Republic of the Philippines

COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION

Region V (Bicol)
Province of Albay
Libon Community College
Libon, Albay

UNIT 4: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Lesson 7: Organization of Test Data Using Tables and Graphs

I. How do we organize and present ungrouped data through tables?

Raw Scores
Raw scores are easy to get because these are scores that are obtained from administering a
test, a questionnaire, or any inventory rating scale, to measure knowledge, skills, or other attributes
of interest.

Frequency Distribution Table

• Listing of scores (can be ascending or descending)
• Reflects the tallying of scores
• Can be grouped or ungrouped

Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table

1. Arrange the data from lowest to highest.
2. Determine the range by getting the difference between the highest and lowest value in the
set of data.
3. Determine the number of class intervals or categories desired (the ideal number of class
intervals is somewhere between 5-15).
4. Determine the approximate size of class interval by dividing the range by the desired
number of class intervals.
5. Construct the frequency distribution table

II. How do we present data graphically?

“A picture is worth a thousand words”

“Graph can be worth a hundred or a thousand numbers”

TYPES OF GRAPHS

1. Histogram
➢ A type of graph appropriate for quantitative data such a test scores.This graph
consist of columns, each have base that represent one class internals, and it’s highly
represent the number of observation or simply the frequency in that class internal.
➢ The graph was automatically generated with the use of statistical software. In this
case, statistical package for social science (SPSS) was used.

BASIC STEP IN SPSS APPLICATION

Step 1: Open the data editor window
o It is understood that the data entry process assumption here is that you
already known the basic of entering data into a specific program

Step 2: On the menu bar, click analyze, then go to descriptive statistic then to
frequencies. This brings box as seen below.

Step 3: to make a histogram, do the following steps

o Open the data editor
o On the menu bar, click on graphs legacy dialog histogram
o Click OK.

2. Frequency Polygon
➢ This is also used for quantitative data, and it is one of the most commonly used
methods in presenting test score
Step 1: locate the midpoint on the top of each bar
 Step 2: draw line to connect all the midpoint in consecutive order
Step 3: The line graph is an estimated of the frequency polygon of the test scores

3. Cumulative frequency polygon

➢ This graph is quite different from a frequency polygon because the cumulative
frequencies are plotted. In addition, you plot the point above the exact limit of the
interval.
➢ A cumulative frequency polygon is more useful when there is more than on
frequency distribution with unequal number of observations.
➢ Useful to obtain a number of summary measures.

4. Bar graph
➢ This graph is often used to present frequencies in categories of a qualitative
variable. It took very similar to a histogram, constructed in the same manner bars.
Spaces are placed in between the consecutive bars.
➢ Bar graphs are very useful in comparison of test performance of groups categorized
into two or more variables.

5. Box-and-whisker plot
➢ This is a very useful graph depicting the distribution of test scores through their
quarterlies
➢ This type of graph will help readers easily see where the scores are concentrated
and divided into quartile, as well as the minimum and maximum values.
6. Pie graph
➢ One commonly used method to represent categorical data is the use of circle graph.
➢ You will note that the sum of the percentage is equal to 360°, that is the measure of
the whole circle. Making a pie chart is very easy. You may use an ordinary
protractor or compass. Also, with the use of statistical software you can produce
and attractive chart

III. Which graph is best?

1. The histogram is the easiest in many cases of quantitative data, but it may not be appealing if you want
to make a comparison of the performance of two or more groups.

2. Bar graphs work well with qualitative data and if you want to compare the performance of
subgroups of examinees.
3. Frequency and percentage polygons are useful for treating quantitative data.
4. Cumulative frequency and percentage polygons are valuable for determining the percentage of
a distribution that falls below or above a given point.
5. Cumulative percentage polygon becomes more useful for the comparison of groups with
unequal number because frequencies have been converted into percentages.
6. Box and-whisker plots are not very popular because they can be difficult to construct without
statistical software.

However, these can provide interesting and salient information to audiences about test
data that other graphs cannot provide sum, the choice will depend on your purpose and what you
want to convey

IV. What are the variation on the shapes of frequency distribution?

- A frequency distribution is an arrangement of a set of observations. These observations in the

field of education or other sciences are empirical data that illustrate situations in the real world.
- With the world population reaching 7.6 billion, you can imagine hundreds of possible
frequency distributions representing different groups and subgroups taken from an infinitely
large population.

What is Skewness?
-Note that half the area of the curve is a mirror reflection of the other half, in other words, it is a
symmetrical distribution, which is also referred to as bell- shaped distribution.
- The degree of asymmetry of a graph is it skewness. Basic principle of a coordinate system tells
you that, as you move toward the right of the x-axis, the numerical value increases, likewise, as
you move up the y-axis, the value becomes higher.

What is common among the three distributions?

- The moral or gaussian distribution is arguably the most famous distribution, as it occurs in
many natural situations. A variable with a normal distributions has an average, which is also the
most common value.

- It is the flatness of the distribution, which is also the consequence of how high or peaked the
distribution in this property is referred to as kurtosis.

- X is the flatters distributions. It has playkurtic ( platy, meaning broad or flat) distributions. Y is
the normal distribution and it is mesokurtic ( meso, meaning intermediate) distribution , z is the
steepest or slimmest, and is called lepkurtic ( lepto, meaning narrow) distribution.

- The t- distribution is used in statistics to estimate here significance of population parameters for
small sample sizes or unknown variations. Like the normal distribution, it is bell-shaped
symmetric. Unlike normal distributions, it has heavier tails, which result in a greater chance for
extreme values.
- A probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing that data near the mean
are more frequent than data far from the mean, and is also known as the Gaussian distribution

Lesson 8: Analysis, Interpretation, and Use of Test Data

I. WHAT ARE MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

The word "Measures of central tendency" means the central location or point of a set of
values.
Mean
The sum of all the numbers in the data set divided by the number of elements.
Median
The element in the middle of the data set after it's arranged in order.
Mode
The value that occurs most frequently in the data set.

II. What are measures of dispersion?

 Measures of dispersion quantify the spread or variability within a dataset. Some common
measures include:

Range
The range of a dataset is a simple measure that calculates the difference between the
maximum and minimum values within that dataset. It provides a basic understanding of the
spread of values but can be sensitive to outliers.

Variance
Variance is a more comprehensive measure of dispersion. It involves calculating the average
of the squared differences between each data point and the mean of the dataset. A higher variance
indicates greater variability within the dataset.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It is often preferred over variance
because it shares the same unit as the original data. A smaller standard deviation suggests that the
data points tend to be closer to the mean, while a larger standard deviation indicates a more
scattered distribution.

III. What are measures of position?

Measures of position give us a way to see where a certain data point or value falls in a sample or
distribution. A measure can tell us whether a value is about the average, or whether it’s unusually
high or low. Measures of position are used for quantitative data that falls on some numerical
scale. Sometimes, measures can be applied to ordinal variables— those variables that have an
order, like first, second…fiftieth.

Measures of position can also show how to values from different distributions or measurement
scales compare. For example, a person’s height (measured in feet) and weight (measured in
pounds) can be compared by converting the measurements to z-scores.

1. Common Measures of Position

2. Box and Whiskers Plot,
3. Deciles,
4. Five Number Summary,
5. Interquartile Range (IQR),
6. Outliers,
7. Percentiles,
8. Quartiles, 9. Standard scores (i.e. z-scores),
10.Tukey’s upper hinge and lower hinge.

1. Box and Whiskers Plot A box and whiskers plot shows the spread and center of data. It is a
graphical representation of the five number summary: minimum, maximum, median, and the first
and third quartiles.
2. Deciles are similar to quartiles. But where quartiles split the data in four equal parts, Deciles
split the data into ten parts: The 10th, 20th, 30th, 40th, 50th, 60th, 70th, 80th, 90th and 100th
percentiles.

3. Five Number Summary The five number summary is an overview of your data. The statistics
in the summary are the smallest value (minimum), the largest (maximum), the middle (median)
and the first and third quartiles.

4. Interquartile Range (IQR) The interquartile range tells you where the “middle fifty” is in a
data set. While the range tells you where the beginning and end are in a set, the IQR shows you
where the bulk of the “middling” values lie.

5. Outliers are unusual values that fall outside of an expected range of values. For example, if
you’re measuring IQ values of children, your statistics would be thrown off if Einstein and
Stephen Hawking were in your class: their IQs would be outliers.

6. Percentiles A percentile is a number where a certain percentage of scores fall below that
number. For example, a 90th percentile marks the spot where 90% of values fall below that cut-
off point.

7. Quartiles Simply put, quartiles divide your data into quarters: the lowest quarter, two middle
quarters, and a highest quarter.

8. Standard scores (i.e. z-scores) Z-scores are a way to compare results from a test to a “normal”
population.

9. Tukey’s upper hinge and lower hinge Tukey’s upper hinge and lower hinge are created when
you split a data set into four pieces (with three hinges). As the median is included in this
“splitting,” Tukey’s hinges are sometimes called inclusive quartiles.

IV. What are standard scores?

In particular, a score can be interpreted more meaningfully if we know the mean and
variability of the other scores where that single score belongs. Knowing this, a raw score can be
converted into standard scores.

Z-score.
The most useful is the z-score, which is often used to express a raw score in relation to the mean
and standard deviation.
Recall that X-X is a deviation score. With this difference, we are able to know whether your test
score, say, X is above or below the average score.

T-Score.
As you see in the computation of the z-score, it can give you a negative number, which simply
means the score is below the mean.
 However, communicating negative z-score as below the mean may not be understandable
to others. We will not even say to students that they got a negative z-score. A z-score may also be
a repeating or non-repeating decimal, which may not be comfortable for others. One option is to
convert a z-score into a T-score, which is a transformed standard score. To do this, there is
scaling in which a mean of 0 in a z-score is transformed into a mean of 50, and the standard
deviation in z-score is multiplied by 10.

Stanine Scores
Another standard score is stanine, shortened from standard nine. With nine in its name,
the scores are on a nine-point scale. In a z-score distribution, the mean is 0, and the standard
deviation is 1. In this scale, the mean is 5, and the standard deviation is 2. Each stanine is one-
half standard deviation-wide. Like the T-score, stanine score can be calculated from the z-score
by multiplying the z-score by 2 and adding 5.

IV. What are measures of covariability?

Measures of covariability are statistical measures used to assess the degree to which two
variables change together. Some common measures of covariability include covariance,
correlation coefficient, and coefficient of determination. These measures help to quantify the
relationship between two variables and are essential in analyzing the strength and direction of
their association.

The concept of covariability can be demonstrated through a simple example using two variables:
"hours of study" and "exam scores."
Let's say we have the following data for a group of students:
Hours of Study (x): 4, 6, 3, 5, 7 Exam Scores (y): 85, 90, 75, 80, 95
To calculate the covariance, we first need to find the mean of each variable:
Mean of x (𝑥̄) = (4+6+3+5+7)/5 = 5
Mean of y (𝑦̄) = (85+90+75+80+95)/5 = 85
Now, we can calculate the covariance using the formula: Cov(x, y) = Σ[(𝑥ᵢ - 𝑥̄) * (𝑦ᵢ - 𝑦̄)] / (n -
1)
Substituting the values, we get: Cov(x, y) = [(4-5)(85-85) + (6-5)(90-85) + (3-5)(75-85) + (5-
5)(80-85) + (7-5)(95-85)] / (5-1) Cov(x, y) = [-10 + 15 + -2-10 + 0-5 + 210] / 4
Cov(x, y) = (0 + 5 + 20 + 0 + 20) / 4 Cov(x, y) = 45 /
4 Cov(x, y) = 11.25

TITLE: Presenting data in tables and charts

ABSTRACT: The present paper aims to provide basic guidelines to present epidemiological
data using tables and graphs in Dermatology. Although simple, the preparation of tables and
graphs should follow basic recommendations, which make it much easier to understand the data
under analysis and to promote accurate communication in science. Additionally, this paper deals
with other basic concepts in epidemiology, such as variable, observation, and data, which are
useful both in the exchange of information between researchers and in the planning and
conception of a research project.

FINDINGS: Understanding how to classify the different types of variables and how to present
them in tables or graphs is an essential stage for epidemiological research in all areas of
knowledge, including Dermatology. Mastering this topic collaborates to synthesize research
results and prevents the misuse or overuse of tables and figures in scientific papers

ANALYSIS & INSIGHTS:

Presenting data in tables and charts is a useful way to organize and display information in a clear
and visually appealing way. Tables and charts can help to make large amounts of data easier to
understand, allowing for better decision making and communication of information. There are
several guidelines for creating effective tables and charts that can help ensure that data is presented
in a clear and meaningful way:
1. Define your goal: Before you start creating a table or chart, it's important to have a clear idea of
what you want to communicate and what the data represents. This will help you to structure and
organize the information in a way that is easy to understand.
2. Use the appropriate chart type: There are many different types of charts available, each with
their own strengths and weaknesses. It's important to choose the right chart type for the data you
are presenting. For example, a bar chart or line chart might be the best choice for comparing
different sets of data, while a scatter plot can be useful for visualizing patterns in two-dimensional
data.
3. Use appropriate labels and legends: Your chart should have clear and concise labels and legends
that explain what the data represents and how it was collected. The labels should be easy to read
and interpret, and should be placed in a way that does not distract from the data itself.
4. Use colors judiciously: While colors can help to make your chart more visually appealing, it's
important to use them in a way that does not distract from the data itself. Colors should be used to
highlight important information, such as patterns or trends, without detracting from the overall
legibility of the chart.
5. Include a title: A title can help to provide context and direction for your chart, and can make it
easier for your audience to understand the data. It should include a brief explanation of the data
being presented and why it is important.
Presenting data in tables and charts can be a powerful tool for simplifying and communicating
information. By following these guidelines and paying attention to the needs and goals of your
audience, you can create effective and informative visualizations that support informed decision
making.

TITLE: Using Tables and Graphs for Reporting Data

ABSTRACT:
For presenting the study results, authors need to choose from one of the three formats: text,
tables and graphs. The underlying consideration of any author while making the choice is to
ensure that readers find it easy to understand, to assist the author present data in a way that
would catch the reader's eye, hold his interest and enhance his understanding. The choice should,
therefore, be based on the advantages and limitations of each of these formats. Most of the
observations are reported in textual format. Tables are useful when comparisons are to be shown.
Graphs attract readers' attention better and the data they depict remains in the reader's memory.
The type of graph used is dependent upon the nature of data that is to be shown.

FINDINGS: Every research paper has a lot to say through the data that has been collected and
analyzed. However, this data needs to be presented in a logical, coherent and easy-to-understand
manner. The way data is presented can influence the reviewers' and editors' decision. It can also
make the difference between a paper being appreciated by the readers or being neglected or even
trashed by them. Tables and Graphs are the two important tools that authors use to make the data
more presentable and easy to read and understand.

ANALYSIS & INSIGHTS:

I have learned that sing tables and graphs to report data can be a very effective way to communicate
complex information in a clear and concise way.
1. Choose the right data visualization: There are many different types of tables and charts available,
each with their own strengths and weaknesses. It's important to choose the right type of
visualization for the data you are presenting. For example, a bar chart or a line graph might be the
best choice for comparing different sets of data, while a pie chart might be useful for showing the
distribution of data according to categories.
2. Use appropriate labels and legends: Your visualization should have clear and concise labels and
legends that explain what the data represents and how it was collected. The labels should be easy
to read and interpret, and should be placed in a way that does not distract from the data itself.
3. Use colors judiciously: While colors can help to make your visualization more visually
appealing, it's important to use them in a way that does not distract from the data itself. Colors
should be used to highlight important information, such as patterns or trends, without detracting
from the overall legibility of the visualization.
4. Use a consistent layout: Your visualization should have a consistent layout that makes it easy
for your audience to follow. This includes using consistent fonts, colors, and sizes, and placing
labels, legends, and other elements in consistent locations.
5. Choose appropriate axis ranges: When making a bar chart or line graph, it's important to choose
appropriate axis ranges that show the full range of the data while still allowing for comparison
across categories or over time.
6. Consider audience: It's important to consider the needs and expectations of your audience when
creating a table or graph. They should be designed in a way that the audience can easily understand
and interpret the information presented.
Furthermore, using tables and graphs for reporting data can be a very effective way to
communicate complex information in a clear and concise way. By following the insights above
and paying attention to the needs and expectations of your audience, you can create effective and
informative visualizations that support informed decision making.

TABLE OF SPECIFICATION

Unit 4: Quantitative Analysis and Interpretation

Content Covered Number of Questions

Raw Scores 1

3
Types of Graphs
 Measures of Central Tendency 3

Measures of Dispersion 3
Total Items: 10

1. It is easy to get because these are scores that are obtained from administering a test, a
questionnaire, or any inventory rating scale, to measure knowledge, skills, or other attributes
of interest.
a. Frequency
b. Graphs
c. Raw Scores
d. Table
2. A type of graph appropriate for quantitative data such a test scores.This graph consist of
columns, each have base that represent one class internals, and it’s highly represent the number
of observation or simply the frequency in that class internal.
a. Bar Graph
b. Venn Diagram
c. Histogram
d. Pie Graph
3. This graph is often used to present frequencies in categories of a qualitative variable. It took
very similar to a histogram, constructed in the same manner bars. Spaces are placed in between
the consecutive bars
a. Bar Graph
b. Pie Graph
c. Frequency Polygon
d. Histogram
4. This is a very useful graph depicting the distribution of test scores through their quarterlies
a. Frequency Polygon
b. Box-and-whisker plot
c. Bar Graph
d. Pie Graph
5. The sum of all the numbers in the data set divided by the number of elements. 9
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. Table
6. The element in the middle of the data set after it's arranged in order.
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Table
d. Mean
7. The value that occurs most frequently in the data set.
a. Table
b. Data
c. Median
d. Mode
8. It is a simple measure that calculates the difference between the maximum and minimum
values within that dataset. It provides a basic understanding of the spread of values but can be
sensitive to outliers.
a. Variance
b. Range
c. Frequency
d. Standard Deviation
9. It is the square root of the variance. It is often preferred over variance because it shares the
same unit as the original data.
a. Standard Deviation
 b. Frequency
c. Mean
d. Variance
10. It involves calculating the average of the squared differences between each data point and the
mean of the dataset.
a. Frequency
b. Range
c. Standard Deviation
d. Variance

ANSWER KEY
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. C
6. B
7. D
8. B
9. A
10. D

ACTIVITY/OUTPUT

Make a reflection about the lesson in a short bond paper.