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Supplementary cementitious materials and their impact on sustainable construction

Klemm, Agnieszka J.; Rostami, Rohollah ; MacLennan, Stewart; Almeida, Fernando

Published in:
Brittle Matrix Composites 12 - Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites,
BMC 2019

Publication date:
2019

Document Version
Author accepted manuscript

Link to publication in ResearchOnline

Citation for published version (Harvard):


Klemm, AJ, Rostami, R, MacLennan, S & Almeida, F 2019, Supplementary cementitious materials and their
impact on sustainable construction. in Brittle Matrix Composites 12 - Proceedings of the 12th International
Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites, BMC 2019. pp. 127-137.

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Download date: 23. Dec. 2023


SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITOUS MATERIALS AND THEIR IMPACT ON
SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION

Agnieszka J KLEMM1, Rohollah ROSTAMI1, Stewart MACLENNAN1,


Fernando ALMEIDA2
1
Glasgow Caledonian University, School of Computing, Engineering and Built Environment
70 Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow, G4 0BA, UK, email: [email protected]
2 Federal University of Minas Gerais, School of Engineering, Brazil

ABSTRACT

As the construction sector is incessantly challenged by the growing societal demands for safer and cost-
effective infrastructures, more and more environmentally-friendly products and processes have to be developed
and adopted into industrial practice.
Although cementitious materials are one of the most commonly used construction materials worldwide, there
are still some major concerns about their sustainability and durability. Firstly, the production of concrete is
releasing large volumes of Carbon Dioxide into the atmosphere, one of the Greenhouse Gases attributable to the
climate change. Secondly, even though cementitious materials are very versatile and robust they may suffer from
various deteriorative processes, leading to shortened service life, and in consequence, to intrusive/expensive costs
for maintenance and repair.
To meet the expectations of consumers, demanding more durable, less labour and service intensive materials
at a competitive price, numerous new composite materials and technologies have been developed over the last
couple of decades including blended cements with Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM). This paper
provides a brief overview of the current situation, underlines environmental impact of these new materials and
processes, and suggest some solutions for the future of construction practice. It is argued that the role of further
research is critical not only in development of sustainable concrete but also in contribution to the global sustainable
development.

Keywords
Sustainability of cementitious materials, Supplementary Cementitious Materials, Alkali
activation, Internal curing, Copper slag, Mining wastes

PORTLAND CEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Due to their versatility and robustness concrete and mortars based on Portland cement (PC)
are the most consumed materials in buildings and infrastructure. The world cement production
is growing annually and it reached 4.1 billion tonnes in 2018 [1]. This massive production of
Portland cement (PC) has a major impact on the environment and the wider social and economic
aspects. These, in turn result from the general availability of constituents, career opportunities,
commonly accessible cement production, affordability, ability to be easily moulded into any
form, mechanical and physical characteristics, as well as its long service life of concrete
structures. It is expected that the rate of the global population, especially in developing
countries, will continue to increase. This major demographic shift will increase future cement
demand. Figure 1 illustrates the predicted increase in cement production until 2015.

6
Projection

Billion tones cement


5
Other developing
4
countries
3 India
2
China
1

0
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Figure 1. Analysis and forecast of cement production until 2050 [2]

Despite the wide range of motivations, a world shortage of cement production faces a
number of challenges such as the abundance of resources, high temperatures during clinkering
process, greenhouse gas emissions in the built environment and demolition of concrete
structures.
The main concern regarding the use of cement is a vast effect on the environment. The
production of Portland cement is responsible for as much as 7% of the total of global CO2
emissions [3]. Interestingly, data compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey confirmed the
relationship between GDP and environmental decay (Fig 2). The trend, known as the
Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) revels the link between human demand for environmental
quality and their economic circumstances [4]. Societies, which are economically deficient, are
more inclined to tolerate environmental degradation in order to advance their economic well-
being. However, with the improvement of their economic well-being a threshold is reached
where environmental issues become valued and prioritised. The Western countries are now in
a position where their stage of economic development is closer to the right hand side of the
graph (Fig 2.) and therefore they are more environmentally cautious.

Figure 2. Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) – relationship between GDP and environmental
decay (adapted from [4])

Hence, an enormous pressure is placed on the cement industry in developed countries to


identify reliable and suitable alternative sources, technologies and energy efficiency measures,
which would lead to reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions.
SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

In order to improve sustainability of Portland cement-based materials and reduce its


environmental impact Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) have been widely used
for a number of decades [5, 6]. SCMs can be defined as materials that, when used in conjunction
with Portland cement, contribute to the properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic
or pozzolanic activity, or both. SCMs include both pozzolans and hydraulic materials and the
most commonly used include fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume,
and natural pozzolans, such as volcanic ash, calcined clay or shale, diatomaceous earth, rice
husk ash.
Application of SCMs in concrete either in blended cements or added separately to the
concrete mixer is a commonly accepted method [5]. Particularly, fly ash from coal combustion
and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) from pig iron production are regarded as a
viable solution to partially substitute Portland cement [6].
The use of by-products not only contributes to cost reduction but to enhancement of concrete
properties in the fresh and hardened states and to increase of service life of concrete structures
[7]. For instance, workability of concrete improves notably by adding GGBS and the water
demand reduces by adding 15 and 20% fly ash [8]. SCMs use up Ca(OH)2, product of cement
hydration, to form more C-S-H and to densify the weak, Ca(OH)2-laden ITZ and to reduce
permeability and diffusion (secondary hydration reactions).
The use of SCMs (GGBS and fly ash) also reduces the total heat of hydration [9]. Moreover,
it has been confirmed that the replacement of cement by SCMs has a positive influence on the
binding capacity [7]. SCMs improve not only the resistance of concrete to chloride ion
penetration (bind chloride ions in aluminate phases) [10], but also limit sulphate attack [11].
SCMs also remove excess of alkalis from pore water (binding alkalis, lower Ca/Si C-S-H) and
prevent Alkali Silicate Reaction (ASR).
The SCMs reactivity depends on the chemistry of cement and SCMs, fineness, Portland
composite systems, water-to-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm), and SCMs replacement level
[8]. Figure 3 shows the position of main SCMs in the CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 ternary diagram
including chemical composition.

Figure 3. Chemical composition of the common SCMs [6]

The interactions between SCMs and cement hydration lead to a complex systems [6]. Many
common SCMs are less reactive then PC clinker resulting in slow reactions with water. In
general, total porosity increases in blended cement systems due to the slow reaction of the
SCMs, particularly at early age [7] and mechanical properties of concrete are negatively
affected.
This slower initial rate of reaction is even more pronounced at high replacement levels and
at lower temperatures (seasonal changes and climate effect). Some of these issues can be
overcome by re-designing mixes to get early age properties, or by use of ternary mixtures—e.g.
Silica fume with slag or ash; or slag mixed with high-alkali Class C fly ash.
However, very often these measures are insufficient and in order to match the pace of
strength development of Portland cement, particularly during the first 14 days, alkali activation
is required. In blended cements, PC clinker is essentially an activator (Ca(OH)2) but it is not an
optimal solution. Clinker component and gypsum are balanced to give optimal rheology and
strength. However, if the other material (SCM) dominates this is no longer optimal solution and
some purpose-designed alkali activator should be used instead.
Since the rates of reaction decrease with decreasing temperature, the replacement levels
often have to change with seasons. And just like cement, all SCMs are not the same so each
type and source needs to be tested.

SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES

Fly Ash Availability and Demand


Availability of SCM as waste materials from other industries plays a critical role in the
design of concrete and use of blended cements, in particular, availability of fly ash as a Coal
Combustion Product (CCP). Although coal demand is expected to steadily decline in Europe,
Canada, the United States and China, it is still expected to increase in India, Southeast Asia and
a few other countries in Asia (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Coal demand in selected countries/regions in 2000, 2017 and 2023 [8]

In many advanced economies a reduction of coal-fired power generation is ongoing, in other


countries a total phase out of coal power is planned over the next few decades [8]. For example
in November 2015 it was announced by the UK Government that all coal fired power stations
would be closed by 2025. The move away from coal in many countries is associated with an
increased use of natural gas, alternative fuels such as nuclear, biomass and increased use of
renewables including wind, solar, hydro and geothermal. Energy production choices and the
speed of transition to alternatives depend significantly on political, economic and geographical
conditions. Changing operating conditions of coal power plants leads to negative impacts on
quality, consistency and availability of fly ash. It should be also noted that the availability of
fly ash may significantly change with the heating season.
Carbon footprint and Alkali activation
The use of SCMs, is commonly associated with a significant reduction of carbon dioxide
emissions from cement industry [9, 10]. Although a carbon footprint of concrete made with
blended cements is reduced, most of SCMs used require some form of alkali activation to speed
up the processes of setting and hardening. Therefore the evaluation of environmental impact
should consider this issue. Indeed, many studies calculate net CO2 savings for alkali activated
binders vs Portland cement. These published values vary significantly from 9 – 97%. The
realistic value is probably between 40-80% in most locations and applications [11]. However,
it should be stressed that about 90% of the calculated environmental footprint is from the
activator. It is particularly valid if sodium silicate is made from Na2CO3 produced in the Solvay
process. Hence, the main current challenges are focused on reduction of CO 2 footprint of the
activator and minimising the activator dose.
The comparison of environmental savings when using alkali activated ground granulated
blast furnace slag in precast concrete in different applications is illustrated on Figure 5.

Figure 5. Assessment of CO2 reduction of alkali-activated concrete [12]

As it can be seen the contribution of CO2 from the cement mixes and the activator is
significant. The application of the alkali activated slag cement can be worthwhile, depending
on the CO2 released during transportation and manufacture of the activator.

Selected Durability Issues


Although SCMs provide many advantages and can improve concrete performance, as
mentioned earlier, they are known for their high susceptibility and sensitivity to the curing
conditions.
Early age shrinkage induced by self-desiccation processes is still a major concern in such
cementitious systems [13]. In an attempt to limit the autogenous shrinkage some form of
internal curing may be required, for example superabsorbent polymers (SAP). SAPs are cross-
linked networks of hydrophilic polymers with the ability to absorb and retain large volumes of
water. Due to its high capacity to provide water-filled cavities in hardened state, SAPs may
facilitate hydration processes and lead to densification of internal structure. The Figure 6
illustrates the effect of three different SAPs on autogenous shrinkage development during 180
days. The graphs refer to fibre reinforced mortars (FRM) containing three binders: CEM I
52.5N (PC) - Hanson Cement (UK), CEM II/B-V 42.5N (PC-FA) - Lafarge (UK) and CEM
III/A 42.5N (PC-GGBS) - Ecocem (Ireland). SAP A, SAP C and SAP E had different water
absorption capacities (WAC) in cement paste solutions: 20 g/g, 25-30 g/g and 30 g/g
respectively. The chemistry of SAP C and E were the same, but polymers had different particle
sizes (E had finer particles). After the initial sharp increase in Autogenous shrinkage (AS) in
all reference samples (Fig 6 a), linear changes are taking place with the diminishing rate. As
expected, the influence of GGBS on AS development was very prominent.

Time [days] (a) Time [days] (b)


0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
0 200
CIF-E

Autog. shrink. (µm/m)


Autog. shrink. (µm/m)

-200 0
CIF-A
CII CIF-C
-200 CIF
-400
CI
-400
CI
-600
-600

-800 CIII
-800

-1000 -1000

Time [days] (c) Time [days] (d)


0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
200 200
CIIF-E
Autog. shrink. (µm/m)

CIIF-A CIIIF-E
Autog. shrink. (µm/m)

0 0
CIIF-C
CIIF CIIIF-A
-200 CIIIF-C
-200
CII
CIIIF
-400 -400

-600 -600

-800 -800 CIII

-1000 -1000

Figure 6. Reduction of AS in different blended cements by application of SAP (a) reference


samples, (b) CEM I, (c) CEM II, and (d) CEM III.

Autogenous shrinkage (AS) in FRM can be completely eliminated by addition of SAPs.


Although AS patterns for corresponding SAP mortars with different binders are almost
identical, the extent of mitigation depends very much on the type of SAP used. SAP
effectiveness depends on the particle sizes. The significant reduction of autogenous shrinkage
was observed in mortars with SAP E with finer particle size. However, water absorption
capacities of SAPs are of lesser importance. The effect of cement type is very limited.

The use of SAPs as internal curing agents leads to changes in kinetics and thermodynamics
of cement hydration due to availability of water [14]. This in turn can contribute to the reduction
of other types of deformations, for example, triggered by plastic shrinkage (PS). As shown in
Fig 7 all SAPs significantly reduce PS average cracking width in all samples. As anticipated,
CEM II mortars had the smallest and CEM III mortars the widest cracks widths. Increased
cement fineness reduces the maximum crack width. The decrease of particle sizes of SAP can
also reduce the crack widths.
0.80

Max average of crack widths (mm)


0.70

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00

IF-A

IF-C

IF-E

IIIF-E
IIF-A

IIF-C

IIF-E

IIIF-A

IIIF-C
I

II
IF

IIF

III

IIIF
Figure 7. Maximum averages of crack widths (mm)

ALTERNATIVE SCMs

In an attempt to develop more sustainable concrete alternative SCMs, locally available waste
materials, should be further investigated. As an example copper slag and mining industry wastes

Copper slag
Copper slag (CS) is an abundant material, which has been researched as a potential cement
replacement [15]. Copper slag is a by-product obtained from production of copper metal, during
the matte smelting and refining of copper. As copper slag contains silica and alumina, it may
exhibit pozzolanic property, and hence it may be re-use in ground improvement applications as
a partial replacement of cement.
The most common use of Copper slag is for abrasive applications such as blasting and
grinding. This industry however cannot utilise the massive quantities in which the CS is
produced. The surplus is regarded as a waste material, and commonly goes to landfill.
One of the most interesting applications of CS is the in the cement and concrete industry.
CS has been investigated as a possible cement replacement due to pozzolanic activity and the
ability to produce cementing properties when combined with alkali activators [16].
Copper slag is regarded as slightly less reactive than GGBS when combined with alkalis [17].
Alkali activated GGBS sets very quickly and often can cause difficulties with placement and
compaction. Application of CS could be an effective way of controlling the setting times of
alkali activated GGBS.

Mining wastes
Mining industry produces large amounts of waste worldwide. Waste from extractive
operations involves materials that must be removed to gain access to the mineral resource, such
as topsoil, overburden and waste rock, as well as tailings remaining after minerals have been
largely extracted from the ore [18].
Some of these wastes are inert and hence not likely to represent a significant pollutant threat
to the environment. However in many cases tailings are stored on heaps or in large ponds,
where they are retained by means of dams. The collapse of dams or heaps may have serious
impacts on environment and human health and safety. Examples of this are the accidents in
Aberfan (Wales, 1966), Stava (Italy, 1985), Aznalcóllar (Spain, 1998), Baia Mare and Baia
Borsa (Romania, 2000) and (Brazil, 2018). These impacts can have lasting environmental and
socio-economic consequences and therefore wastes from the mining industries have to be
properly managed.
New research on application of mining wastes in concrete [19] shows that up to 10% of the
cement in concrete can be replaced by mine tailings. Tailings are the remnants of crushed ore
after extraction of metals and substances. Their utilization could significantly reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases from cement production. Mechanical tests of mine tailings from all over
the world have documented that a large share of the world’s mining waste can be used in
concrete without compromising the strength of concrete. However, chemical properties of the
materials must be evaluated and the environmental pollution risk should be assessed in each
case.
Analyses show that while some mine tailings can be used unprocessed others have to be
treated prior to application in concrete. It is also essential to determine whether heavy metals
may occur in too high concentrations, and whether they could be leached out from concrete if
it comes into contact with water. Pre-treatment of mining wastes may involve methods such as
electrochemical cleaning and electrochemical bath. It is essential to analyse various methods of
treatment and establish any potential economic and environmental gains.
Preliminary estimations reported by [19] show a significant reduction of CO2 emissions even
if mining wastes are transported over long distances.

SUMMARY

The production of concrete based on Portland cement is associated with a release of large
volumes of Carbon Dioxide into the atmosphere and hence is partially responsible for the
climate change. This is due to the fact that the production of concrete incorporates many
intensive processes, which can cause long term environmental decay:
• Transport emissions;
• High energy demand of the rotary kiln;
• De-calcination of limestone;
• Crushing operations used to prepare solid materials.
Emissions from transport are considerable as sand, stone and water has to be transported to
the processing plant or construction site. Cement clinker manufacture requires a very high
temperature when it is produced, this involves burning fossil fuels. The kiln also releases large
volumes of CO2 as the crushed limestone is heated in order to drive off the CO2 from the stone
(De-calcination) which forms Calcium Oxide (CaO), one of the main constituents of cement.
Crushing operations lead to even more energy consumption.
The cement industry is currently facing a major challenge to develop and adopt new
measures necessary for low-carbon production and a carbon-neutral built environment.
Decarbonisation of the global cement industry may require [20]
• The use of alternative raw materials and fuels to reduce the generation of CO2
(environmental impact assessment should include all materials used, for example alkali
activators)
• The use of waste heat recovery systems and clean energy, such as solar and wind power, to
cut the consumption of fossil energy;
• Innovation and management optimisation in process, technology, and equipment to lower
the energy consumption per unit production;
• The adoption of carbon capture technology to recycle CO2;
• The promotion of using high-grade cement, special cement, ready-mixed concrete, and
cement products to reduce cement production and cut carbon intensity.
It is most likely that the combination of the above methods and different designs for different
applications may solve the problem. The “prescribed design” of concrete should be more often
replaced the “performance based design”. This is due to a variety of differences worldwide
including:
• Differences in geology and availability of mineral resources;
• Differences in climate and hence different service conditions;
• Differences in economic development - development level, repair priorities and societal
acceptance.
Hence the role of research and development in improvement of cement sustainability is
invaluable.

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