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Chapter 3

The document provides information about the cell cycle, mitosis, DNA structure and replication, manipulating DNA through restriction enzymes, transcription of DNA into RNA, and translation of mRNA into proteins. It discusses the main stages of the cell cycle including interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. It describes the process of DNA replication and how restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA into fragments. It explains how DNA is transcribed into RNA through the process of transcription and how mRNA is translated into proteins through translation using tRNA and ribosomes.

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Sungsoo Na
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
15 views

Chapter 3

The document provides information about the cell cycle, mitosis, DNA structure and replication, manipulating DNA through restriction enzymes, transcription of DNA into RNA, and translation of mRNA into proteins. It discusses the main stages of the cell cycle including interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. It describes the process of DNA replication and how restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA into fragments. It explains how DNA is transcribed into RNA through the process of transcription and how mRNA is translated into proteins through translation using tRNA and ribosomes.

Uploaded by

Sungsoo Na
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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kkScience Study Guide

5.1 The Cell Cycle


The cell cycle has four main stages.
- A regular pattern of Growth+DNA replication+Cell Division
Gap1-Cells grow, carry out the normal function, replicate organelles
Synthesis-DNA replication
Gap2-Additional Growth
Mitosis-Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Cytokeenisi-Division of cell cytoplasm
G1
- Cells carry normal function
- Cell increase in size, an organelle in number
- Cell needs nutrition, size, undamaged DNA (Checkpoint, to carry to synthesis)
Synthesis
- Cell make a copy of its nuclear DNA (DNA is in the nucleus)
G2
- Carry out normal fuction, additional growth occurs
- Another checkpoint
Mitosis
- Division of cell nuclues+DNA
1) Nucleus Disappear
2) Duplicated DNA condenses
3) Form to two new nuclei
Cytokinesis
- Divide cell cytoplasm
- Have two daughter cells
Cells have checkpoints
Cell divide at different rates.
- Cells divide faster for children than Adult
- Digest tracts receive a lot of wear+tear, cell division happens once every three days
- Internal organs have longer periods between cell division
- G0- Cell unlikely to divide- EX: white blood cells
Cell size is limited.
- A cell cannot grow beyond a certain size
- Surface Area: Volume
- Materials need to be transported quickly+efficiently
- Volume increases faster than the surface area
- Some cells long and thin
- The cell is a little big, produce larger daughter cells
- The cell is a little small, produce smaller daughter cells

5.2 Mitosis+Cytokinesis
Chromosomes condense at the start of mitosis.
- DNA-double stranded molecule→ made of four different subunit
- Chromosomes→ continuous thread of DNA
- DNA wraps around protein(histones) condense, from chromatin to chromosome
- At interphase, copy DNA sequence
- DNA wrap around histones at regular intervals(start condensing)
- Coil tightly around organizing protein→ small thick rods
- 2 Sister chromatids+centromere+kinetochore+telomere=chromatin
- Telomere prevent loss of gene and sticking to each other(chromatids)
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical cells.
Interphase
- Grow+Development, Cell Function
- DNA replication (have two centrioles)
Mitosis(continuous process)
- Divide cell nucleus into identical nuclei
Prophase
- DNA+protein condenses into chromosomes
- Centrioles move to the opposite sides
- Nuclear envelope breaks down
Metaphase
- Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes (at the kinetochore, part of centromere)
Anaphase
- Chromatids separate to opposite sides(Breaking down)
Telophase
- Nuclear envelope form(to store uncoiled chromosomes)
- Spindle fibers fall apart
Cytokinesis
- Divides two daughter cells (by cytoplasm)
Animal→ Use cleavage furrow formation
Plants→ Use carbohydrate filled vesicles(cell wall formation)

8.2 Structure of DNA


DNA is composed of four types of nucleotides.
- Monomers make up DNA: nucleotides
Each nucleotide has
- Phosphate group
- Ring-shaped sugar: deoxyribose
- A nitrogenous base
Nucleotides differ from the nitrogenous base.
- Cytosine, Thymine(single-ring structure)
- Adenine, Guanine(double-ring structure)
- The proportion of four bases differs
- A=T, C=G
Watson and Crick developed an accurate model of DNA’s three-dimensional shape.
- Some protein was helix/spiral
- DNA might be a helix
X-Ray Evidence
- DNA is a helix consisting of 2 strands that are regular, consistent width apart
Double helix
- If paired with double-ring nucleotides to a single-ring nucleotide, base fit
- Double helix model-two strands of DNA wind around each other
- ATAT, CGCG
Nucleotides always pair in the same way.
- Joined by covalent bonds- that connects the sugar of one nucleotide to the phosphate of the next nucleotide.
- Hold together by hydrogen bond

8.2 DNA Replication.


Replication copies genetic information.
- DNA could be copied
- A must bind T, C must bind G
- Sing DNA shape could serve as a template
- DNA copied-replication
- A new strand of DNA can be made when another strand is a template to guide the process
- Every cell has a complete set of DNA
Proteins carry out the process of replication.
- Enzymes, proteins do work on replication
- DNA polymerase bond new nucleotides together
The replication process.
1) Enzymes begin to unzip the double helix at numerous places among chromosomes-hydrogen bonds
connecting base pairs are broken
2) Free nucleotides pair with the bases exposed as template strands. DNA strand unzips. DNA polymerase
builds complementary strands to each template, DNA replication happens smoothly (leading strand),
others happen rough. (lagging strand)
3) Two identical molecules of DNA result, one strand original, one strand not original.
Replication fast and accurate.
- DNA replication happens fast
- Replication proceeds from hundreds of origins of replication
- DNA polymerase detect incorrect nucleotide sequence, replace with new nucleotides

9.1 Manipulating DNA


Scientists use several techniques to manipulate DNA.
- Scientists develop a combination of
- Chemicals, proteins, computers are few ways that allowed genetic advancements
- Precisely cut DNA (to open up in fragment)
Restriction enzymes cut DNA.
- Chromosome→ one long DNA molecule
- Use enzymes to slice DNA apart
- Restriction enzymes cut DNA ( from identifying specific nucleotide sequences)
- Some restriction enzymes
The restriction map shows the lengths of DNA fragments.
- The DNA sequence of a gene can be studied (after the cut)
- DNA can be placed into another cell (after the cut)
- Gel electrophoresis-electrical current used to separate a mixture of DNA fragments
- smaller the DNA fragment, more further
- Larger the DNA fragment, more closer
- But on gel electrophoresis only indicate the lengths of DNA fragments
- Helpful for identifying mutations allow if the gene is mutated

8.4 Transcription
RNA carries DNA instructions.
- Replication (copy DNA)
- Transcription (convert DNA sequence into RNA)
- Translation (RNA message into a string of amino acids)
- Replication and transcription happen in the nucleus, translation in the cytoplasm
- RNA acts as an intermediate like between DNA in the nucleus and protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
- RNA-chain of nucleotides (temporary DNA), one strand, and replace thymine with uracil
- Transcription, the process of copying a sequence of DNA to the complementary strand of RNA
1) DNA strand separate, RNA polymerase recognizes transcription start
2) RNA polymerase→ strings together a complementary strand of RNA nucleotides
3) Outcome, RNA polymerase knows that replication ended. RNA strand detaches
- mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
- The transcription process is similar to replication
● Both occur in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
● Both unpair DNA helix
● Both make complementary bases pairing to DNA strand
- Replication (interphase)
- to make sure neww cell each have one its own set of genetic information, happen once
- Transcription
- The cell needs hundreds, thousands of copies of a certain protein
- Adapt to the cell’s changing demands
- RNA molecules can be transcribed in a single line, attach the same line
8.5 Translation
Amino acids are coded by the mRNA base sequence.
- Translation-process that counts translate mRNA into a polypeptide
- Nucleotide are strung together to code for amino acids
Triplet Codon
- Codon, the nucleotide sequence codes for amino acids
- 3 nucleotides code for 1 amino acids, RNA codes for 64 amino acids, more than 20 amino acids
- Amino acids are loaded for more than 1 codon
- Have start codon (methionine) and end codon
- Codons read as a series of the non overlapping nucleotides
- Common language-genetic code-shared by almost all organisms, UUU-phenylamine
Amino acids are linked to become a protein.
- Uses ribosomes + tRNA molecules to translate codon
- Ribosome= site of protein synthesis(catalyze reactions)
- Small unit holds mRNA strand, large subunit holds growing protein
- tRNA acts as a connector between mRNA+ amino acids
- L shaped, has an amino acid on the top, the anticodons on the bottom
- Before translation, a small ribosome unit musts bond to mRNA stand in the cytoplasm
1) The exposed codons attract a complementary tRNA molecule being an amino acid
2) Ribosomes help form peptide bonds when two amino acids fit together
3) Ribosomes pull the mRNA strand the length of one codon

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