MANAGEMENT SCIENCE UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT Management in businesses and organizations is the function that coordinates the efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives by using available resources efficiently and effectively. Introduction to Management: When human being started group activities for the attainment of same common objectives whenever a group is formed and a group activity is organized to achieve certain common objectives management is needed to direct, co-ordinate and integrate the individual activities of a group and secure teams work to accomplish organizational objectives. The objectives of all business are attained by utilizing the scare resources like men, materials, machines, money etc. In process of management, a manage uses human skills, material resources and scientific methods to perform alll the activities leading to the achievement of goods. CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT "Management is the coordination of all resources through the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to attain stated goals.” 1, “To manage is to forecast, to plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control.” — Henry Fayol. It attempts to describe management in terms of what a manager does, and not what management is, 2. “Management is a multipurpose organ that manages a business and manages manager, and manages worker and work.”— P. Drucker: The Practice of Management 4) Managing a business; (ii) Managing manager; and (iii) Managing workers and work. Even if one is omitted, we would not have management anymore and we also would not have a business enterprise or an industrial society. According to P. Drucker, the manager has to balance and harmonies three major functions of the business enterprise. Hence, a manager is a dynamic and life-giving element in every business. Without efficient management ‘we cannot secure the best allocation and utilization of human, material and financial resources. DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT Management is an art of getting things done through by others with the help of planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling functions to achieve an individual/group goals and objectives. “Management is knowing exactly what you want men to do and then seeing that they do it the best and cheapest ways”. By_F.W.Taylor “Management is defined as the creation and maintenance of an internal environment in an enterprise where individuals working together in groups, can perform efficiently and effectively towards the attainment of group goals”. BY Koontz. and 0 Donell Page |IF MANAC NATURE 1. Management is goal oriented or purposive activity 2. Management is group activity 3. Management is a universal process or pervasive activity 4. Management is multi-disciplinary 5. Management is ongoing activity/continuous process 6. Management is a social process 7. Coordination of human and physical resources or management integrates human and physical resources 8. Activating employees 9. Management is both a science and an art IMPORTANCE Achieving business objective ‘Optimum use of business resources Effective leadership and motivation Effective organization and co-ordination Establishing clear authority andresponsibility Solution of labour problems Fulfilling social responsibilityEUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT: Planning: Involves selecting the objectives and actions to achieves them planning stage involves decision making and choosing future courses of action from the various altematives Organizing: Role of each person in any organization is fixed. The concept of role is who will be doing what should be known, to achieve organizational targets efficiently. It is intended that all the tasks necessary to achieve targets are assigned to people who can do the best. Staffing: Staffing function includes keeping the _—_ various organizational __ position fixed. This activity is done by identifying work force requirements, keeping the records of the performance of people working with the organization. So that Suitable people can be prompted and at the same time people performing not up to the mark could be send for training. If all the above activities are taking place in nice way in any organization, it will give rise minimum work force turnover. Directing: Directing means influencing people, so that they will contribute to the organization targets directing involves motivation, leadership styles and proper communication, Controlling: It is the process of comparing the plans with the results. If there is deviation attain taken to be bridge the gap between plan and actual results, EWALUATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Scientific management is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows. Its main objective is improving economic efficiency, especially labour productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes and to management. Scientific management is sometimes known as Taylorism after its founder, Frederick Winslow Taylor. F.W.TAYLOR 1856-1915 Taylor began the theory's development in the United States during the 1880s and “0s within manufacturing industries, especially steel. Its peak of influence came in the 1910s;"! Taylor died Page 3in 1915 and by the 1920s, scientific management was still influential but had entered into competition and syneretism with opposing or complementary ideas. Although scientific management as a distinct theory or school of thought was obsolete by the 1930s, most of its themes are still important parts of industrial engineering and management today. These include: analysis; synthesis; logic; rationality; empiricism; work ethic; efficiency and elimination of ‘waste; standardization of best practices; disdain for tradition preserved merely for its own sake or to protect the social status of particular workers with particular skill sets; the transformation of craft production into mass production; and knowledge transfer between workers and from workers into tools, processes, and documentation, ‘The main elements of the Scientific Management are : “Time studies Functional or specialized supervision Standardization of tools and implements Standardization of work methods Separate Planning function Management by exception principle The use of “slide-rules and similar time-saving devices" Instruction cards for workmen Task allocation and large bonus for successful performance The use of the ‘differential rate’ Mnemonic systems for classifying products and implements A. routing system A modern costing system etc. etc. " Taylor called these elements “merely the elements or details Of the mechanisms of management” He saw them as extensions of the four principles of management, 1. The development of a true science 2. The scientific selection of the workman 3. The scientific education and development of the workman 4, Intimate and friendly cooperation between the management and the men. PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Principles of scientific management propounded by Taylor are: 1. Science, Not Rule of Thumb 2. Harmony, Not Discord 3. Mental Revolution 4. Cooperation, Not Individualism 5. Development of each and every person to his or her greatest efficiency and prosperity. 1. Science, Not Rule of Thumb: In order to increase organisational efficiency, the ‘Rule of Thumb’ method should be substituted by the methods developed through scientific analysis of work. Rule of Thumb means decisions taken by manager as per their personal judgments. According to Taylor, even a small production activity like loading iron sheets into box cars can be scientifically planned. This will help in saving time as well as human energy. Decisions should be based on scientific enquiry with cause and effect relationships. This principle is concemed with selecting the best way of performing a job through the application of scientific analysis and not by intuition or hit and trial methods. ‘The work assigned to any employee should be observed and analyzed with respect to each element or part thereof and the time involved therein so as to decide the best way of performing that the work and to determine the standard output for same. Page 42. Harmony, Not Discord: Taylor emphasized that there should be complete harmony between the workers and the management since if there is any conflict between the two, it will not be beneficial either for the workers or the management. Both the management and the workers should realize the importance of each other. In order to achieve this state, Taylor suggested complete mental revolution on the part of both management and workers It means that there should be complete change in the attitude and outlook of workers and management towards each other, It should always be kept in mind that prosperity for an employer cannot exist for a long time unless it is accompanied by the prosperity of the employees of that organisation and vice Versa, It becomes possible by (a) sharing a part of surplus with workers (b) training of employees, (c) division of work (d) team spirit (e) positive attitude (f) sense of discipline (g) sincerity ete. Management should always be ready to share the gains of the company with the workers and the fatter should provide their full cooperation and hard work for achieving organizational goals, Group action ‘with mutual-trust and understanding should be perfect understanding the focus of working. ‘This principle requires that there should be perfect understanding between the management and workers and both should feel that they are part of same family. It helps to produce synergy effect since both management and workers work in unison, For example, in most of the Japanese companies, patemalistic style of management is in practice and there is complete openness between workers and the management. Usually, workers don’t go on the strike but, if at all they do so, they just wear a black badge and work even more than the normal hours just to impress upon the management that their focus is on their demands as well as organisational objectives. 3. Mental Revolution: ‘The technique of Mental Revolution involves a change in the attitude of workers and management towards cach other. Both should realize the importance of each other and should work with full cooperation, Management as well as the workers should aim to increase the profits of the organization, For this the workers should put in their best efforts so that the company makes profit and on the other hand management should share part of profits with the workers. Thus, mental revolution requires a complete change in the outlook of both management and workers. There should be a spirit of togetherness between workers and management. 4. Cooperation, Not Individualism: This principle is an extension of principle of ‘Harmony, not discord’ and lays stress on mutual cooperation between workers and the management. Cooperation, mutual confidence, sense of goodwill a Page 5should prevail among both, managers as well as workers. The intention is to replace internal competition with cooperation. Both ‘Management’ and “Workers’ should realize the importance of cach other. Workers should be considered as part of management and should be allowed to take part in decision making process of the ‘management. Management should always welcome their suggestions and should also reward them if their suggestions. prove to be beneficial for the organisation viz. reduction of costs or increase in production ete. At the same time, workers should also resist from going on strike or making unnecessary demands from ‘management. Workers should be treated as integral part of organisation and all important decisions should be taken after due consultation with workers. Both of them should visualize themselves as two pillars whose soundness alone can ensure achievement of common goals of the organisation. Taylor also suggested that there should be proper division of work and responsibility between the two. Management should always guide, encourage and help the workers. 5. Development of each and every person to his or her greatest efficiency and prosperity: Efficiency of any organisation also depends on the skills and capabilities of its employees to a great extent. Thus, providing training to the workers was considered essential in order to learn the best method developed through the use of scientific approach. To attain the efficiency, steps should be taken right from the process of selection of employees. Employees should be scientifically selected. ‘The work assigned to each employee should suit his/her physical, mental and intellectual capabil Efficient employees produce more to can more. This ultimately helps to attain efficiency and prosperity for both organisation and the employees. Henri Fayol (Istanbul, 29 July 1841 — Paris, 19 November 1925) was a French mining engineer, mining executive, author and director of mines who developed a general theory of business administration that is often calledFayolism. Mining engineering HENRYFAYOL 1841-1925 He and his colleagues developed this theory independently of scientific management but roughly contemporaneously. Like his contemporary, Frederick Winslow Taylor, he is widely acknowledged as a founder of modern management methods.14 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT. 1. Division of work - The division of work is the course of tasks assigned to, and completed by, a group of workers in order to increase efficiency. Division of work, which is also known as division of labour, is the breaking down of a job so as to have a number of different tasks that make up the whole. 2 Authority and Responsibility - Authority is the right to give orders and obtain obedience, and responsibility is the corollary of authority. 3. Discipline - Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership. 4. Unity of command - Every employee should receive orders from only one superior or behalf of the superior. 5. Unity of direction - Each group of organizational activities that have the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan for achievement of one common goal. 6 Subordination - The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. Remuneration - All Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services. Centralisation and decentralisation - Centralisation refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. 9, Scalar chain - The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this chain. 10 Order - this principle is concerned with systematic arrangement of men, machine, material etc. ‘There should be a specific place for every employee in an organization 11.Equity - Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel - High employee turnover is inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative - Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort. ex 14, Esprit de corps - Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization.1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory: It is probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Maslow’s theory is based on the human needs. Drawing chiefly on his clinical experience, he classified all human needs into a hierarchical manner from the lower to the higher order. In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate man. ‘Then, the next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the man. Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy as shown in figure Self-fullillment needs 1. Physiological Needs: ‘These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air, water and necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. They exert tremendous influence on human behaviour. These needs are to be met first at least partly before higher level needs ‘emerge. Once physiological needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man, 2. Safety Needs: After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety and security needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic security and protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more money and, hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs, these become inactive once they are satisfied. Page 83. Social Needs: Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction, companionship, belongingness, etc. Its this socialising and belongingness why individuals prefer to work in groups and especially older People goto work. 4, Esteem Needs: ‘These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs which indicate self- confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and independence. The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength and capability of being useful in the organisation. However, inability to fulfill these needs results in feeling like inferiority, weakness and helplessness. §. Self-Actualisation Needs: ‘This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of human beings. In other words, the final step under the need hierarchy model is the need for self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment. ‘The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become actualized in what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the person’s motivation to transform perception of ‘self into reality. According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The second need docs ‘not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not emerge until the first two ‘needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes on. The other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited. However, Maslow’s need hierarchy-theory is not without its detractors. 2. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory: ‘The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and propsed a new motivation theory popularly known as Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around ‘Western Pennsylvania. ‘He asked these people to describe two important incidents at their jobs: (1) When did you feel particularly good about your job, and (2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? He used the critical incident method of ‘obtaining data. ‘The responses when analysed were found quite interesting and fairly consistent. The replies respondents gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given when they felt bad. Reported good feelings were generally associated with job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling With job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labelled the job satisfiers motivators, and he called job dissatisfies ‘hygiene or maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors have become known as Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivationAccording to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. The underlying reason, he says, is that removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in the existence of a dual continuum. The opposite of ‘satisfaction’ is “no satisfaction’ and the opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisatisfaction’. According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are tomorrow's hygiene because the latter stop influencing the behaviour of persons when they get them, Accordingly, one’s hygiene may be the motivator of another. (motivation) However, Herzberg’s model is labeled with the following criticism also: 1. People generally tend to take credit themselves when things go well. They blame failure on the external environment. 2. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation. 3, Even job satisfaction is not measured on an overall basis. It is not unlikely that a person may dislike ‘part of his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable. 4, This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual, Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly shows up as a motivator as well as hygine. Regardless of criticism, Herzberg’s ‘two-factor motivation theory’ has been widely read and a few managers seem untaminar with his recommendations. The main use of his recommendations lies in planning and controlling of employees work. 3. McClelland’s Need Theary: Another well-known need-based theory of motivation, as opposed to hierarchy of needs of satisfaction- dissatisfaction, is the theory developed by McClelland and his associates’. McClelland developed his theory based on Henry Murray's developed long list of motives and manifest needs used in his early studies of personality. McClelland’s need-theory is closely associated with learning theory, because he Page 10believed that needs are leamed or acquired by the kinds of events people experienced in their ‘environment and culture. He found that people who acquire a particular need behave differently from those who do not have. His theory focuses on Murray’s three needs; achievement, power and affiliation. In the literature, these three needs are abbreviated “n Ach”, “n Pow”, and “n Aff” respectively’. McClelland’s Motivational Needs Be liebe eee els i atesirere Rl fo) a Achievement ‘They are defined as follows: ‘Need for Achievement: ‘This is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standard, and to strive to succeed. In other words, need for achievement is a behaviour directed toward competition with a standard of excellence. McClelland found that people with a high need for achievement perform better than those with a ‘moderate or low need for achievement, and noted regional / national differences in achievement motivation. ‘Through his research, McClelland identified the following three characteristics of high-need achievers: 1. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for performing a task for finding a solution to a problem. 2. High-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and take calculated risks. 3. High-need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback. ‘Need for Power: ‘The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, the desire to influence others, the urge to change people, and the desire to make a difference in life. People with a high need for power are ‘people who like to be in control of people and events. This results in ultimate satisfaction to man. People who have a high need for power are characterized by: 1. A desire to influence and direct somebody else. Page 112. A desire to exercise control over others. 3. A concer for maintaining leader-follower relations. Need for Affiliation: ‘The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with ‘other people’. The need for affiliation, in many ways, is similar to Maslow’s social needs. ‘The people with high need for affiliation have these characteristics: 1. They have a strong desire for acceptance and approval from others. 2. They tend to conform to the wishes of those people whose friendship and companionship they value. 3. They value the feelings of others. 4. ALDERFER'S ERG Theory: ‘Alderfer further developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth). The existence group is concerned with providing the basic material existence requirements of humans. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs is those of relatedness — the desire people ‘have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the ‘extemal component of Maslow’s esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow’s esteem ‘category and the characteristics included under self-actualization. Alderfer categorized the lower order needs (Physiological and Safety) into the Existence category. He fit Maslow's interpersonal love and ‘esteem needs into the Relatedness category. The Growth category contained the self-actualization and self-esteem needs. Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the ERG theory. He said that when needs in a higher category are not met then individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need. For example if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met then individuals will invest ‘more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need. Page 12Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to “lead” or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. Definition Leadership can be described as the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of an organization or group of which they are members. ‘A person who can bring about change, therefore, is one who has this ability to be a leader C t power naire THONESTY | 2.DELEGATE | .;COMMUNICATION | 4.CONFIDENCE | 5. COMMITMENT GPOSITIVE | 7.CREATIVITY | SINTUITION ‘9.INSPIRE 10.APPROACH ATTITUDE Honesty Whatever ethical plane you hold yourself to, when you are responsible for a team of people, its important to raise the bar even higher. Your business and its employees are a reflection of yourself, and if you make honest and ethical behavior a key value, your team will follow suit, Delegate Finessing your brand vision is essential to creating an organized and efficient business, but if you don’t learn to trust your team with that vision, you might never progress to the neat stage. Its important to remember that trusting your team with your idea is a sign of strength, not weakness. Communication Knowing what you want accomplished may seem clear in your head, but if you try to explain it to someone else and are met with a blank expression, you know there is a problem. If this has been your experience, then you may want to focus on honing your communication skill Page 13Confidence There may be days where the future of your brand is worrisome and things aren’t going according to plan. This is true with any business, large or small, and the most important thing is not to panic. Part of your job as a leader is to put out fires and maintain the team morale. Commitment If you expect your team to work hard and produce quality content, you're going to need to lead by example. There is no greater motivation than seeing the boss down in the trenches working alongside everyone else, showing that hard work is being done on every level. Positive Attitude You want to keep your team motivated towards the continued success of the company. and keep the energy levels up. Whether that means providing snacks, coffee, relationship advice, or even just an ‘occasional beer in the office, remember that everyone on your team is a person. Keep the office mood a fine balance between productivity and playfulness. Creativity ‘Some decisions will not always be so clear-cut. You may be forced at times to deviate from your set course and make an on the fly decision. This is where your creativity will prove to be vital. It is during these critical situations that your team will look to you for guidance and you may be forced to make a quick decision. As a leader, its important to lear to think outside the box and to choose which of two bad choices is the best option. Intuition When leading a team through uncharted waters, there is no roadmap on what to do. Everything is uncertain, and the higher the risk, the higher the pressure. That is where your natural intuition has to kick in. Guiding your team through the process of your day-to-day tasks can be honed down to a science. Inspire Creating a business often involves a bit of forecasting. Especially in the beginning stages of a startup, inspiring your team to see the vision of the successes to come is vital. Make your team feel invested in the accomplishments of the company. Page 14LEADERSHIP STYLES Leadership Styles tit tb 404 ‘The authoritarian leadership style keep main emphasis on the distinction of the authoritarian leader and their followers, these types of leaders make sure to only create a distinct professional relationship. Direct supervision is what they believe to be key in maintaining a successful environment and follower ship. Authoritarian leadership styles often follow the vision of those that are in control, and may not necessarily be compatible with those that are being led. Authoritarian leaders have a focus on efficiency, as other styles, such as a democratic style, may be seen as a hindrance on progress. Examples of authoritarian leadership is the wrong type of information that can be edited communicative behavior: a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do his or her assignment, and a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean a Workstation, All of these positions require a distinct set of characteristics that give the leader the position to get things in order or get a point across. Authoritarian ‘Traits: sets goals individually, engages primarily in one-way and downward communication, controls discussion with followers, and dominate interaction. DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP: ‘The democratic leadership style consists of the Leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality,“ ‘The boundaries of democratic participation tend to be circumscribed by the organization or the group needs and the instrumental value of people's attributes (skills, attitudes, etc.). The democratic style encompasses the notion that everyone, by virtue of their human status, should play a part in the group's decisions. However, the democratic style of leadership still requires guidance and control by a specific leader. The democratic style demands the leader to make decisions on who should be called upon within the group and who is given the right to participate in, make and vote on decisions." Traits of a Good Leader compiled by the Santa Clara University and the Tom Peters Group: + Honest — Display sincerity, integrity, and candor in all your actions. Deceptive behavior will not inspire trust. Page 15,+ Competent — Base your actions on reason and moral principles. Do not make decisions based on childlike emotional desires or feelings. + Forward-looking - Set goals and have a vision of the future. The vision must be owned throughout the organization, Effective leaders envision what they want and how to get it. They habitually pick priorities stemming from their basic values. Inspiring - Display confidence in all that you do. By showing endurance in mental, physical, and spiritual stamina, you will inspire others to reach for new heights. Take charge when necessary. «Intelligent - Read, study, and seek challenging assignments. + Fair-minded - Show fair treatment to all people. Prejudice is the enemy of justice. Display empathy by being sensitive to the feelings, values, interests, and well-being of others. + Broad-minded — Seek out diversity. * Courageous — Have the perseverance to accomplish a goal, regardless of the seemingly insurmountable obstacles. Display a confident calmness when under stress. «Straightforward — Use sound judgment to make a good decisions at the right time. Imaginative — Make timely and appropriate changes in your thinking, plans, and methods. Show creativity by thinking of new and better goals, ideas, and solutions to problems. Be innovative! LAISSEZ-FAIRE ‘The laissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to make decisions is fully given to the worker. This was first described by Lewin, Lippitt, and White in 1933, along with the autocratic leadership and the democratic leadership styles. Laissez-faire leaders allow followers to have complete freedom to make decisions conceming the completion of their work. It allows followers a self-rule, while at the same time offering guidance and support when requested. The laissez-faire leader using guided freedom provides the followers with all materials necessary to accomplish their goals, but does not directly participate in decision making unless the followers request their assistance. This is an effective style to use when: «Followers are highly skilled, experienced, and educated. «Followers have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own. © Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used. «Followers are trustworthy and experienced. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ‘Transformational leadership is a theory of leadership where a leader works with teams to identify needed change, creating a vision to guide the change through inspiration, and executing the change in tandem with committed members of a group;!"!; it is an integral part of the Full Range Leadership Model. Transformational leadership serves to enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms; these include connecting the follower’s ge 16sense of identity and self to a project and to the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and to raise their interest in the project; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their perfarmance There are 4 components to transformational leadership, sometimes referred to as the 4 I's + Idealized Influence (If) - the leader serves as an ideal role model for followers; the leader “walks the talk," and is admired for this, + Inspirational Motivation (IM) - Transformational leaders have the ability to inspire and motivate followers. Combined, these first two I's are what constitute the transformational leader's charisma, + Individualized Consideration (IC) - Transformational leaders demonstrate genuine concern for the needs and feelings of followers. This personal attention to each follower is a key element in bringing out their very best efforts. + Intellectual Stimulation (IS) - the leader challenges followers to be innovative and creative, A common misunderstanding is that transformational leaders are “sofi,” but the truth is that they constantly challenge followers to higher levels of performance! Transformational leadership is said to have occurred when engagement in a group results in leaders and followers raising one another to increased levels of motivation and morality TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP. Transactional leadership is a part of a style of leadership that focuses on supervision, organization, and performance; it is an integral part of the Full Range Leadership Model, Transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which leaders promote compliance by followers through both rewards and punishments, Unlike transformational leaders, those using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future, they look to keep things the same, Leaders using transactional leadership as a model pay attention to followers’ work in order to find faults and deviations This type of leadership is effective in crisis and emergency situations, as well as for projects that need to be carried out in a specific way. DECISION MAKING PROCE! DECISION MAKING DEFINITION: The thought process of selecting a logical choice from the available options. When trying to make a good decision, a person must weight the positives and negatives of each option, and consider all the alternatives. For effective decision making, a person must be able to forecast the outcome of each option as well, and based on alll these items, determine which option is the best for that particular situation. Introduction Decision making is a daily activity for any human being. There is no exception about that. When it comes to business organizations, decision making is a habit and a process as well, Page 17Effective and successful decisions make profit to the company and unsuccessful ones make losses. Therefore, corporate decision making process is the most critical process in any organization. In the decision making process, we choose one course of action from a few possible alternatives, In the process of decision making, we may use many tools, techniques and perceptions. In addition, we may make our own private decisions or may prefer a collective decision. Usually, decision making is hard. Majority of corporate decisions involve some level of dissatisfaction or conflict with another party. Let's have a look at the decision making process in detail. ‘Steps of Decision Making Process Following are the important steps of the decision making process. Each step may be supported by different tools and techniques. TL Step 1: Identification of the purpose of the decision In this step, the problem is thoroughly analysed, There are a couple of questions one should ask when it comes to identifying the purpose of the decision. What exactly is the problem? + Why the problem should be solved? + Who are the affected parties of the problem? + Does the problem have a deadline or a specific time-line? Page 18Step 2: Information gathering A problem of an organization will have many stakeholders. In addition, there can be dozens of factors involved and affected by the problem. In the process of solving the problem, you will have to gather as much as information related to the factors and stakeholders involved in the problem. For the process of information gathering, tools such as ‘Check Sheets’ can be effectively used. Step 3: Principles for judging the alternatives In this step, the baseline criteria for judging the altematives should be set up. When it comes to defining the criteria, organizational goals as well as the corporate culture should be taken into consideration. As an example, profit is one of the main concerns in every decision making process. Companies usually do not make decisions that reduce profits, unless it is an exceptional case. Likewise, baseline principles should be identified related to the problem in hand. ‘Step 4: Brainstorm and analyse the different choices For this step, brainstorming to list down all the ideas is the best option. Before the idea generation step, it is vital to understand the causes of the problem and prioritization of causes. For this, you can make use of Cause-and-Effect diagrams and Pareto Chart tool. Cause-and-Effect diagram helps you to identify all possible causes of the problem and Pareto chart helps you to prioritize and identify the causes with highest effect. ‘Then, you can move on generating all possible solutions (alternatives) for the problem in hand. Step 5: Evaluation of alternatives Use your judgement principles and decision-making criteria to evaluate each alternative. In this step, ‘experience and effectiveness of the judgement principles come into play. You need to compare each alternative for their positives and negatives. Step 6: Select the best alternative Once you go through from Step 1 to Step 5, this step is easy. In addition, the selection of the best alternative is an informed decision since you have already followed a methodology to derive and select the best alternative. Step 7: Execute the decision ‘Convert your decision into a plan or a sequence of activities. Execute your plan by yourself or with the help of subordinates. Step 8: Evaluate the results Evaluate the outcome of your decision. See whether there is anything you should learn and then correct in future decision making. This is one of the best practices that will improve your decision-making skills. Page 19‘Conclusion When it comes to making decisions, one should always weigh the positive and negative business consequences and should favour the positive outcomes. This avoids the possible losses to the organization and keeps the company running with a sustained growth. Sometimes, avoiding decision making seems easier; especially, when you get inio a lot of confrontation after making the tough decision. But, making the decisions and accepting its consequences is the only way to stay in control of your conporate life and time. Organization is form of organizing which is a part of — management —_process Organization defined as_— collectivity of people —for_—achieving common objectives “Organization means the determination and assignment of duties to people, and also the establishment and the maintenance of authority relationships among these grouped activities it is the structural frame work with in which the various efforts are coordinated and related to each other”. Definitions; “Organization are collectivities of people that have been established for the pursuit of relatively specific objectives on a more or less continuous basis”, William Scot “Organization is the form of every human association for the attainment of a common purpose”. Mooney and Reilly “Organization involves the grouping of activities necessary to accomplish goals and plans assignment and these activities to appropriate departments and positions to appropriate departments and positions for authority delegation and coordination”. Koontz and O"Donnell Organization is used in the following ways with or without prefix or suffix 1. as entity 2 as group of people 3. as structure 4, as process Process of Organization: Determination of objectives, strategies, plans and policies: Objectives should be clear and precise, because the entire organization is to be built around the objectives of the enterprises. Page 20Determination of activities: Determine activities needed to execute these plans and policies and accomplish the objectives. The work load is broken into component activi are to be performed by all the employees. The activities are so split to determine the job which can be performed by an individual. ‘Separation and grouping of activities: To attain the benefits of specialization and division of labour, every company, will separate its. act ‘on the basis of primary functions like finance, engineering, purchasing, production, sales and industrial relations, All the similar or directly related activities are grouped together in the form of departments. Delegation of authority: Authority is necessary for the performance of the job and therefore authority is delegated to the subordinates for enabling them to carry out their work smoothly and efficiently. Delegation of responsibility: Responsibility may be described as the obligation and accountability for the performance of delegated duties. A superior is always accountable for the acts of his subordinate, Therefore, responsibility always flows from subordinates to superiors. Establish inter-relationships: The grouped activities are placed in the overall organization structure at appropriate level. It is necessary to integrate or the these groups of activities through. a) Authority relationship horizontally, vertically and diagonally b) Organized information or communication system i.e, with the help of effective coordination and communication. : Physical facilities. means provide machinery, tools equipments, infrastructure etc, environment means provide proper lighting, ventilation, heating, cooling arrangement at the work place, reasonable hors of work, safety devices, job security ete Principles of Oreanization: Principle of unity of objectives: An organization structure is effective if is ‘enables individuals to contribute to entire objectives. Principle of co-ordination: The aim of the objective can be achieved it proper coordination exists for efferent activities Principles of organizational efficiency: An organization is efficient it is structured to aid the accomplishment of enterprise objective with a minimum of unsought consequences or costs. ‘Span of management principle: In each managerial position, there is a limit to the number of persons an individual can effectively manage but the exact number will depend on the impact of underlying variables, Scalar principle: The clearer the line of authority from the ultimate management position in an enterprise to every subordinate position, the clearer will be the responsibility for decision making the more effective will be organization communication, Principle of delegation by results expected: Authority delegated to all individual managers should be adequate enough to ensure their ability 10 accomplish the results expected, Brinciple of responsibility: The responsibility of subordinates to their superiors for performance is absolute, and superiors can not escape responsibility for the organization activity of their Page 21subordinates. Principle of parity of authority and responsibility: The responsibility for actions can not be greater than that implied by the authority delegated, not should it be less, Principle of unity command: The more complete an individual's reporting relationships to a single superior, the smaller the problem of conflicting instructions and the greater the feeling of personal responsibility for results, is inciple: Maintenance of intended delegation requires that decisions with in the authority of individual managers should be made by them and not be referred upward in the organization structure, Principle of balance: The application of principles or technique must be balanced to ensure the over all effectiveness of the structure in meeting — enterprise objectives. Principle of flexibility: the more that provisions are made for building flexibility in to an organization structure can fulfill its purpose. Principle of leadership facilitation: The more an organization structure and its delegations of authority enable managers to design and maintain an environment for performance, the more they will help the leadership abilities of those managers. Design of Oreanization structure: ‘The main objective of an organization structure is to ensure that efforts of all the people working in various sections are co-ordinate and imtegrated for achieving the task in the most efficient effective way with minimum consumption of resources Le. economical ways 1) Formal organization structure 2) Informal organization structure Formal organization structure: According to classical theorists the formal organization is built an four pillars 1) Division of labour 2) Scalar functional processes 3) Structure 4) Span of control Definition: An organization is formal when the activities of wo or more persons are consciously Informal organization: Informal organization arises spontaneously based on friendship or some common interest and not based on ules, regulation and Procedures, It is developed ‘by the employees themselves and not by the formal authority. Page 22Definition: Informal organization brings cohesiveness to a formal organization, it brings to the members of formal organization a feeling of belonging of status, of self-respect and of gregarious satisfaction. Comparison between formal and informal organization: Basis of comparison Formal Formation Planned £ Spontaneous Purpose Well-set goals interaction Structure ‘Well structured structured Focus Positions Nature Official Leadership Superior Source of power Delegated group ‘Guidelines for behaviour Rules procedures. norms Source of control Rewards/Punishment ‘Type of organization: On the basis of authority relationships organization classified as follows Unofficial Any one Given by 1. Line organization or Military organization or Scalar organization 2. Functional organization 3. Line and Staff organization 4, Project organization 5S. Committee organization 6 Matrix organization[Manager] [- Emaineer | nd instructions, | | Foreman | | [Supervisor] Where efforts of large number of people have to be controlled and discipline is of prime importance line type organization structure will serve the purpose, This is also one of the oldest structures. However, in present conditions this type of structure has lost the applicability, In line structure ten lines of instruction, directing is vertical. This means in this type boss is always right and his orders are to be obeyed at any cost. Merits: Simplicity: Line organization is very simple to establish and can be easily understand by the employees Discipline: Since each position subject to control by its immediate superior position, often the maintenance of discipline is easy unity of command and unity of direction foster discipline among, the people the organization, Co-ordination: ‘The hierarchy in management helps in achieving effective coordination Effective communication; There will be a direct link between superior and his subordinate; both can communicate properly among himself or herself, Economical: Line organization is. easy to operate and. less expensive Unity of command: In line organization every person is under the command of one boss only. Prompt decision: Only one person is in charge of one division or department. This enables manager to take quick decisions. Over all development of the managers: The departmental head has to look after all the activities of his department; therefore, it encourages the development of all round managers at the higher level of authority. Demerits: Undue reliance: The success of the enterprise depends upon the caliber and ability of few departmental heads, loss of one or two capable men may put the organization in difficulties. Personnel limitations: In this type of organization an individual executive is suppose to discharge different types of duties. He cannot do justice to all different activities because he cannot be specialized in all the trades, Page 24Overload of work: Departmental heads are overloaded with various routine jobs hence they can ‘not spare time for important managerial functions like planning, development budgeting etc. Dictatorial_way; In line organization, too much authorities centre on line executive, Hence it encourages dictatorial way of working. Duplication of work; Conflicting policies of different departments result in duplication of work. Unsuitable for large concerns: It is limited to small concerns er st of ent se ma er |; Departments may work for their self-interest Ss a a a Gall ia Se Soe Line and Staff organization is the in which the line heads are assisted by specialist staff. If the firm is of large size, manager cannot give careful attention to every ‘aspect of management. They are busy with ordinary task of production and selling. Hence staff is deputed to do the work of investigation, research, recording, and advising (0 managers, Thus the staff brings advising to managers, Thus the staff brings specialization by assisting the line officers, “Line” means - Operating “Staff” means - Service Secretary +] General Manager [+ PunticRelaton oftcer Finance Manager Personal Manager | ProductionManager Marketing Manager } ! Production Engineer Sales Officer $ t Foreman Sales Supervisor | : : Workers SalesMan Page 25Planned specialization: The line and staff structure is based upon the principle of specialization. ‘The line managers are responsible for operations contributing directly to: the achievement of organizational objectives where as staff people are there to provide expert advice on the matters of their concerns. ‘Quality decisions: Decisions come after careful consideration and thought each expert gives his advise in the area of his specialization which is reflected in the a Prospect for personal growth: Prospect for efficient personal to grow in the organization not only that, it also offers opportunity for concentrating in a particular area, there by increasing personal efficiency Less wastage: There will be less wastage of material. ‘Training ground for personnel: It provides training ground to the personnel in two ways. First, since everybody is expected to concentrate on one field, one’s training needs can easily be identified. Second, the staff with expert knowledge provides opportunities to the line ‘managers for adopting rational multidimensional approach towards a_ problem. Demerits: Chances of Misinterpretation: Although the expert advice is available, yet it reaches the workers through line supervisors. The line officers may fail to understand the meaning of advice and there is always a risk of misunderstanding and misinterpretation. Chances of friction: There are bound to be occasions when the line and staff may differ in opinion may resent in conflict of interests and prevents harmonious relations between the two. Ineffective Staff in the absence of authority: The staff has no authority to execute their own advice. Their advice is not a binding on the line officers. Therefore the advice given by specialist may be ignored by line heads. Expensive: The overhead cost of the product increases because of high salaried specialized staff. Loss of initiative by line executives: If is they start depending too much on staff may loose their initiative drive and ingenuity. AELACHIONAL ORG SNIZATION STRUCTURE Functional organization: This structure most widely used, in the medium and large organizations having limited number of products. This was introduced by F.W-Taylor and is logical extension of the division of labour cover departments as well as men. In this authority is delegated to an individual or department to control specified processes, policies or other matter relating to activities under taken by persons in other departments. In this system planning is separated from performance since the direction of work is divided by Page 26various function in the factory. It has been found that this type of structure becomes ineffective when the work of departments and individuals increases in variety and complexity. z rc jan [Production || Marketing || Finance || Personal | Merits: ‘Separation of work: In functional organization, work has been separated from routine work. The specialist has been given the authority and responsibility for supervision and administration pertaining to their field of specialization unnecessary over loading of responsibilities is thus avoided. Specialization: Specialization and skilled supervisory attention is given to workers the result is increase in rate of production and improved quality of work. Narrow _range _with high depth: The narrow range of activities enable the functional expert to developing in depth understanding in his particular area of activity Ease_in selection _and_taining: Functional organization is based upon expert knowledge. The availability of guidance through experts makes it possible to train the — workers properly in. comparatively short span of_—time. Reduction in prime cost: Since for every operation expert guidance is there, wastage of material is reduced = and =—sthus_—shelps. «ss to.—sreluce.~— prime _—cost. ‘Scope of growth and development of business: This type of organization presents ample scope for the growth and development of business. ‘Demerits: Indispline: Since the workers receive instructions from number of specialist it leads to confusion to whom they should follow. Therefore, it is difficult to maintain discipline Shifing_of responsibility: Itis difficult for the top management to locate responsibility for the unsatisfactory work every body tries to shift responsibility on others for the faults and Page 27failure Kills the initiative of workers: As the specialized guidance is available to the workers the workers will not be using their talents and skills therefore their initiative cannot be utilized. Overlapping of authority: The sphere of authority tends to overlap and gives rise to friction between the persons of equal rank. Lack of co-ordination between functions: except the function in which he is specialized he is absolutely indifferent to other functions. Therefore, there is a lack of coordination of function and efforts, APROJECT ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE Project Organization: A project organization is a special case where common service like finance, purchase etc. are organized at the functional level. But project resources are allocated to the project manager. Since the business responsibility rests with the project manager, necessary authority is given to him with the requisite resources. This type of organization structure helps in making decisions for project control in terms of cost, resource and time. In a project organization some of the functions are corporate responsibility and some of them are project manager’ sresponsibility. Managing Director | f I 1 Project Division ut Project Division-B | Manutacturina Finance ae] [ = on 1. This calls for quick divisions 2. Organizing all functional 3. Proper coordination of work of different departments. Demeriis: 1. It tends to increase the problems of control for topmanagement 2. Ibis special case of product organization 3. The organization may get disintegrated with increasing focus on departments Page 28S.COMMITTEE ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE ‘Committee Organization: A committee is formed when two or more persons are appointed to ‘work as a team to arrive at a decision on the matters referred to it. It is intended to utilize the knowledge, skills, and experiences of all the concerned parties. Particularly, in large ‘organizations, problems are too big to be handled by one single expert. EnecutiveCouncl |———+ Vice-chancolor =| Academicsenate | i | Finance Commitiee — ee Registrar ‘Selection Committee Purchases Convocation committee Committee Merits: 1. It pools up the organizational resources in terms of knowledge skills and experiences. 2. Itrepresents all interested groups and thus, facilitates group decision. 3. It yields good results if the committee are headed by taskmaster like chairman and time ‘bound in terms of decision-making. 4, It minimizes the fear of too much authority vested in one person 5. It motivates all the concerned or effected groups toparticipate. ‘Demerits: 1. Responsibility of decisions cannot be fixed on a particular person. 2. Itcalls for high degree of coordination. 3. It involved high cost in terms of time and money. S MATRIX ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE ‘Matrix Organization: This is also called as project orgnisation it’ isa combination of all relationships in the organization in vertical, horizontal and diagonal. It is mostly used in complex projects. It provides a high degree of ‘operational freedom, flexibility and adoptability for both the line and staff managers in performing their respective roles. The main objective of matrix Page 29‘organization is to secure a higher degree of coordination than what is possible from the conventional organizational structure as the line and staff. wo | | ——— eS SS Manufacturing | | Finance Personnel Matetele | Product | Preduetion Finance | Personnet a "Product |__| Production LJ Finance Personnet | Manager-B |_Manager-B [°—) Manager-B rl Manager-B *—_ Manager-B. ‘Merits: 1. It offers operational freedom and flexibility 2. Itseeks to optimize the utilization of resources 3. It focuses on results 4, It maintains professional idemtity 5. Itholds employees responsible for management of resources, Demerits: 1. It calls for greater degree of coordination 2. It violates unity of command principle 3. It may be difficult to define authority and responsibility precisely 4. Employees may find it frastrating to work with two bosses