts as a backup protection to the restricted earth fault protection. This overall differential
protection scheme does not include unit transformer as a separate differential scheme is
provided ti it.
PHASE FAULT

• Phase-phase faults clear of earth are less common. They may occur on the end
portion of stator coils or in the slots if the winding involves two coil sides in the
same slot. In the later case the fault will involve earth in a very short time.

• Phase fault current is not controlled by the method of earthing the neutral point.

INTERTURN FAULTS

• Interturn faults are also uncommon, but not unknown

• A greatest danger arising from failure to deal with interturn faults quickly is
fire. A large portion of the insulation is inflammable

2.6 Negative sequence protection

The negative sequence component can be detected by the use of a filter network. Many
negative sequence filter circuits have been evolved.

One typical negative sequence filter circuit is as follows

 Positive Sequence

Negative Sequence

Zero Sequence
Basically it consists of a resistance bridge network as depicted in the first figure showing the
circuit connection. The magnitudes of the impedances of all the branches of the network are
equal. The impedances Z1 and Z3 are purely resistive while the impedances Z2 and Z4 are the
combinations of resistance and reactance. The currents in the branches Z2 and Z4 lag by 60o
from the currents in the branches Z1 and Z3. The vertical branch B-D basically consists of an
over current element with inverse time characteristics having negligible impedance compared
to the bridge impedances.
POSITIVE SEQUENCE OPERATION

The current IR gets divided into two equal parts I1 and I2. And I2 lags I1 by 60o. The phasor
diagram is shown in the figure.
Ī1 + Ī2= Īrs
Let I1 = I2 = I
The perpendicular is drawn from point A on the diagonal meeting it at point B, as
shown in the Figure. This bisects the diagonal.
... OB = IR /2
Now in triangle OAB,
Cos 30 = OB/OA
... √3/2 = (IR/2)/I

... I = IR/√3 = I1 = I2 ............(1)

Now I1 leads IR by 30o while I2 lags IR by 30o.
Similarly the current IB gets divided into two equal parts I3 and I4. The current I3 lags
I4 by
60o. From equation (1) we can write,

IB /√3 = I3 = I4 ...............(2)
The current I4 leads by IB while current I3 lags IB by 30o.
The current entering the relay at the junction point B in the figure is the vector sum of
3 components of currents as below.
Irelay = Ī1 + Ī3 + ĪY
= IY + (IR/√3) (leads IR by 30o) + IB/√3(lags IB by 30o)
The vector sum as shown in the figure, is equal to zero.
As
Ī1 + Ī3 = -ĪY
... Ī1 + Ī3 + ĪY = 0
Thus the current entering the relay at point B is zero. Similarly the resultant current at
junction D is also zero. Thus the relay is inoperative for a balanced system.
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE OPERATION
Now consider that there is unbalanced load on generator or motor due to which
negative sequence currents exist. The phase sequence of C.T. secondary currents is as
shown in the figure for negative sequence. The vector diagram of I1, I3 and IY is redrawn
under this condition also. The component I1 and I3 are equal and opposite to each other at
the junction point B. Hence I1 and I3 cancel each other. Now the relay coil carries the current
IY and when this current is more than a predetermined value, the relay trips closing the
contacts of trip circuit which opens the circuit breaker.
Zero Sequence operation
ĪR = Ī1 + Ī2 , ĪB = Ī3 + Ī4 , Ī1 + Ī3 = ĪY
The total current through relay is Ī1 + Ī3 +ĪY. Thus under zero sequence currents the
total current of twice the zero sequence current flows through the relay. Hence the relay
operates to open the circuit breaker.
To make the relay sensitive to only negative sequence currents by making it
inoperative under the influence of zero sequence currents is possible by connecting the
current transformers in Delta, as in that case no zero sequence current can flow in the
network.
LOSS OF EXCITATION PROTECTION OF GENERATORS

The loss of excitation of the generator may result in the loss of synchronism and slightly
increase in the generator speed. The machine starts behaving as an induction generator. It
draws reactive power from the system which is undesirable. The loss of excitation may
lead to the pole slipping condition. Hence protection against loss of excitation must be
provided.
The protection is provided using directional distance type relay with the generator
terminals.
 When there is loss of excitation, the equivalent generator impedance varies and traces
a curve as shown in the following figure. The figure shows the loss of excitation
characteristics along with the relay operation characteristic, on R-X diagram.

The equivalent generator impedance locus traces a path from first quadrant of R-X
diagram to the fourth quadrant. The distance relay is used which covers the portion of the
fourth quadrant where impedance locus path exists. Thus when the impedance takes value
in the region covered by the relay characteristics, the relay operates. The relay operates
when generator first starts to slip poles. Then relay trips the field circuit breaker. And it
disconnects the generator from the system, too. When the excitation is regained and
becomes normal, the generator can then be returned to service instantly.

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION

• The power transformer is one of the most important links in a power

transmission and distribution system.

• It is a highly reliable piece of equipment. This reliability depends on

• adequate design

• careful erection

• proper maintenance
 • application of protection system.
PROTECTION EQUIPMENT INCLUDES

1. Surge diverters

2. Gas relay: It gives early warning of a slowly developing fault, permitting

shutdown and repair before severe damage can occur.

3. Electrical relays.

• The choice of suitable protection is also governed by economic considerations.

Although this factor is not unique to power transformers, it is brought in
prominence by the wide range of transformer ratings used( few KVA to several
hundreds MVA)

• Only the simplest protection such as fuses can be justified for transformers of
lower ratings.

• for large transformers best protection should be provided.

TYPES OF FAULTS AFFECTING POWER TRANSFORMER

• THROUGH FAULTS

a) Overload conditions.

b) External short-circuit conditions.

The transformer must be disconnected when such faults occur only after allowing
a predetermined time during which other protective gears should have operated.

INTERNAL FAULTS
The primary protection of a power transformer is intended for conditions which
arises as a result of faults inside the protection zone.

1. Phase-to-earth fault or phase- to- phase fault on HV and LV external terminals

2. Phase-to-earth fault or phase-to- phase fault on HV and LV windings.

3. Inter turn faults of HV and LV windings.

 4. Earth fault on tertiary winding, or short circuit between turns of a tertiary
windings.
5. So called „incipient‟ faults which are initially minor faults, causing gradually
developing fault. These types of faults are not easily detectable at the winding
terminals by unbalance current or voltage.
NATURE & EFFECT OF TRANSFRMER FAULTS
A faults on transformer winding is controlled in magnitude by

a) Source & neutral earthing impedance

b) Leakage reactance of the transformer

c) Position of the fault on the winding.

Following distinct cases are examined below

(1) Star connected winding with neutral point earthed through an impedance

Earth fault on resistance earthed star winding

2.7 Transformer differential protection
Basic discussions related to the Merz-Price Scheme and its limitations which are taken care
by the biased differential scheme, are omitted for repetition
2.7.1 Basic considerations

a. Transformation ratio
The nominal currents in the primary and secondary sides of the
transformer vary in inverse ratio to the corresponding voltages. This
should be compensated for by using different transformation ratios
for the CTs on the primary and secondary sides of the transformer.

b. Current Transformer Connections

When a transformer is connected in star/delta, the secondary current has a phase

shift of 300 relative to the primary

• This phase shift can be offset by suitable secondary CT connections

• The zero-sequence currents flowing on the star-side of the transformer will not
produce current outside the delta on the other side. The zero sequence current must
therefore be eliminated from the star-side by connecting the CTs in delta.
• The CTs on delta side should be connected in star in order to give 300 phase
shift.

• When CTs are connected in delta, their secondary ratings must be reduced to
1/3 times the secondary ratings of the star-connected transformer, in order that the
currents outside the delta may balance with the secondary currents of the star-
connected CTs.

• If transformers were connected in star/star, the CTs on both sides would need
be connected in delta-delta.

c. Bias to cover tap-changing facility and CT mismatch

• If the transformer has the benefit of a tap changer, it is possible to vary its
transformation ratio for voltage control.

• The differential protection system should be able to cope with this variation.

• This is because if the CTs are chosen to balance for the mean ratio of the power
transformer, a variation in ratio from the mean will create an unbalance
proportional to the ratio change. At maximum through fault current, the spill output
produced by the small percentage unbalance may be substantial

• Differential protection should be provided with a proportional bias of an

amount which exceeds in effect the maximum ratio deviation. This stabilizes the
protection under through fault conditions while still permitting the system to have
good basic sensitivity.

• d. Magnetization Inrush

• The magnetizing inrush produces a current flow into the primary winding that
does not have any equivalent in the secondary winding. The net effect is thus
similar to the situation when there is an internal fault on the transformer.

• Since the differential relay sees the magnetizing current as an internal fault, it
is necessary to have some method of distinguishing between the magnetizing
current and the fault current using one or all of the following methods.
 • Using a differential relay with a suitable sensitivity to cope with the
magnetizing current, usually obtained by a unit that introduces a time delay to cover
the period of the initial inrush peak.

• Using a harmonic-restraint unit, or a supervisory unit, in conjunction with a

differential unit.

• Inhibiting the differential relay during the energizing the transformer.

Compared to the differential protection used in generators, there are certain

important points discussed below which must be taken care of while using such protection
for the power transformers.
1. In a power transformer, the voltage rating of the two windings is different. The
high voltage winding is low current winding while low voltage winding is high current
winding. Thus there always exists difference in current on the primary and secondary
sides of the power transformer. Hence if C.T.s of same ratio are used on two sides, then
relay may get operated through there is no fault existing.
To compensate for this difficulty, the current ratios of C.T.s on each side are different.
These ratios depend on the line currents of the power transformer and the connection of
C.T.s. Due to the different turns ratio, the currents fed into the pilot wires from each end
are same under normal conditions so that the relay remains inoperative. For example if K
is the turns ratio of a power transformer then the ratio of C.T.s on low voltage side is made
K times greater than that of C.T.s on high voltage side.
 2. In case of power transformers, there is an inherent phase difference between
the voltages induced in high voltage winding and low voltage winding. Due to this, there
exists a phase difference between the line currents on primary and secondary sides of a
power transformer. This introduces the phase difference between the C.T. secondary
currents, on the two sides of a power transformer. Through the turns ratio of C.T.s are
selected to compensate for turns ratio of transformer, a differential current may result
due to the phase difference between the currents on two sides. Such a different current
may operate the relay though there is no fault. Hence it is necessary to correct the phase
difference.
To compensate for this, the C.T. connections should be such that the resultant currents
fed into the pilot wires from either sides are displaced in phase by an angle equal to the
phase shift between the primary and secondary currents. To achieve this, secondaries of
C.T.s on star connected side of a power transformer are connected in delta while the
secondaries of C.T.s on delta connected side of a power transformer are connected in star.
The table.1 gives the way of connecting C.T. secondaries for the various types of
power transformer connections.

With such an arrangement, the phase displacement between the currents gets compensated
with the oppositely connected C.T. secondaries. Hence currents fed to the pilot wires from
both the sides are in phase under normal running conditions and the relay is ensured to be
inoperative.
3. The neutrals of C.T. star and power transformer stars are grounded.
4. Many transformers have tap changing arrangement due to which there is a
possibility of flow of differential current. For this, the turns ratio of C.T.s on both sides
of the power transformer are provided with tap for of C.T.s on both sides of the power
transformer are provided with tap for their adjustment.
For the sake of understanding, the connection of C.T. secondaries in delta for star side
of power transformer and the connection of C.T. secondaries in star for delta
 STAR/DELTAUNIT
Let us study the Differential protection for the star-delta power transformer. The
primary of the power transformer is star connected while the secondary is delta connected.
Hence to compensate for the phase difference, the C.T. secondaries on primary side must
be connected in delta while the C.T. secondaries on delta side must be connected in star.

The star point of the power transformer primary as well as the star connected C.T.
secondaries must be grounded. The restraining coils are connected across the C.T.
secondary windings while the operating coils are connected between the tapping points on
the restraining coils and the star point of C.T. secondaries.

With the proper selection of turns ratio of C.T.s the coils are under balanced condition
during normal operating conditions. The C.T. secondaries carry equal currents which are
in phase under normal conditions. So no current flows through the relay and the relay is
inoperative.
It is important to note that this scheme gives protection against short circuit faults
between the turns i.e. interturn faults also. This is because when there is an interturn fault,
the turns ratio of power transformer gets affected. Due to this the currents on both sides of
the power transformer become unbalanced. This causes an enough differential current
which floes through the relay and the relay operates.
STAR/STARUNIT

The figure above shows the Merz-Price protection system for the star-star power
transformer. Both primary and secondary of the power transformer are connected in
star and hence C.T. secondaries. The operating coils are connected between the tapping
on the restraining coil and the ground. The operation of the scheme remains same for
any type of power transformer as discussed for star-star power transformer.

Example : A three phase power transformer having a line voltage ratio of 400 V to 33 kV
is connected in star-delta. the C.T.s on 400 V side have current ratio as 1000/5. What must
be the C.T. ratio on 33 kV side. Assume current on 400 V side of transformer to be 1000
A.
Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 4.
On the primary side, which is 400 V side of transformer the current is 1000 A.
Hence C.T.s primary will carry current of 1000 A.
The C.T. ratio is 1000/5 on the primary side hence the current in C.T.
Secondaries which is phase current of delta connected C.T.s is,
Ip = 1000 x (5/1000) = 5 A
This is shown in the Fig.4
IL =√3 Ip = 5√3 A
This is balance the C.T. secondaries are connected in delta.
The same current flows through the star connected C.T. secondaries. Hence each
secondaries of C.T. on the secondary side of transformer carries a current of 5√3 A.
For the power transformer the apparent power on both sides must be same.
Primary apparent power = Secondary apparent power
√3 VL1 IL1 = √3 VL2 IL2
√3 x 400 x 1000 = √3 x 33000 x IL2
IL2 = (400 x 1000)/33000 = 12.12 A
Thus each primary of C.T.s connected in star carries a current of 12.12 A.while each
secondary of C.T.s connected in star carries a current of 5√3 A.
Hence the C.T. ratio on 33 kV side is,
 C.T. ratio = Primary current/Secondary current = 12.12/5√3 = 1.4
:1 This is the required C.T. ratio on 33 kV side.

2.8 Buchholz relay

All faults below the oil in transformer result in the localized heating &
breakdown of the oil, some degree of arcing will always take place in a winding fault
& the resulting decomposition of it will release gases such as hydrogen, carbon
monoxide & hydrocarbons.

• When the fault is of a very minor type, such as hot joints gas is released slowly,
but a major fault involving severe arcing causes rapid release of large volumes of
gas as well as oil vapour.

• Such incipient faults of smaller or larger magnitudes can be detected by a gas

actuated relay known as Bucholtz Relay.

The Bucholtz Relay is contained in a cast housing which is connected as shown below
between the conservator tank and main tank of the transformer.
 Under normal conditions, the Buchholz relay is full of oil. It consists of a cast
housing containing a hinged hollow float. A mercury switch is attached to a float. The float
being rotated in the upper part of the housing. Another hinged flap valve is located in the
lower part which is directly in the path of the oil between tank and the conservator. Another
mercury switch is attached to a flap valve. The float closes the alarm circuit while the lower
flap valve closes the trip circuit in case of internal faults.
2.8.1 Operation
There are many types of internal faults such as insulation fault, core heating, bad
switch contacts, faulty joints etc. which can occur. When the fault occurs the
decomposition of oil in the main tank starts due to which the gases are generated. As
mentioned earlier, major component of such gases is hydrogen. The hydrogen tries to rise
up towards conservator but in its path it gets accumulated in the upper part of the Buchholz
relay. Through passage of the gas is prevented by the flap valve.
When gas gets accumulated in the upper part of housing, the oil level inside the
housing falls. Due to which the hollow float tilts and closes the contacts of the mercury
switch attached to it. This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm. Due to this
operator knows that there is some incipient fault in the transformer. The transformer is
disconnected and the gas sample is tested. The testing results give the indication, what type
of fault is started developing in the transformer. Hence transformer can be disconnected
before grows into a serious one. The alarm circuit does not immediately disconnect the
transformer but gives only an indication to the operator. This is because sometimes bubbles
in the oil circulating system may operate the alarm circuit even though actually there is no
fault.
However if a serious fault such as internal short circuit between phases, earth fault
inside the tank etc. occurs then the considerable amount of gas gets generated. In that case,
due to a fast reduction in the level of oil, the pressure in the tank increases. Due to this the
oil rushes towards the conservator. While doing so it passes through the relay where flap
valve is present. The flap valve gets deflected due to the rushing oil and operates the
mercury switch, thereby energizing the trip circuit which opens the circuit breaker of
transformer is totally disconnected from the supply.
The connecting pipe between the tank and the conservator should be as straight as
possible and should slope upwards conservator at a small angle from the horizontal. This
angle should be around 100.
For the economic considerations, Buchholz relays are not provided for the transformer
having rating below 500 KVA.
2.8.2 Advantages
The various advantages of the Buchholz relay are,
1. Normally a protective relay does not indicate the appearance of the fault. It
operates when fault occurs. But Buchholz relay gives an indication of the fault at very
early stage, by anticipating the fault and operating the alarm circuit. Thus the transformer
can be taken out of service before any type of serious damage occurs.
2. It is the simplest protection in case of transformers.
2.8.3 Limitations
The various limitation of the Buchholz relay are,
1. Can be used only for oil immersed transformers having conservator tanks.
2. Only faults below oil level are detected.
3. Setting of the mercury switches cannot be kept too sensitive otherwise the relay
can operate due to bubbles, vibration, earthquakes mechanical shocks etc.
4. The relay is slow to operate having minimum operating time of 0.1 seconds and
average time of 0.2 seconds.
2.8.4 Applications
The following types of transformer faults can be protected by the Buchholz relay and are
indicated by alarm:
1. Local overheating
2. Entrance of air bubbles in oil
 3. Core bolt insulation failure
4. Short circuited laminations
5. Loss of oil and reduction in oil level due to leakage
6. Bad and loose electrical contacts
7. Short circuit between phases
8. Winding short circuit
9. Bushing puncture
10. Winding earth fault.
BUSBAR PROTECTION

The protection scheme for a power system should cover the whole system
against all probable types of faults. Unrestricted forms of line protection such as over
current and distance systems, meet this requirement, although faults in the Bus bar zone
are cleared only after some time delay. If unit protection is applied to feeder and plant the
bus bars are not inherently protected. Bus bars have been left without specific protection.
Different bus bar faults are as follows.

BUSBAR FAULTS

• Majority of bus faults involve one phase and earth, but faults arise from many
causes and a significant number are inter-phase clear of earth.

• With fully phase-segregated metal clad gear, only earth faults are possible ,and
a protective scheme need have earth fault sensitivity only.

• For outdoor busbars , protection schemes ability to respond to inter-phase faults

clear of earth is an advantage

TYPES OF PROTECTION SCHEMES

• System protection used to cover bus bars

• Frame –earth protection

• Differential protection

SYSTEM PROTECTION
 • A system protection that includes over current or distance systems will
inherently give protection cover to the bus bars.

• Over current protection will only be applied to relatively simple distribution

systems, or as a back-up protection set to give considerable time delay. Distance
protection will provide cover with its second zone.

• In both cases, therefore ,the bus bar protection obtained is slow

2.9 Frame-earth Protection

• This is purely an earth fault system, and in principle involves simply measuring the
fault current flowing from the switchgear frame to earth. To this end a current
transformer is mounted on the earthing conductor and is used to energize a simple
instantaneous relay.

This protection is nothing but the method of providing earth fault protection to the
bus bar assembly housed in a frame. This protection can be provided to the metal clad
switchgear. The arrangement is shown in the figure below. The metal clad switchgear is
lightly insulated from the earth. The enclosure of the frame housing different switchgears
and bus bars is grounded through a primary of current transformer in between.
The concrete foundation of switchgear and the other equipments are lightly insulated
from the ground. The resistance of these equipments with earth is about 12 ohms. When
there is an earth fault, then fault current leaks from the frame and passes through the earth
connection provided. Thus the primary of C.T. senses the current due to which current
passes through the sensitive earth fault relay, thereby operating the relay.