16) Klemm A.J. Et Al 2019 Supplementary Cementitous Materials and Their Impact On Sustainable Construction
16) Klemm A.J. Et Al 2019 Supplementary Cementitous Materials and Their Impact On Sustainable Construction
Published in:
Brittle Matrix Composites 12 - Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites,
BMC 2019
Publication date:
2019
Document Version
Author accepted manuscript
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ABSTRACT
As the construction sector is incessantly challenged by the growing societal demands for safer and cost-
effective infrastructures, more and more environmentally-friendly products and processes have to be developed
and adopted into industrial practice.
Although cementitious materials are one of the most commonly used construction materials worldwide, there
are still some major concerns about their sustainability and durability. Firstly, the production of concrete is
releasing large volumes of Carbon Dioxide into the atmosphere, one of the Greenhouse Gases attributable to the
climate change. Secondly, even though cementitious materials are very versatile and robust they may suffer from
various deteriorative processes, leading to shortened service life, and in consequence, to intrusive/expensive costs
for maintenance and repair.
To meet the expectations of consumers, demanding more durable, less labour and service intensive materials
at a competitive price, numerous new composite materials and technologies have been developed over the last
couple of decades including blended cements with Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM). This paper
provides a brief overview of the current situation, underlines environmental impact of these new materials and
processes, and suggest some solutions for the future of construction practice. It is argued that the role of further
research is critical not only in development of sustainable concrete but also in contribution to the global sustainable
development.
Keywords
Sustainability of cementitious materials, Supplementary Cementitious Materials, Alkali
activation, Internal curing, Copper slag, Mining wastes
Due to their versatility and robustness concrete and mortars based on Portland cement (PC)
are the most consumed materials in buildings and infrastructure. The world cement production
is growing annually and it reached 4.1 billion tonnes in 2018 [1]. This massive production of
Portland cement (PC) has a major impact on the environment and the wider social and economic
aspects. These, in turn result from the general availability of constituents, career opportunities,
commonly accessible cement production, affordability, ability to be easily moulded into any
form, mechanical and physical characteristics, as well as its long service life of concrete
structures. It is expected that the rate of the global population, especially in developing
countries, will continue to increase. This major demographic shift will increase future cement
demand. Figure 1 illustrates the predicted increase in cement production until 2015.
6
Projection
0
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Despite the wide range of motivations, a world shortage of cement production faces a
number of challenges such as the abundance of resources, high temperatures during clinkering
process, greenhouse gas emissions in the built environment and demolition of concrete
structures.
The main concern regarding the use of cement is a vast effect on the environment. The
production of Portland cement is responsible for as much as 7% of the total of global CO2
emissions [3]. Interestingly, data compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey confirmed the
relationship between GDP and environmental decay (Fig 2). The trend, known as the
Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) revels the link between human demand for environmental
quality and their economic circumstances [4]. Societies, which are economically deficient, are
more inclined to tolerate environmental degradation in order to advance their economic well-
being. However, with the improvement of their economic well-being a threshold is reached
where environmental issues become valued and prioritised. The Western countries are now in
a position where their stage of economic development is closer to the right hand side of the
graph (Fig 2.) and therefore they are more environmentally cautious.
Figure 2. Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) – relationship between GDP and environmental
decay (adapted from [4])
The interactions between SCMs and cement hydration lead to a complex systems [6]. Many
common SCMs are less reactive then PC clinker resulting in slow reactions with water. In
general, total porosity increases in blended cement systems due to the slow reaction of the
SCMs, particularly at early age [7] and mechanical properties of concrete are negatively
affected.
This slower initial rate of reaction is even more pronounced at high replacement levels and
at lower temperatures (seasonal changes and climate effect). Some of these issues can be
overcome by re-designing mixes to get early age properties, or by use of ternary mixtures—e.g.
Silica fume with slag or ash; or slag mixed with high-alkali Class C fly ash.
However, very often these measures are insufficient and in order to match the pace of
strength development of Portland cement, particularly during the first 14 days, alkali activation
is required. In blended cements, PC clinker is essentially an activator (Ca(OH)2) but it is not an
optimal solution. Clinker component and gypsum are balanced to give optimal rheology and
strength. However, if the other material (SCM) dominates this is no longer optimal solution and
some purpose-designed alkali activator should be used instead.
Since the rates of reaction decrease with decreasing temperature, the replacement levels
often have to change with seasons. And just like cement, all SCMs are not the same so each
type and source needs to be tested.
SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES
Figure 4. Coal demand in selected countries/regions in 2000, 2017 and 2023 [8]
As it can be seen the contribution of CO2 from the cement mixes and the activator is
significant. The application of the alkali activated slag cement can be worthwhile, depending
on the CO2 released during transportation and manufacture of the activator.
-200 0
CIF-A
CII CIF-C
-200 CIF
-400
CI
-400
CI
-600
-600
-800 CIII
-800
-1000 -1000
CIIF-A CIIIF-E
Autog. shrink. (µm/m)
0 0
CIIF-C
CIIF CIIIF-A
-200 CIIIF-C
-200
CII
CIIIF
-400 -400
-600 -600
-1000 -1000
The use of SAPs as internal curing agents leads to changes in kinetics and thermodynamics
of cement hydration due to availability of water [14]. This in turn can contribute to the reduction
of other types of deformations, for example, triggered by plastic shrinkage (PS). As shown in
Fig 7 all SAPs significantly reduce PS average cracking width in all samples. As anticipated,
CEM II mortars had the smallest and CEM III mortars the widest cracks widths. Increased
cement fineness reduces the maximum crack width. The decrease of particle sizes of SAP can
also reduce the crack widths.
0.80
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
IF-A
IF-C
IF-E
IIIF-E
IIF-A
IIF-C
IIF-E
IIIF-A
IIIF-C
I
II
IF
IIF
III
IIIF
Figure 7. Maximum averages of crack widths (mm)
ALTERNATIVE SCMs
In an attempt to develop more sustainable concrete alternative SCMs, locally available waste
materials, should be further investigated. As an example copper slag and mining industry wastes
Copper slag
Copper slag (CS) is an abundant material, which has been researched as a potential cement
replacement [15]. Copper slag is a by-product obtained from production of copper metal, during
the matte smelting and refining of copper. As copper slag contains silica and alumina, it may
exhibit pozzolanic property, and hence it may be re-use in ground improvement applications as
a partial replacement of cement.
The most common use of Copper slag is for abrasive applications such as blasting and
grinding. This industry however cannot utilise the massive quantities in which the CS is
produced. The surplus is regarded as a waste material, and commonly goes to landfill.
One of the most interesting applications of CS is the in the cement and concrete industry.
CS has been investigated as a possible cement replacement due to pozzolanic activity and the
ability to produce cementing properties when combined with alkali activators [16].
Copper slag is regarded as slightly less reactive than GGBS when combined with alkalis [17].
Alkali activated GGBS sets very quickly and often can cause difficulties with placement and
compaction. Application of CS could be an effective way of controlling the setting times of
alkali activated GGBS.
Mining wastes
Mining industry produces large amounts of waste worldwide. Waste from extractive
operations involves materials that must be removed to gain access to the mineral resource, such
as topsoil, overburden and waste rock, as well as tailings remaining after minerals have been
largely extracted from the ore [18].
Some of these wastes are inert and hence not likely to represent a significant pollutant threat
to the environment. However in many cases tailings are stored on heaps or in large ponds,
where they are retained by means of dams. The collapse of dams or heaps may have serious
impacts on environment and human health and safety. Examples of this are the accidents in
Aberfan (Wales, 1966), Stava (Italy, 1985), Aznalcóllar (Spain, 1998), Baia Mare and Baia
Borsa (Romania, 2000) and (Brazil, 2018). These impacts can have lasting environmental and
socio-economic consequences and therefore wastes from the mining industries have to be
properly managed.
New research on application of mining wastes in concrete [19] shows that up to 10% of the
cement in concrete can be replaced by mine tailings. Tailings are the remnants of crushed ore
after extraction of metals and substances. Their utilization could significantly reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases from cement production. Mechanical tests of mine tailings from all over
the world have documented that a large share of the world’s mining waste can be used in
concrete without compromising the strength of concrete. However, chemical properties of the
materials must be evaluated and the environmental pollution risk should be assessed in each
case.
Analyses show that while some mine tailings can be used unprocessed others have to be
treated prior to application in concrete. It is also essential to determine whether heavy metals
may occur in too high concentrations, and whether they could be leached out from concrete if
it comes into contact with water. Pre-treatment of mining wastes may involve methods such as
electrochemical cleaning and electrochemical bath. It is essential to analyse various methods of
treatment and establish any potential economic and environmental gains.
Preliminary estimations reported by [19] show a significant reduction of CO2 emissions even
if mining wastes are transported over long distances.
SUMMARY
The production of concrete based on Portland cement is associated with a release of large
volumes of Carbon Dioxide into the atmosphere and hence is partially responsible for the
climate change. This is due to the fact that the production of concrete incorporates many
intensive processes, which can cause long term environmental decay:
• Transport emissions;
• High energy demand of the rotary kiln;
• De-calcination of limestone;
• Crushing operations used to prepare solid materials.
Emissions from transport are considerable as sand, stone and water has to be transported to
the processing plant or construction site. Cement clinker manufacture requires a very high
temperature when it is produced, this involves burning fossil fuels. The kiln also releases large
volumes of CO2 as the crushed limestone is heated in order to drive off the CO2 from the stone
(De-calcination) which forms Calcium Oxide (CaO), one of the main constituents of cement.
Crushing operations lead to even more energy consumption.
The cement industry is currently facing a major challenge to develop and adopt new
measures necessary for low-carbon production and a carbon-neutral built environment.
Decarbonisation of the global cement industry may require [20]
• The use of alternative raw materials and fuels to reduce the generation of CO2
(environmental impact assessment should include all materials used, for example alkali
activators)
• The use of waste heat recovery systems and clean energy, such as solar and wind power, to
cut the consumption of fossil energy;
• Innovation and management optimisation in process, technology, and equipment to lower
the energy consumption per unit production;
• The adoption of carbon capture technology to recycle CO2;
• The promotion of using high-grade cement, special cement, ready-mixed concrete, and
cement products to reduce cement production and cut carbon intensity.
It is most likely that the combination of the above methods and different designs for different
applications may solve the problem. The “prescribed design” of concrete should be more often
replaced the “performance based design”. This is due to a variety of differences worldwide
including:
• Differences in geology and availability of mineral resources;
• Differences in climate and hence different service conditions;
• Differences in economic development - development level, repair priorities and societal
acceptance.
Hence the role of research and development in improvement of cement sustainability is
invaluable.
REFERENCES