Commun. math. Phys.

8, 245--260 (1968)

Event Horizons in Static Electrovac Space-Times

Wr~.~-m~ I s t ~ L *
Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Dublin
l~eceived November 20, 1967

Abstract. The following theorem is established. Among all static, asymptotically

flat eleetrovae fields with closed, simply-connected equipotential surfaces goo
= const., the only ones which have regular event horizons g00 = 0 are the t~eiss-
ner-Nordstr6m family of spherisymmetric solutions with m > Gll~le]/c. In the
special case where the gravitational coupling of the electromagnetic energy density
is neglected (G = 0) all solutions are computed explicitly, thus extending an earlier
result of G~zBv~G for a magnetic dipole in SC]~WAX~ZSCItXLD'Sspace-time. Possible
implications for gravitational collapse are briefly discussed.

1. Introduction
Of centrM importance to the t h e o r y of gravitational collapse is the
question whether event horizons are a fairly normal characteristic of
v e r y intense gravitational fields, or whether t h e y are merely quirks of
the special highly symmetric solutions which have so far been studied.
If we restrict ourselves to the class of asymptotically flat, static
v a c u u m fields, it is already k n o w n [1] t h a t the only regular event ho-
rizons are spherical. More precisely: a m o n g all fields in this class with
closed, simply-connected equipotentiM surfaces g00 = c o n s t . , Schwarz-
schild's solution is the only one with a regular event horizon go0 = 0.
This means t h a t no static asymmetric perturbation of the Schwarzsehild
field which originates from sources within the critical surface goo = 0
(r = 2m) can preserve a regular event horizon. (On the other hand, per-
turbations due t o exterior sources, such as distant masses, leave the
qualitative character of the event horizon unaffected [2].)
Quite generally, in the case of an a r b i t r a r y asymptotically flat field,
it therefore seems natural to ask whether the regularity of an event
horizon is destroyed b y a n y asymmetric perturbation due to interior
sources (e.g. mass quadrupole [3], magnetic dipole field [4], outgoing
gravitational waves ; an exception has to be made here for rotation - - the
Kerr manifold has a regular event horizon [5]). 1 If this were true, it
would force a drastic reappraisal of our current ideas on the nature of
gravitational collapse [6].
* On leave of absence from the Mathematics Department, University oi Alberta,
Edmonton, Canada.
1 For instance, it might be conjectured that every vacuum field which has a
regular event horizon and which is asymptoticMly flat (with an outgoing radiation
condition) is algebraically special.
246 W. Is~E~:

The present paper represents a small step towards a definitive answer

to this question. We shall study the class of eleetrovae spaces - - i.e.
regions which are the seat of electromagnetic fields but free of charge
and mass (all sources are assumed to be immured within the surface
goo= 0). The main object of the paper is to prove the following result:
of all static, asymptotically fiat electrovac fields with closed, simply-
connected equipotential surfaces goo = eonst., the only ones which pos-
sess regular event horizons go0 = 0 are the spheri-symmetric l~eissner-
~qordstrSm solutions for a charged particle. (A precise formulation is
given in Scc. 4.)
In the special case where one neglects the gravitationM effect of the
electromagnetic energy density [4], it is a straightfol~ard matter to
compute the solutions explicitly (See. 7).
In the general case, we proceed by reformulating the given conditions
in terms of the geometry of the surfaces g0o = const. (See. 2--41), showing
that the equipotential sili'faces of the electric (or magnetic) field neces-
sarily coincide with these surfaces (See. 5), and finally proving that they
are spheres (Sec. 6). In the interests of mathematical simplicity we shall
confine ourselves to the situation where the field is purely electric or
purely magnetic. However, there should be no essential difficulty in
extending the proof given here to the slightly more general situation of
crossed electrostatic and inagnetostatic fields.

2. Static Fields
In this section we shall deal with a general static field. Our aim is to
reformulate Einstein's static field equations as conditions on the geo-
metry of the equipotentiM surfaces.
The notation follows reference 1. (Signature of metric - - + ÷ - F . Cap-
italized Latin indices (range 0--3) refer to space-time tensors. Three-
dimensional and two-dimensionM subtensors are distinguished b y Greek
indices (range 1--3) and b y lower-case Latin indices (values 2, 3).
Covariant differentiation with respect to the 4-dimensionM, 3-dimen-
sional, and 2-dimensional metrics is denoted by F, a stroke and a semi-
colon respectively.)
A space-time is called "static" if it admits a regular vector field
which satisfies Kflling's equations:
0 = VA~B+ V ~ A = s C O c g A : ~ + g A c a . B ~ C + g c . B a A ~ c , (1)
is hypersurface-orthogonal:
~ VG~B~ = 0 , (2)
and time-like over some domain. With V defined by
V = ( - ~ ~A)~/~, (3)
the identity a[~ (V -~ ~ ] ) = 0 (4)
 Event Horizons 247

follows from (1) and (2), and shows t h a t a simply-connected domain

which has ~A ~A < 0 t h r o u g h o u t admits a scalar field t (x A) such t h a t
V - ~ ~ t = - - aa t . (5)

I n this domain, we can therefore introduce "static co-ordinates". L e t the

4-scalars x ~ be a n y three independent solutions of
~a~x ~ = 0. (6)

I n the co-ordina~e s y s t e m x ° ~ t, x" we derive ~ " = 0 from (6), t h e n

2 ° = 1, 8~ = g~o = 0 f r o m (3) and (5), finally agA~/~t = 0 from (]). Thus
the metric is reducible (in the domain where ~A ~A < 0) to the s t a n d a r d
form
ds~ = g ~ (xl' x~' xS) d x ~ d x ~ - V~dt2 '1
V = V(x 1,x 2,x 3 ) > 0 . ~ (7)
T h e form (7) can be decomposed further. W e suppose t h a t
~-~ - (VI~ VI~)~/~ (S)
vanishes nowhere in the domain of interest (cf. end of See. 4). As in-
trinsic co-ordinates for the eqnipotential 2-spaces V = const., t = const.
introduce functions 0 ~, 02 which arc constant along the orthogonal tra-
jectories: g ~ (0~0 ~) ( ~ V) = 0. T h e n the spatial metric reduces to
g ~ p d x ~ d x ~ = g~b(V, O) dOadO b + [~(V, 0)] 2 d V 2 . (9)
L e t n be the unit spatial vector n o r m a l to the eqnipotential suHaces,
n~ = @a~ V = @-'lOx~(V, O)/O V , (1O)
and e(~) the tangential base-vectors associated with 0%
e(a) ~ = a x e ( V , O)/O0 a , e(a) ~- gaOe(b ) . (11)
The triad {e(a), n} spans the 3-space at each point, and the following
decompositions are derivable from (9) (by making the special choice of
co-ordinates x 1 = V, x ~ = 0% or otherwise [1]):

g~[J = g a % ( a ) ~ e ( J + n~n ~ , (12)

V [ ~ = @-lKab e~(~)eb(~) - - @-2 (ae@) (e(e) n~ + e(c)~n~)
(13)
-- ~--3(~I~ V) %n~ .
tIere,
1
K ~ == -2- @-I~ga~/aV (14)

is the extrinsic curvature of the 2-space V = const., considered as

i m b e d d e d in the 3-space t = eons~. Note the related formulas

~g~/a V = -- 2@K ~ , ~g~t~/~ V = g ~ t ~ K ~

a(gi/~R)/~ v = - 2gl/~ [@( K a~' - - Kgab)]; a~ J (15)
248 W. IsRAEL:

which can be deduced from (14); g is the 2 × 2 determinant of g~b,

R ~ gabRab is the two-dimensional curvature invariant (the Gaussian
curvature i s - ½R), and K-~ ga~K~ is (twice) the mean curvature. From
(13) and (12), we have
Vl~l~ = @ - I K - - @-~a@/a v . (16)
The imbedding relations for the three-dimensional l~icci and Einstein
tensors R ~ , G ~ are [1]
1
G~n~n ~ = y ( K a b K a b - - K ~ - R ) , (173)
R~e(a) ~n ~ = a a K - - Kb;b , (17b)
1
R~ze(~)~e(b)~ =.~_Rg~b + ~-1@;~ ÷ KKa~ + @-Ig~OK~/aV. (18)

Let X, Ya and Zab denote the right-hand sides of (173), (17b) and (18)
respectively. Then the identities
g-~(a/~V) (gX) = @Z~b(Ka~--Kg~b)--@-~(@~Y'9,~, (19a)
g-1/2(~/OV) (gl/2y~) = [@(SaZ
C b¢ __zb)];b + @-x(@2X).~, (19b)
are consequences of (14). The left-hand sides of (17) and (18) of course
satisfy corresponding identities, whose content is merely that of the
contracted Bianchi identities G~ z = 0. Thus, if (14) and (18) are regarded
(in a given 3-space and for given @) as a system o~ first-order equations
determining the evolution of gao and K ~ as functions of V, then (173, b)
are "involutive constraints": if they are satisfied on one surface V = const.
then, by virtue of (19), they are satisfied identically.
We are now ready to decompose the Einstein field equations
a~ = -- 8~7T~ (20)

(7 = 7.3 × 10 -29 cm/gm is hTewton's constant of gravitation divided by

c2). Under a change of spatial co-ordinates x ~' = x~'(x), the 3 × 3 sub-
matrix T ~ of the energy tensor T~B transforms as a 3-tensor, and Too
is invariant. The 3 + 1 split of (20) yields [1]
1
yg ~R,~ = 8JrTT °, (213)
0 = 8~?T~0, (21b)
G~ = - 8 : r y T ~ - - V-I(VI,, ~ - vl~l~g~). (21c)
We can immediately deduce a relativistic analogue of Poisson's equation:
V-~ VI~I~ -- 4~r7 ( T ~ - T°). (22)
From (16) and (22),
@-~@/0 V = K - - 4zr~ V@(T~-- T °) . (23)
 Event Horizons 249

From (18), (21) and (13),

V-lg-:[/~.a(gl/2VK~)/OV "b 1 ~R(5 b
(24)
1
--8x~,@ (T~e(a) e(b)~--~- TAgab) .
From (17), (21) and (13),
1
-~ ( K a b K ab - - K 2 - - R) = - - 87~y T ~ n ~ n ~ + K](~V) , (25)
~aK - - K~;b = - - 8 ~ y T~e(a)~n ~ + (aa~)/(~ 2 V) . (26)
Eqs. (14), (23) and (24) form a complete system for determining the
evolution of gab, ~, Kba as functions of V. The tangential stresses
Ta~e(a)~e~b) ~ can be assigned arbitrarily over the 3-space ; the conservation
identities VB T Ag = 0 are satisfied automatically if the normal stresses
T ~ n ~ are determined by (25) and (26).
Finally, we record the expression [1]

"-41RA BC~oRA ~C9 = G ~ G t~ + V-~ VIt~ V[~ (27)

for the square of the four-dimensional Rieman tensor. Evaluating the

second term with the aid of (13), we find
1
-~ RA Bc DR A Bc D = G~,G~'~ + ~-~ V-2 Kab Kab
(2s)
+ 2o~-~ V - ~ , ~ ; ~ + ~-~ V - ~ ( ~ / O V ) ~ .

3. Static Electrovac Fields

An electromagnetic field

F.~ c = O~A c - - OcAB (29)

in a static space-time is itself static if the Lie-derivative of the 4-poten-
tial A vanishes:
~c V e A B _ A c Vc~A = 0 . (30)
The field is purely electric (or, by an obvious re-interpretation, purely
magnetic) i f / ~ a is a simple bivector of the form
F B C = 2 V - I ~[BEc] . (31)
The "electric vector" E~, defined by (31), may be taken without loss of
generality (as long as ~B~B # 0) to be purely spatial (~AEA = 0), and
is then given explicitly by
E~ = V - 1 ~ ~ , (32)
i.e.
EA = - - V - l a A ~ , cf~--At~B-'--Ao . (33)
:[7 Commun. ma~h. Phys., Vol. 8
250 W. I s R ~ :

I t is readily verified t h a t
VI~FAB== ~A V B ( V - 1 E B ) = ~A V-1E~I~ (34)
so that, in the absence of charge and current, the Maxwell equations
VBF A B = 0 can be written
E:I: = ( V - l g = ~ ) l ~ = O. (35)
B y virtue of (9), this can also be written as
Vg-1/2 (a/a v) (gl/2 v - 1 ~o) = - - (~ ~o;a), a, (36)
with ~p defined b y
~0/~ V = e 9 . (37)
F o r an electrovae field (electromagnetic field without m a t t e r ) the
energy tensor is given b y
4 ~ T ~ ~ = F ~ cFB c - - ~ ga B F ~ c F - c
4
I (a8)
-~gABE~ - - E A E B + E ~ V - - ~ A ~B .

More explicitly, we have

4 ~ T oo = - - ~ - E ,
4 z r T °= = 0 , ~ (39)

with
4:~ T ~ = + g ~ E 2 - - E ~ E ~,
J
VE~ = ~ ~ n ~ - - e ( ~ ) ~ , (40)
E ~ ~ E ~ E ~ = V - 2 ( ~ ~-+ ~ ; a ~ ;a) . (41)
Hence (22) reduces to
Vt~'It, = ?, V E 2 . (42)
W e substitute (39) into the basic Eqs. (23)--(26) of the previous
section. This leads to the following complete first-order s y s t e m / o r deter-
mining the march o] the variables gab, q~, Y~, ~, Kba as ]unctions o~ V:
Geometrical equation:
ag~/O V = 2 ~ K ~ . (14)
Electrostatic equations:
~/~ V : e ~o, (37)
Vg-~/2a (gl/~ V-1 ~p)/OV = - - (~ q0;a); a" (36)
Gravitational equations:
~-~0e/~ V = K - - ~ V - ~ ( ~ o ~ + ~ ; a ~ ;~) , (43)
1
V-:g-x/~o (g~/~ VKba)/~ V = - - e; a ;b __ -~ ~ R 5ha (44)
+ y V-~q[2~o;~ ;°- ~(~ + ~;~;~)] •
 Even~ Horizons 251

Involutive constraints:
1
-~(Ka~Kab--K2--R) = y V-2(~v~ - ~0;a~ ;a) ÷ ~ - ~ V - 1 K , (45)
O A K - - Kb;b = 2~, V - ~ p qJ; a + ~-~ V-~ ~; a . (46)
That the constraints (45), (46) are respected by the equations of evolu-
tion can be verified explicitly with the aid of the identities (19).
The following result, which will be needed later, is obtained by
contracting (44) and eliminating R by means of (45):

Va(V-IK)/aV = --Q;a;a--I~K2--QAa~A~b--2y~V-2~;~v ;a (47)

2
]~[ere,
1
Aab ~ Kab - - ~ Kgab (48)

iS a measure of the deviation from spherical symmetry.

Combining (28) and (43), we have finally
1
-~ RABCD RABCD = G ~ G ~ ÷ ~-2 V - 2 K a b K a b - ~ 2~-d V-2~;a~;a (49)
+ e -~ V - 2 [~ V - l e ( ~ + ~ ; a ~ ;a) - - K ] ~ .

A rather complicated explicit expression for the term G ~ G F'~ in terms of

the field variables can be obtained from (21 e), (39) and (13). For our
purposes it will be stffficient merely to note that this term is obviously
non-negative.
4. Statement of Theorem
In a static space-time, let Z be any spatial hypersurface t = const.,
maximally extended consistent with ~A ~A < 0. We consider the class of
static fields such that the following conditions are satisfied on 27:
(i) X is an electrovac space (i.e. free of charge and matter).
(ii) X is regular, non-compact and "asymptotically Euclidean". The
]ast statement means that there exist co-ordinates x ~ in terms of which
the metric (7) has the asymptotic form

g~ = ~ + 0(r-~), ~ g ~ = 0(r-~) ,]
V = 1 - - (m/r) ÷ ~ , m = const., I (r -+ c~) (50)
= O(r - ~ ) , O~ = O(r - 8 ) , a ~ 0 ~ = 0 (r-4)
where r ~- (8~x~xP)X/~.
(iii) The elcctrovac field is purely electrostatic (or purely magneto-
static). The asymptotic form of the electrostatic (or magnetostatie)
scalar potential is
cf = (e/r) + ~, e = const.,
(r-~ ~) (51)
= 0(r -~) , a ~ = 0(r -a) .
17"
252 W. IsRAEL:

(iv) The equipotential surfaces V = con_st. > 0, t = const, are a regu-

lar family of simply-connected closed 2-spaces.
(v) If the greatest lower bound of V on X is zero, then the geometry
of the equipotential surfaces V = s approaches a limit as s -+ 0 + , corre-
sponding to a closed regular 2-space of finite area.
(vi) The invariant R A ~ O D R ABOD is bounded on X.
Theorem. T h e o n l y static space-time u, hic]~o satisfies conditions (i) - (vi)
is the spherically s y m m e t r i c Reissner-hrordstr6m solution

d s ~. = V - 2 d r 2 + r~(d02 + sin~0 dq52) - - Vg'dt 2]

V ~ = 1 - - 2 m / r + ye~/r 2 , qD = e / r , ~ (52)
w i t h m >= yl/~ tel.
(We here assume y > 0. I n the exceptional case y = 0, discussed in
Sec. 7, the Theorem does not hold in quite this form.)
T h a t the Reissner-NordstrSm manifold with m >= y~/~ ]el actually does
satisfy (i)--(vi) is well-known, and can be easily verified from the explicit
formulas
ga~dOadO b = r~.(dO~ + sin20 d # 2) ,
= V-ldr/dV = r~/(mr - y e a) , ~fl = ~ e V / r ~ , (53)
Kab = Vg~b/r,

obtained by applying the definitions (8), (37) and (14) to the metric (52).
There are two major steps in the proof of the theorem. I n Sec. 5 we
show, mainly with the aid of the electrostatic Eqs. (36) and (37), that
(i)--(vi) can only be satisfied if ~ is constant on the equipotential surfaces
V = const.: ~ - - ~(V). This simplifies the gravitational Eqs. (43) and
(44), from which it can then be deduced (Sec. 6) that the equipotcntial
surfaces are spherical.
There is one trivial case for which the proof can be quickly disposed
of here. Suppose t h a t V has a positive lower bound. Then the (maximally
extended) 3-space X is complete. F r o m (35) and the boundary condition
(51) we deduce ~ ~ 0 with the aid of Green's theorem. Eq. (42) now
reduces to Laplace's equation VI,[~ = 0; together with the boundary
conditions (50) this yields V ~ 1, showing t h a t space-time is flat and
establishing the theorem.
We m a y assume henceforth t h a t V comes arbitrarily close to zero
on X. The 2-space V = 0 ÷ then forms an inner boundary of 2: and
encloses an internal "hole". By (iv), every equipotential surface is homo-
topic to V = 0 ÷ . I t follows that the gradient of V cannot vanish at any
interior point P of X. If it did, then by (42) V would have a minimum
at P (unless E vanishes identically) and the equipotential surfaces near P
could be shrunk to a point. [If E ~- 0, P would be a point of bifurcation
 Event Horizons 253

of the equipotential surfaces [1], wtfieh also contradicts (iv).] Hence

remains finite, and the metric ]orm (8) regular, at all interior points o/Z.
The possibi~ty that ~ -+ ~ as V-> 0 ÷ is, however, not excluded.
We conclude this section by recording the exterior and interior
boundary conditions in a form convenient for later application. For the
asymptotic forms (50) and (51) we find from (8), (15) and (37)
r~o~, e/r~'-+m-1, rg-+2:~
(54)
rq~-+e, r2~o-~--e as V-->I
According to (vi) and (49), the regularity of the manifold at the inner
boundary V = O + requires t h a t
K~=O(~V), e;~=O(e2V), ~
(55)
~o=0(V), ~;a=0(V) as V-+0+ J
Thus ~0 and ~-1 are constant on the event horizon:
(0, 0I, 02) = ~o = const., ]
~-1 (0, 01, 03) 1/~0 = eonst. (possibly zero) .~ (56)

5. The Electrostatic Field

In this section, our interest wi~ center on the electrostatic Eqs. (36)
and (37). A number of integral relations will be derived which enable us
to show that the electrostatic and gravitational fields must be chained
together by the condition ~; a = 0 if (i)--(vi) are to be satisfied, and we
shall determine the function ~ = ~(V) explicitly.
Let I~'(V, q~), G(V, q)) be (for the moment, arbitrary) d~erentiable
functions. From (36), (37), (43) and (15) we readily obtain the identity

g-1/~-~gl/~[V-1F(V, qg) ~ ÷ ~-IG(V, ~)]

=A(V,q~)e(~2÷q;;~9~;~)+ B(V, qJ)yJ+e-~OG/aV (57a)

where
A V ~ ~G ÷ OF/O~, B ~ V-IaF/aV ÷ aG/acf. (57b)
To obtain integral conservation laws from (57), let us require that
A = B = OG/aV = 0 . (58)
The general solution of this (over-determined) linear system of differen-
tial equations for ~, G is a linear combination of the three particular
solutions
17=1, G=0, (59a)
F= ~0, G = - - 1, (59b)
E = ~,~2-t- V ~, G=--2~. (59c)
254 W. Isl~t~L:

Taking each of these values for F, G in turn, we integrate (57~) over X

- - i.e. we form f f f [(57a)] g~/2dOldO 2 d V - - noting t h a t the integral of
the last term (2-divergence) vanishes when taken over any closed 2-space
V = const. The results express the equality of the surface integrals of
the expression in square brackets over the two boundary surfaces V = 1
and V = 0 + (both have to be understood as limits):
f (~/V) d S l v = x0 + = 0 , (60a)

f (Z/e) dSJvV=0~+ = 0 , (60b)

f [ ( V + V~2/V) 7~--2q~/e] d S V=Xv=o+= O. (60c)

We have defined the element of area d S = gl/2 dOadO 2 and

1 V _ 1 0 ( V 2 _ _ y ~ 2 ) / O V = 1 - - ),OyqJIV. (61)

[Eqs. (60a, b) could also have been inferred somewhat more directly
from (35) and (42).] Evaluating the surface integrals for V = 1 b y means
of (54), and taking (56) into account, we find

f (~PiV) d S = - - 4 x e e , (61~)
V=O+

--7% f (y,/V)dS+ So/~o=4:rm, (61b)

V=O+

ycf~) f (~lV) d S - - 2 9 o S o l Q o = - - 4 z r e , (61c)

V=O+
where S Ois the area of the 2-space V = 0 + [finite and non-vanishing b y
(v)]. Solving (61), we find
y e ~00 = m - - ( m S - - 7 e~) a / 2 , (62)

So/~o =- 4 7~(m 2 - - 7 e2)11~ " (63)

(A second solution for ~o involving the opposite sign for the square root,
is unacceptable because it makes So/~o negative.) For the existence of
a regular event horizon it is thus necessary t h a t m S > y C.
To motivate the next step, we begin by observing from (53) t h a t the
manifestly nonnegative expression
(q V) -1 [e~(1 - - ~ecflm ) + e Vim] 2 (64)
vanishes for spherical symmetry. Now, the expression (64) resembles the
right-hand side of (57 a) in form. Accordingly, let us require
A -- V-~(1 - - yecf/m) ~ , B = 2(elm) (1 - - y e q ) / m ) .
(65)
0 G/O V = e 2 Vim 2
 Evcn~ Horizons 255

in (57a, b). The resulting linear differential equations for F, G have the
particular solution
1 2 V ~ ~- 1 ~,2e~,~3_ 2 ~ , e m , ~ "]l
m2F=--~-ye ~-- 2 ~ w ~ Y (66)
m2G = ~Ie 2 V-s - - - ~1 ye2~ 2 + 2 e m c f + ?-ira ~
With F, G given by (66), we have thus the identity
g-~/2(~/O V) g l / S ( V - l . F v -[- @-IG) = (@ V) -1 [~ ~/)(1 - - ~e ~/Tf/~) ~- eV/m] 2
+~V-l(1--?e~v/m) 2F;a~ ;a-V-1(F@F:a);a. (67)
Integrating over X, we deduce the inequality
f ( V - 1 F V + e - I G ) d S > f(V-1FV+ e-lG) dS, (68)
81 So
where S 0, S~ are the inner and outer boundary surfaces, V = 0 + and
V = 1 (both understood as limits). Equality in (68) holds if and only if
~;a=0, i.e. ~=~(V),~
(69)
e~v(1 - - 7ecf/m) + e Vim 0 J
everywhere on Z. Now, the surface integrals in (68) can actually by
evaluated with the aid of (54), (61a), (62) and (63). A straightforward
calculation yields the value
4Jrm (9,-1 + 2 e2/m2)
for both sides of (68). Vv% conclude that (69) must be true. (This argument
clearly breaks down for the special case of zero coupling: ? = 0. This
case is dealt with separatc]y in Sec. 7.)
F r o m (69) and (37),
~ ~p = d q~/d V = - - e V/ (m - - y e cf) . (70)
Solving the differential Eq. (70) subject to ~v = (v0 [see (62)] when V = 0,
we find
7 e ~ ( V ) = m - - ~¢(V) , (71)
where
~(V) ~- [m s - y e ~ ( 1 - V2)]1/~" . (72)
(The other boundary condition, ~v-+ 0 when V -* 1, now shows that the
parameter m introduced in (50) cannot be negative.) From (61), (69) and
(71) we have the explicit formulae
•~ (V) = m/o: ( V ) , (73)
v2 = - - e V/~ (V). (74)

6. T h e G r a v i t a t i o n a l F i e l d
The explicit formulae just obtained for the electrostatic field, when
substituted into the gravitational Eqs. (43) and (44), result in a great
simplification. We are now in a position to derive two integral relations
256 W. I s ~ L :

from (43) and (44) which ~dll enable us to infer t h a t only spherical
surfaces V = const, are compatible with conditions (i)--(vi) of Sec. 4.
This will complete the proof of our theorem.
Remembering t h a t ~0is a function of V only, we have from (47), (43),
(36) and (37)
(OlaV) [(g ~le) 1/2 V-1K] = -- [g~(V)] 1t2 V -1 [2 (el/2) ;a; a
(75)
1 -3/~ o;a
+-ff ~ ~;~ + ~I/2A~A ~b]
The integration f f f (75) dOldO~d V yields
Z

f (2/q)I/~(K/V) dS <= f (,~/q)I/~(K/V) tiN, (76)

8i So
with equality if and only if
Aab = 0 , Q,~ = 0 (77)
everywhere on ~. According to (54), the left-hand side of (76) has the
value 8~ml/2. For the right-hand side we have from (55), (45) and (74)
1
lira (K/V) = - - y e o R ( O , 01, 0 ~) -- Yeo v~m+ (*P/V)~
V--->O+
1 (78)
-- 2 ~°R(O' 01' 0 2 ) - - Y # / ( O ° ~ 2 ° ) '
where
~o ~ ~(0) = (ms - ~e2) 1/~ . (79)
Noting t h a t
f R(e, 0 I, 0z) d S = - - 8~ (80)
for a n y closed, simply-connected 2-space V = c (Gauss-Bonnet theorem),
we obtain the value
4 ~ (ml~o)l/~ Do1/~ - - ~, e~l(~o ~01/2)] (81)
for the right-hand side of (76). We thus arrive at the inequality

~oqo ~ (m + ~0) 2 . (82)

(If Oo 1 = O, (82) is properly interpreted as an inequality for lim (~ a).)
V-->0 +
We shall next derive a second inequality giving an upper bound for
%~o. I f / ( V ) , h(V) are arbitrary differentiable functions, we have

(OIOV) (/K + e-~h) = (1' + V - 1 / - - h ) K - - ~ IOK 2 + yhq V-~o 2

(83)
+ 0 - 1 h ' ~ l e ; ~ ; ~ - - / q A ~ b A '~ •
I n the term involving K 2 on the right-hand side, we substitute the value

1 K ~ = A~,bA ~ b - B -- 2 (q V ) - I K - - 2 7 V-~ ~ (84)

 Event Horizons 257

obtained from (45), and we substitute for ~ from (74). We also note the
result (easily derived from the formulae of See. 3)
0 (gl/~-l~)/a v = 0. (85)

We thus obtain the identity

(3f8 V) [gl/20-l,~(/K ÷ e-lh)] --~ )~(V) /(V) gl/2 ]~
q- g'12e-l). [(1' + 3 V - ' l - - h) K ÷ e-~{h ' ÷ yVe2o:-~(h ÷ 2V-11)}] (86)
- - )~(V) ](V) gl/2 [(ln~);a a ÷ e-:q:oe:: + AobAob],
valid for arbitrary/(V), h(V). Let us now choose ], h so as to make the
second line of (86) vanish, i.0.
/'+ 3V-~/--h = 0,
(87)
h' ÷ 7 Ve2~z-~'(h q- 2 V-l~) = 0.
A particular solution is
/ ( V ) = V [ ~ o + ~ ( V ) ] -2 ,
(88)
h(V) = 2[~0 + ~ ( V ) ] ~ I [~(V)~ -1 •

~Vith these values for [, h (which, it should be noted, are positive on Z)

we form f f f (86) dO~dO2d V. We find, recalling (80),
X

<=f O-U~(/K + e-~h) d S - - 8 z f /(V);L(V)dV, (89)

So 0

with equality if and only if (77) holds everywhere on Z. Evaluating the

surface integrals with the aid of the boundary conditions (54), (55) and
(63) yields
f .... 0, f .... 2(0) So(qoa0) -2 = 4 z m ~ o l g o 2 . (90)
$~ 8o

Using the expression (73) for ~(V), we obtain further

1

ye 2 2:¢o mq- ~0 "

0

The inequality (89) can now be reduced to

~oqo G (m + ~o) 2 . (92)

Comparing the inequalities (82) and (92), we irder that (77) holds
everywhere on X, i.e.
e~ ~(V), K~,~-2ffabK(V ) . (93)
258 W. ISR~L:

This implies t h a t the equipotential surfaces are spherical. Indeed, if we

introduce a function r (V) defined b y ~ = e/r, we can readily deduce the
formulae (53) which characterize the Reissner-NordstrSm field. We recall
[remarks following (63) and (72)] t h a t the parameters h a d to be restricted
b y m > yi/2 [e[. Our proof is thus complete.

7. Zero Coupling

We now take up the exceptional case of zero coupling between the

gravitational and electromagnetic fields [y = 0 in the Einstein field
Eq. (20)]. This had to be excluded from the previous considerations [see
the remarks after Eq. {69)]. I n this case, the simplest procedure is to
exhibit the explicit solutions, which are in a n y case of interest in their
own right.

Our problem is to obtain solutions of the v a c u u m equations G~ B = 0

and the electrostatic Eq. (35) which satisfy conditions (i)--(vi) of Sec. 4.
I t is already k n o w n [1] t h a t the only v a c u u m space-times compatible
with (i)--(vi) are the Schwarzsehild solutions with m > 0. The problem
thus reduces to finding well-behaved electrostatic fields defined on the
Sehwarzschild b a c k g r o u n d :

~dx~dx ~ = (1 - - 2re~r) -I dr ~ ÷ r~(dO 2 + sin~O dqb 2) ,

(94)
V = (1 - - 2m/r)i/~ .

The electrostatic Eq. (35), which is linear in ~, reduces to

1 a ( 0q~) 1 a2q _ 0 . (95)

sin 0 a 0 sin 0 - ~ - + sin 20 ~ q)2

Separable solutions which are regular on the axis have the form

= R(r) pM(cos0) eiMe, (96)

where R satisfies

x(1 + x) d2R/dx 2 + 2 x d R / d x - - n ( n + 1) R = 0 , (97)

x ~ (r/2m)- 1 . (98)

F o r n = 0, we have the spherically symmetric solution

~v + const. = e/r (99)

which is regular for 2 m < r < co a n d satisfies (i)--(vi).

 Event Horizons 259

F o r n = 1, R = x is an obvious solution of (97), and the second solu-

tion can be found b y variation of parameters. We thus obtain the axially
symmetric solutions (M = 0)
q~(r, O) = e l ( r - - 2m) c o s 0 , (100a)
~(r, O) = c 2 [-- 1 ÷ re~r-- (r/2m - - 1) ln(1 - - 2m/r)] c o s 0 . (100b)
The first represents a uniform electrostatic or magnetostatic field. The
second is the static field of an electric or magnetic dipole; its a s y m p t o t i c
form is
q~ ~ c 2 cosO/r 2 (r---> oo) . (101)
Results equivalent to (100 b) have been given previously b y GINZBUgG [4].
F o r general n, (97) is reducible to Legendre's equation, and has the
linearly independent solutions
R = % [x/(1 + x)]~/~ ~ ( 1 + 2x), R = c 2 [x/(1 + x)]~/~ E~(1 + 2x) (102)
where q3nI (z), ~ l ( z ) are the associated Legendre functions, normalized to
be real for real z > 1. For the electrostatic field we thus have the two
families of solutions

2m \I]2
c 2 (1
Since
~t~(z) ~ z~, ~ln(Z ) ~ z-(~+1) (z-+ co, n >_--1), (104)
only the second solution has the correct behaviour at infinity. To examine
the behaviour of (103b) near r ~= 2m, we observe from (41) t h a t the
field strength E is given b y

E2=(1--~-)-l[V~+-~\O0] ~ \-~-/ j. (105)

Now, C~(1 + 2 x ) ~ x-~/2 as x - + 0, so t h a t the radial factor (102) ap-

proaches a constant non-zero limit. Hence, as r - > 2 m , 0 g / 0 0 and
(for M 4= 0) O~0/a~b remain of order u n i t y for n --> 1, a n d E is of order
(1 - - 2 re~r)-1~2. We conclude t h a t the only electrostatic field on a Sehwarz-
sehfld background which is well-behaved for 2 m _-< r < oo is spherically
symmetric. Nevertheless, all the solutions (103b) are compatible with
(i)--(vi), since the g e o m e t r y is regular at r = 2 m despite the singularity
of the energy- density, on a c c o u n t of the zero coupling.
Acknowte~ements. It is a pleasure to thank Professor J. L. S~GE for the
hospitality of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. I am much indebted to
Mr. V. DE LA C~uz for several useful discussions and for checking some of the
formulae. Part of this work was carried out during tenure of a Senior Research
Eellowship from the National Research Council of Canada.
260 W. ISR~.EL: Event Horizons

References
1. ISRAEL,W. : Phys. Rev. 164, 1776 (1967).
2. ~¢IYSAK,L. A., and G. S Z E ~ E S : Can. J. Phys. 44, 617 (1966).
ISRAEL, W., and K. A. Ktt~:~: Nuovo Cimento 33, 331 (1964).
3. DO~OSR~E~C~, A. G., ~ . B. ZEL'DOVlC~,and I. D. NOVlKOV: JETP 49, 170
(1965) [transl. as Solder Phys. JETP 22, 122 (1966)].
4. Gn~zBc~G, V. L.: Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 156, 43 (1964) [transl. as Soviet
Phys. Dotdady 9, 329 (1964)].
- - , and L. M. OZERNOI: JETP 47, 1030 (1964) [transl. as Soviet Phys. JETP
20, 689 (1965)].
5. BoYE~, R. H., and R. W. LINDQUIST:J. ]~/[a~h.Phys. 8, 265 (1967).
6. ISRAEL,W. : Nature 216, 148 and 312 (1967).

Dr. W. ISRAEL
Dublin Institute
for Advanced Studies
School of Theoretical Physics
64--65, Merrion Square
Dublin (Ireland)