15 Engine power and control

Instruments

The power of an engine refers to the amount of thrust available for

propulsion, and depending upon the type of engine, i.e. piston or
turbine, it is expressed as power ratings in units of brake or shaft
horsepower, or of thrust developed at an exhaust unit. Power ratings
of each of the various types of engine are determined, together with
operational limitations, during the test-bed calibration runs conducted
by the manufacturers for various operating conditions such as take-
off, climb, normal cruise, emergency and contingency.
The parameters associated with engine power ratings, and which
must be monitored by appropriate instrumentation, are listed in Table
15.1.

RPM measurement The measurement of engine speed in terms of revolutions per minute
is relevant to the three main types of engine and, with the exception
of a simple type of unsupercharged piston engine, it is related to the
other parameters involved in power control. The power of an
unsupercharged engine is directly related to its speed, and so with the
throttle at a corresponding operational setting, an rpm indicator
system can also serve as a power indicator.
Indicating systems, also generally referred to as tachometers, are of
the electrical type and fall into two main categories: (i) generator and
indicator, and (ii) tac ho probe and indicator.
Table 15. I Power rating parameter,

Paramerer Typt of EnHlnt

Plswn Turblnt Turboprop

Vnsuptrcharged Suptrchar//ed

Rpm X X X X
Manifold pressure X
Torque X X
Exhaust gas temperature X X
Pressure ratio X
Fuel now X X

347
Generator and indicator system
A generator is of the ac type, consisting of a permanent magnet rotor
rotating within a slotted stator which carries a star-connected three-
phase winding. The rotor may be of either two-pole or four-pole
construction, and is driven by a splined shaft coupling; the generator
is bolted directly to a mounting pad at the appropriate accessories
drive gear outlet of an engine. In order to limit the mechanical loads
on generators, the operating speed of rotors is reduced by means of
either 4: I or 2:1 ratio gears in the engine drive system.
Two- or four-pole-type generators are utilized in conjunction with a
three-phase synchronous motor within the indicator. For the operation
of servo-operated indicators, the display of data by electronic CRT
indicators, and for supplying signals to automatic power control
systems, the appropriate data signals are supplied from generators
having 12-pole rotors; these produce a single-phase output at a much
higher frequency and sensitivity.
A typical indicator consists of two interconnected elements, a
driving element and a speed-indicating element. The driving element
is a synchronous motor having a star-connected three-phase stator
winding, and a rotor which is so constructed that the motor has the
self-starting and high torque characteristics of a squirrel-cage motor,
combined with self-synchronous properties of a permanent magnet
type of motor.
The speed-indicating element consists of a permanent magnet device
which operates on the eddy-current drag principle, and as indicated in
Fig. 15.1 it may utilize either a drag cup or a drag disc. In the
former version, the magnet is inserted into a drum so that a small
airgap is left between the periphery of the magnet and drum. The
drag cup is mounted on a shaft and is supported in such a way that it
fits over the magnet rotor to reduce the airgap to a minimum. A
calibrated hairspring is attached to one end of the drag cup shaft, and
at the other end to the mechanism frame. At the front end of the
shaft, a gear train is coupled to two concentrically-mounted pointers;
a large one indicating hundreds and a small one indicating thousands
of rpm.

System operation
As the generator rotor is driven round inside its stator, the poles
sweep past each stator winding in succession so that three waves or
phases of alternating emf are generated, the waves being 120° apart.
The magnitude of the emf induced depends on the strength of the
magnet and the number of turns comprising the phase coils.
Furthermore, as each coil is passed by a pair of rotor poles, the
induced emf completes one cycle at a frequency determined by the
rotational speed of the rotor. Therefore, rotor speed and frequency
Figure J5. 1 Principle of a
generator and indicator system.

PERMANENT-MAGNET
ROTOR

DRAG DISC
MAGNET PAIRS

TEMPERATUIIE
COMPENSATOR
SPACERS {3)

are directly proportional, and since the rotor is driven by the engine
at some fixed ratio, then the frequency is a measure of the engine
speed.
The generator emfs are supplied to the corresponding phase coils of
the indicator stator to produce currents of a magnitude and direction
dependent on the emfs. The distribution of stator currents produces a
resultant magnetic field which rotates at a. speed dependent on the
generator frequency. As the field rotates it cuts through the bars of
the squirrel-cage rotor, inducing a current in them which, in turn,
sets up a magnetic field around each bar. The reaction of these fields
with the main rotating field produces a torque on the rotor causing it
349
 to rotate in the same direction as the main field and at the same
speed.
As the rotor rotates it drives the permanent magnet of the speed-
indicating unit, and because of relative motion between the magnet
and the drag cup. eddy currents are induced in the latter. These
currents create a magnetic field which reacts with that of the
permanent magnet, and since there is always a tendency to oppose
the creation of induced currents (Lenz's law), the torque reaction of
the fields causes the drag cup to be continuously rotated in the same
direction as the magnet. However, this rotation is restricted by the
calibrated hairspring in such a manner that the cup will move to a
position at which the eddy-current drag torque is balanced by the
tension of the spring. The resulting movement of the drag cup shaft
and gear train thus positions the pointers over the dial to indicate the
engine speed prevailing at that instant.
Indicators are compensated for the effects of temperature on the
permanent magnet of the speed-indicating element by a thermo-
magnetic shunt. device fitted adjacent to the magnet.
The drag disc version of the speed-indicating element consists of
six pairs of small permanent magnets mounted on plates bolted
together in such a way that the magnets are directly opposite each
other with a small airgap between pole faces to accommodate the
disc. Rotation of the disc as a result of eddy-current rlrag is
transmitted to the pointers in a similar manner to that already
described.

Percentage rpm indicators

The measurement of engine speed in terms of a percentage is adopted
for turbine engirie operation, and was introduced so that various types
of engine could be operated on the same basis of comparison. The
dial presentations of two representative indicators are shown in Fig.
15.2. The main scales are calibrated from O to 100 per cent in 10 per
cent increments, with 100 per cent corresponding to the optimum
turbine speed. In order to achieve this the engine manufacturer
chooses a ratio be~ween the actual turbine speed and the generator
drive so that optimum speed produces a specific value at the
generator drive. A second pointer or digital counter displays speed in
one per cent increments.

F/guN 15. 2 Percentage rpm

indicators.

350
 Servo-operated indicators
A schematic diagram of the internal circuit arrangement of a typical
indicator is shown in Fig. 15.3, and its modular construction is
illustrated in Fig. 15.4; it is used in conjunction with an ac generator.
The generator signals are first converted to a square waveform by
a squaring amplifier within the signal-processing module, and in
order to obtain suitable positive and negative triggering pulses for
each half-cycle of the waveform, it is differentiated by a signal-
shaping circuit. The pulses pass through a monostable which then
produces a train of pulses of constant amplitude and width, and at
twice the frequency of the generator signal. In order to derive the
voltage signal to run the de motor to what is termed the demand
speed condition, the monostable output is supplied to an integrator via
a buffer amplifier.
The demand signal from the integrator is then applied to a sensing
network in a servo amplifier and monitor module, where it is
compared with a de output from the wiper of a position feedback
potentiometer. Since the wiper is geared to the main pointer of the
indicator, its output therefore represents indicated speed. Any
difference between the demand speed and indicated speed results in
an error signal which is supplied to the input and output stages of the
Figure /5.3 Servo-operated servo amplifier, and then to the armature winding of the motoi;; the
indicator. indicator pointer and digital counter are then driven to the demanded
speed position. At the same time, the feedback potentiometer wiper is
also repositioned to provide a feedback voltage to back-off the

fl> SIGAA!. SOOAAlNG

~ BUfFER
~ SERVO ORM!
~ FUO!IACK 0UfFER
3% MECHMICAI. lllllVE

351
Figure I 5. 4 Construction of a
servo-operated indicator.

demanded speed signal until the error signal is zero; at this point, the
indicator will then display the demanded speed.
The output voltage from the servo amplifier input stage is also fed
to a servo loop monitor, the purpose of which· is to detect any failure
of the servo circuit to back-off the error signal voltage. In the event
of such failure, the monitor functions as an 'on-off switch, and in
the 'off state it de-energizes a solenoid-controlled warning flag which
appears across the. digital counter display.
An overspeed pointer is also fitted concentrically with the main
pointer, and is initially positioned at the appropriate scale graduation.
If the main pointer exceeds this position, the limit pointer is carrieci
with it. When the speed has been reduced the main pointer will move
correspondingly, but the limit pointer will remain at the maximum
speed reached since it is under the control of a ratchet mechanism. It
can be returned to its initial position by applying a separately
switched 28 V de supply to a reset solenoid within the indicator.

Tacho probe and indicator system

This system has the advantage of providing a number of separate
electrical outputs additional to those required for sf>eed indication,
e.g. automatic power control and flight data acquisition systems.
Figure 15.5 Tacho probe. POI.E PIECE COILS MAGNET ELECTRICAi. CONNECTOII

AXIS OF POLARIZATION

Furthermore, and as will be noted from Fig. 15.5, it has the

advantage that there are no moving parts for subjection to high
rotational loads.
The stainless steel, hermetically-sealed probe comprises a
permanent magnet, a pole piece, and a number of cupro-nickel or
nickel-chromium coils around a ferromagnetic core. Separate
windings (from five to seven depending on the type and application
of a probe) provide outputs to the indicator and other processing units
requiring engine speed data. The probe is flange-mounted on an
engine at a station in the high-pressure compressor section so that it
extends into this section. In some turbofan engines, a probe may also
be mounted at the fan section for measuring fan speed. When in
position, the pole pieces are in close proximity to the teeth of a gear
wheel (sometimes referred to as a 'phonic wheel') which is driven at
the same speed as the compressor shaft or fan shaft as appropriate.
To ensure correct orientation of the probe, a locating plug is provided
in the mounting flange.
The permanent magnet produces a magnetic field around the
sensing coils, and as the gear wheel teeth pass the pole pieces, the
intensity of flux through each pole varies inversely with the width of
the air gap between poles and gear wheel teeth. As the flux density
353
Figure 15.6 DC torque motor
tachometer.

14 \I DC

changes, an emf is induced in the sensing coils, the amplitude of the

emf varying with the rate of flux density change. Thus, in taking the
position shown in Fig.· 15.5 as the starting position, maximum
intensity would occur, but the rate of density change .would be zero,
and so the induced emf would be at zero amplitude.
When the gear teeth move from this position, the flux density
first begins to decrease, reaching a maximum rate of change and
thereby inducing an emf of maximum amplitude. At the position in
which the pole pieces align with the 'valleys' between gear teeth, the
flux density will be at a maximum, and because the rate of change is
zero the emf is of zero amplitude. The flux density will again
increase as the next gear teeth align with the pole pieces, the
amplitude of the induced emf reaching a maximum ccincident with
the greatest rate of flux density change. The probe and gear teeth
may therefore be considered as a magnetic flux switch that induces
emfs directly proportional to the gear wheel and compressor or fan
shaft speed.
Figure 15.6 illustrates an example of indicator circuit used in a
tacho probe system. The probe output signals pass through a signal-
processing module and are summed with an output from a servo
potentiometer and a buffer amplifier. After summation the signal
passes through a servo amplifier to the torquer motor which then
rotates the pointer to indicate the change in probe signals in terms of
speed. The servo potentiometer is supplied with a reference voltage,
and gi::i.ce its wiper is also positioned by the motor, the potentiometer
will control the summation of signals to the servo amplifier to ensure
signal balancing at the various constant speed conditions, In the event
of a power s upply or signal failure, the pointer of the indicator is
returned to an 'off-scale' position under the action of a pre-loaded
helical spring.
In some the torquer motor is of the ac which
drives a digital counter in addition to the pointer. Indication of power
failure also differs in that a flag is energized to obscure the counter
display.

Manifold pressure indicators

These indicators, colloquially termed 'boost gauges', are of the
direct-reading type and are calibrated to measure absolute pressure in
inches of mercury, such pressure being representative of that
produced at the induction manifold of a supercharged piston engine.
Before considering a typical example, it is useful to have a brief
understanding of the principle of supercharging.
The power output of an internal combustion engine depends on the
density of the combustible mixture of fuel and air introduced into its
cylinders at that part of the operating cycle known as the induction
stroke. On this stroke, the piston moves down the cylinder, an inlet
valve opens, and the fuel/air mixture, or charge prepared by the
carburettor, enters the cylinder as a result of a pressure difference
acting across it during the stroke. If, for example, an engine is
running in atmospheric conditions corresponding to the standard sea-
level pressure of 14.7 lbf/in 2 , and the cylinder pressure is reduced to,
say, 2 lbf/in2, then the pressure difference is 12.7 lbf/in 2 , and it is
this pressure difference that 'pushes' the charge into the cylinder.
An engine in which the charge is induced in this manner is said to
be normally aspirated; its outstanding characteristic is that the power
it develops steadily falls off with decrease of atmospheric pressure.
This may be understood by considering a second example in which it
is assumed that the engine is operating at an altitude of 10 000 ft. At
this altitude, the atmospheric pressure is reduced by an amount which
is about a third of the sea-level value, and on each induction stroke
the cylinder pressures will decrease in roughly the same proportion.
We thus have a pressure of about 10 lbf/in2 surrounding the engine
and 1.5 lbf/in2 in each cylinder, leaving us with a little more than 8.5
lbf/in2 with which to 'push' in the useful charge. This means then
that at IO 000 ft only a third of the required charge gets into the
cylinders, and since power is governed by the quantity of charge, we
can only expect a third of the power developed at sea-level.
This limitation on the high-altitude performance of a normally-
aspirated engine can be overcome by artificially increasing the
available pressure so as to maintain as far as possible a sea-level
value in the induction system. The process of increasing pressure and
charge density is known as supercharging or boosting, and the device
employed is, in effect, an elaborate form of centrifugal air pump
fitted betwen the carburettor and cylinders and driven from the engine
crankshaft through step-up gearing. It pumps by giving the air a very
high velocity, which is gradually reduced as it passes through diffuser
355
Figure 15. 7 Principle of 30
manifold pressure indicator.
25 35

SEALED SPRING -
LOADED BELLOWS

Manifold pressure

vanes and a volute, the reduction in speed giving the required

increase in pressure.
In order to measure the pressure delivered by the supercharger and
so obtain an indication of engine power, it is necessary to have an
instrument which indicates absolute pressure. The mechanism of a
typical indicator is schematically illustrated in Fig. 15. 7. The
measuring element is made up of two bellows, one open to the
induction manifold and the other evacuated and sealed. A controlling
spring is fitted inside the sealed bellows and distension of both
bellows is transmitted to the pointer via a lever, quadrant and pinion
mechanism. A filter is located at the inlet to open the bellows, where
there is also a restriction to smooth out any pressure surges.
When pressure is admitted to the open bellows the latter expands
 causing the pointer to move over the scde (calibrated in inches of
mercury) and so indicate a change in pressure from the standard sea-
level value of 29.92 (zero 'boost'). With increasing altitude, there is
a tendency for the bellows to expand a little too far because the
decrease in atmospheric pressure acting on the outside of the bellows
offers less opposition. However, this tendency is counteracted by the
sealed bellows, which also senses the change in atmospheric pressure
but expands in the opposite direction. Thus a condition is reached at
which the forces acting on each bellows are equal, cancelling out the
effects of atmospheric pressure so that manifold pressure is measured
directly against the spring.

Torque monitoring
The monitoring of torque relates particularly to the power control of
certain types of piston engines, to turbopropeller engines, and also to
the control of engines in some types of helicopter. In all cases it
involves the use of a torquemeter which is essentially an engine
component, and is normally built in with the gear transmission
assembly between the main drive shaft and the propeller shaft or the
main rotor shaft in respect of a helicopter. The construction of
torquemeters depends on the type of engine, but in most ca~::s they
are of hydro-mechanical form, operating on the principle wh::reby
any tendency for some part of the gear transmission to rotate is
resisted by pistons working in hydraulic cylinders secured to the ge~r
casing. The principle as applied to a piston engine is shown in Fig.
15.8.
Oil, which is supplied from the engine lubricating system to the

Figure 15.8 Torquemeter

principle.

STATIONARY
RING GEAR

''...)==::!.!========::::::=J
DIRECTION IN WHICH RING
GEAR TENDS TO ROTATE·

- ::ff: Of CRANKSHAFT
01RECTlON Of PROPEUER
---- SHAFT ROTATION

357
Figure I 5. 9 Electrical type of
torque-indicating system.
l Power shaft, 2 sleeve,
~I= J. - ----·· •2-il~•1
..JlJUlJL .._- -i
I
3 sensor, 4 notched wheel,
5 toothed wheel. 6 sleeve.
Roror
I
end

2 6

•2 e1 •2 e

~
Low ... /'\...ll..A.
ror<1ue ( ~ \ (
-m..,..High
~ \ rorque
I I I
, -•- I I-·- I

\ , ... ___I .... , ,' \ I

' ' ..... ___, , ,
/
' /

cylinders via a torquemeter pump, absorbs any loads due to

movement of the pistons. The oil is thus subjected to pressures which
are proportional to the applied loads or torques, and are transmitted
to the torque pressure-indicating system which is normally of the
synchronous transmission type.
The power, in this case brake horsepower (bhp), is calculated from
the formula

bhp == pNIK

where p is the oil pressure, N the engine speed (rev/min) and K is a

torquemeter constant derived from the reduction ratio between engine
and propeller shaft gearing, length of torque arm, and number and
area of pistons.
Turbopropeller engines are, as far as power is concerned, similar
to large supercharged piston engines: most of the propulsive force is
produced by the propeller, only a very small part being derived from
the exhaust unit thrust. They are, therefore, fitted with a torquemeter
and pressure-indicating system of which the readings are an indication
of the shaft horsepower (shp). The torquemeter pressure indicator is
used in conjunction with the rpm and exhaust gas temperature
indicators.
Figure 15.9 schematically illustrates an electrical torque-indicating
system which is used in one type of helicopter currently in service
for measuring the torsion of the main power shaft in relation to the
effects of engine torque and the drive resistance set up by the main
rotor. The torquemeter consists of two wheels: one wheel is notched
and is attached at the engine end of the power shaft by a sleeve, and
358
 it interfaces with teeth on the second wheel which is also attached by
a sleeve at the rotor end of the power shaft. An electromagnetic
sensor is mounted in close proximity to the peripheries of both
wheels.
Under operating conditions, there is opposition between engine
torque and main rotor drive resistance, resulting in torsion of the
power shaft. This, in turn, results in relative displacement of the two
wheels and variation in the gap widths e 1 and e2 between teeth and
notches. As the gaps pass the sensor unit they cause variations in its
magnetic field which induce signal pulses the shape of which
represent gap width and, therefore, the torque. The signals are
transmitted to the signal processor unit which then produces a de
voltage signal proportional to the torque. After amplification, the
signal is supplied to the indicator for the purpose of driving its motor
and pointer drive mechanism.

Exhaust gas The measurement of exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is based on the
temperature thermo-emf principle already described in Chapter 13 (see page 320),
and requires the use of chromel/alumel thermocouple probes
immersed in the gas stream at the selected points appropriate to the
type of engine.

Types of probe
Probes are generally classified as stagnation and rapid response, their
application depending upon the velocity of gases. In pure jet engines
the gas velocities are high, and for this reason stagnation-type probes
as indicated in Fig. 15. lO(a) are employed. The gas entry and exit
holes, usually called sampling holes, are staggered and of unequal
size, thus slowing up the gases and causing them to stagnate at the
hot junction, thus giving it time to respond to changes in temperature.
Rapid-response thermocouple probes are normally adopted in the
EGT systems of turbopropeller engines since their exhaust gas
velocities are lower. As can be seen from (b) of Fig. 15.10, the
sampling holes are diametrically opposite each other and of equal
size; the gases can, therefore, flow directly over the hot junction
enabling it to respond more rapidly.
Typical response times for stagnation and rapid-response probes are
1-2 sec and 0.5-1 sec respectively.
Probes may also be designed to contain double, triple, and in some
cases up to eight hot junctions within a single probe. A triple
arrangement is shown in Fig. 15. lO(c). The purpose of such multi-
arrangements is to provide signals to other systems requiring exhaust
gas temperature d.ata. The thermocouple elements are insulated from
359
Figure 15.10 Types of
thermocouple probe.
(a) Stagnation; (b) rapid
response; (c) triple-element.
(a)

(b)

each other and maintained in position by a special compound

material, e.g. compacted magnesium oxide.
When the hot junctions of immersion-type probes are in contact
with the gas stream, then not only will the stream velocity be
reduced, but also the gas will be compressed by the expenditure of
kinetic energy, resulting in an increase of hot-junction temperature. It
is in this connection that the term recovery factor is used, defining
the proportion of kinetic energy of the gas recovered when it makes
contact with the hot junction. This factor is, of course, taken into
account in the design of thermocouples so that the 'heat transfer', as
we may call it, makes the final reading as nearly as possible a true
indication to total gas temperature.

Location of probes
The points -at which the gas temperature is to be measured are of
great importance, since they will determine the accuracy with which
measured temperature can be related to engine performance. The
ideal location is either at the turbine blades themselves, or at the
turbine entry, but certain practical difficulties are involved which
preclude the application of thermocouple probes at these locations.
Consequently, probes are installed at such locations as exhaust units,
Figure 15. /J Probe locations.

Location

(b) HP Turbine LP Turbine

as at (a) of Fig. 15 .11, between high and low pressure turbines as at

(b), or in some engines at the leading edge of stator guide vanes
between turbine stages.
For accurate measurement it is necessary to sample temperatures
from a number of points evenly distributed over a cross-section of the
gas flow. This is because temperature differences can exist in various
zones or layers of the flow through the turbine section and exhaust
361
Figure 15./2 Probe grouping. Steel tube

..,...,,.__ _ Long-reach Main junction

box

(a) (b)

unit, and so measurement at one point only would not be truly

representative of the conditions prevailing.
A measuring system, therefore, always consists of a group of
thermocouple probes suitably disposed in the gas flow, and connected
in parallel so as to measure a good average temperature condition.
The probes in a group may contain a single hot junction, or pairs of
junctions referred to as short reach and long reach from the extent to
which they reach into the gas stream; an example is shown in Fig.
15.12(a).
Probes and their chrome! and alumel cables are made up into a
harness assembly of a design appropriate to the type of engine and
number of probes required. An eight-probe arrangement comprising
16 hot junctions is shown at (b) of Fig. 15.12. The cables pass
through steel tubing and terminate at a main junction box which
serves as the 'take-off' point for the connection of indicators and
other units requiring EGT data. Terminal studs of junction boxes are
also made of chromel and alumel and, in order to ensure correct
polarity of cable connections, the diameters of alumel studs are large1
than those of the chromel studs.

Indicators
Depending on the instrumentation configurations adopted for a
particular type of aircraft, the indication of EGT, as in the case of
other power and control parameters, may be provided by servo-
operated indicators or by electronic display methods. The modular
362
 arrangement of one type of servo-operated indicator is illustrated in
Fig. 15. l3(a).
The output from the thermocouple probes is supplied first to a
cold junction reference bridge circuit, the purpose of which is to
compensate for changes in ambient temperature of the indicator. The
circuit is shown in more detail in diagram (b). The thermocouple
harness and cables are connected to copper leads which are embedded
in close proximity to each other within a former which supports a
copper coil resistor R4 ; thus, together they form the effective cold
junction of the system. The bridge circuit is supplied with 7 V de
from a stabilized reference supply module within the indicator, and
the bridge output is supplied to a servo amplifier.
As we have already learned, the standard values of emf produced
by a thermocouple are related to a selected value of cold junction
temperature (see page 322). In this case, the bridge circuit is adjusted
by means of a variable resistor RV 1 so that an emf of the correct
sense and magnitude is injected in series with that of the
thermocouples such that, in combination, the emf is equal to that
which would be obtained if the cold junction temperature were OOC.
Since the ambient temperature of the indicator, and hence the cold
junction, will in the normal operating environment always be higher
than this, then the temperature difference will reduce the
thermocouple output. The resistor R 1 will, however, also be subjected
to the higher ambient temperature, but because under such conditions
the resistance of R 1 decreases, it will modify the bridge circuit
conditions so as to restore the combined emf output to the standard
value corresponding to a cold junction temperature of 0°C.
The output is termed the demand EGT signal and is compared with
a de output from the wiper of a positional fee,dback potentiometer,
and since the wiper is geared to the main pointer and digital counter
of the indicator, t.hen the de output which is fed back to the cold
junction reference circuit represents the indicated EGT. Any
difference between demanded and indicated EGTs results in an error
signal being produced by the reference circuit which then supplies the
signal to the servo amplifier as shown in (a) of Fig. 15.13. The
amplifier output is fed to the armature winding of the de servomotor
which then drives the pointer and digital counter, causing them to
display a coarse and fine indication respectively of the EGT. The
feedback potentiometer wiper is also repositioned to provide a
feedback voltage which backs-off the demanded temperature signal
until the error signal is zero; at this point the indicator will then
display the demanded temperature.
The output voltage from one stage of the servo amplifier is also fed
to a servo loop monitor, the purpose of which is to detect any failure
of the loop to back-off the error signal voltage. Should such failure
·occur, the monitor functions as an 'on-off switch, and in the 'off
363
 Figure 15.13 Servo-operated
EGT indicator.

OVER-TEMPERATURE
WARNING LIGHT
I
OVER· TEMPERATURE LIMIT
/POINTER

THERMOCOUPLE
SIGNAL

LAMP SUPPLY '

28V {
o.c.
TEST SUPPLY '
IL_:SERVO
____________ _
AMP. AND MONITOR MODUlEJ

115 V 400 Hz A.C.

G>----""
'-----------------;~;J~~:L
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . P O T E N T I O M E ER

28 V O.C.

f>....,_ ERROR SIGNAL ~ FEED8ACK

V V .... BUFFER [}:>, SERVO DRIVE lCDC MECHANICAL DRIVE

(a)

REFERENCE SUPPLY
- - - - - - - - - • - - - - - - O U T P U T TO POSITIONAL
FEEDBACK PQTENTIOMETER

------•---- TEST POINT

REFERENCE SUPPLY COPPER LEADS

VOLTAGE

OUTPUT TO
DIFFERENTIAL
THERMOCOUPLE HARNESS I AND SERVO
} AMPLIFIERS
AND -----t>j
EXTENSION I.EADS •
CHROMEL/ALUMELLEADS

(b)

364
 state de-energizes a solenoid-controlled warning flag which appears
across the digital counter display. The flag will also appear in the
event of the 115 V ac supply to the indicator falling below 100 V.
An over-temperature warning light is incorporated in the indicator,
and is controlled by a relay, a comparator, and a solid-state switching
circuit. The function of the comparator is to compare the feedback
voltage from the positional potentiometer with a pre-set voltage the
level of which is equivalent to a predetermiend over-temperature limit
for the particular type of engine. In the event of this limit being
exceeded, the feedback voltage will exceed the reference voltage
level, and the switching circuit will cause the relay to energize,
thereby completing the circuit to a warning light. A separate supply
voltage may be connected to the Iighi by means of an 'override'
facility as a means of testing its filament at any point over the
temperature range of the indicat.or.
An over-temperature pointer is also fitted concentrically with the
main pointer, and is initially positioned at the appropriate scale
graduation. It operates in a similar manner to the over-speed pointer
of a servo-operated tachometer indicator (see page 351).
Examples of EGT indications by means of electronic display
systems will be covered in Chapter 16.

Engine pressure ratio EPR is an operating variable which, together with rev/min, EGT and
(EPR) measurement fuel flow, provides an indication of the thrust output of turbine
engines, and involves the measurement of the ratio between the
pressures at the compressor intake and the turbine outlet or exhaust.
In general, a measuring system consists of an engine inlet pressure
probe, a number of pressure-sensing probes projected into the exhaust
unit of an engine, a pressure ratio transmitter, and an indicator. The
interconnection of these components based on a typical system is
schematically shown in Fig. 15. l~.
The inlet pressure-sensing probe is similar to a pitot probe, and is
mounted so that it faces into the airstream in the engine intake or, as
in some power plant installations, on the pylon and in the vicinity of
the air intake. The probe is protected against icing by a supply of
warm air from the engine anti-ice system.
The exhaust pressure-sensing probes are interconnected by pipelines
which terminate at a manifold, thus averaging the pressures. In some
engine systems, pressure-sensing is done from chambers contained
within the EGT sensing probes. A pipeline from the manifold, and
another from the inlet pressure probe, are each connected to the
pressure ratio transmitter which comprises a bellows type of pressure-
sensing transducer, a linear voltage differential transformer (LVDT),
a two-phase servomotor, an amplifier and a potentiometer. The
365
Figure 15.14 EPR system.

REF. PHASE

_ - - - _ _ _ _ _ TRANSMITTER _ _ • J
MECHANICAL LINKAGE

MANIFOLO

transducer bellows are arranged in two pairs at right angles and

supported in a frame which, in turn, is supported in a gimbal and
yoke assembly. The gimbal is mechanically coupled to the
servomotor via a gear train, while the yoke is coupled to the core of
the LVDT. The servomotor also drives the wiper of the potentiometer
which adjusts the output voltage signals to the indicator in terms of
changes in pressure ratio.
The indicator shown in the diagram is of the servo-operated type.
In electrnnic display systems (see Chapter 16) the transmitter output
to
signals are supplied direct ti;.e appropriate system computer.
From Fig. 15.14 it will be noted that the intake pressure is
admitted to two of the bellows in the transducer, exhaust gas pressure
is admitted to the third bellows, while the fourth is evacuated and
 sealed. Thus the system, together with its frame, gimbal and yoke
assembly, forms a pressure balancing and torsional system.
When a pressure change occurs, it causes an unbalance in the
bellows system, and the resultant of the forces acting on the
transducer frame acts on the yoke such that it is pivoted about its
axis. The deflection displaces the core of the LVDT to induce an ac
signal which is amplified and applied to the control winding of the
servomotor. The motor, via a gear train, alters the potentiometer
output signal to the indicator so that its pointer and digital counter are
servo-driven to indicate the new pressure ratio. Simultaneously, the
motor drives the transducer gimbal and LVDT core in the same
direction as the initial yoke movement, so that the relative movement
now produced between the core and coils starts reducing the servo-
motor drive signal, until it is finally 'nulled' and the system stabilized
at the new ratio.
The lower counter shown in the diagram is for the purpose of
indicating a reference EPR value; it is set manually by rotating the
setting knob.
If a circuit malfunction occurs, an integrity monitoring circuit
within the indicator activates a warning flag circuit, causing the flag
to obscure the digital counter display.
In some types of aircraft, a maximum allowable EPR limit
indicator is also provided, and is integrated with a TAT indicator (see
page 64) and also with an ADC; its purpose being to indicate limits
related to air density and altitude values from which thrust settings
have been predetermined for specific operating conditions. The
conditions are climb, cruise, continuous and go-around, and are
selected as appropriate by means of a mode selector switch connected
to a computing and switching circuit which generates a datum signal
corresponding to each selected condition. The signal is then supplied
to a comparator, which also receives temperature signals from the
TAT sensor and altitude signals from the ADC. These signals are
compared with the datum signal and the lower value of the two is
automatically selected as the signal representing the maximum EPR
limit for the selected operating condition. The comparator transmits
this signal to an amplifier and a servomotor which then drives a
digital counter to display the limiting value.

Fuel flow Fuel flow measuring systems vary in operating principle and
measurement construction, but principally they consist of two units: a transmitter
or flowmeter, and an indicator. Transmitters are connected in the
delivery Hnes of an engine fuel system, and are essentially electro-
mechanical devices producing output signals proportional to flow rate
which in a basic system is indicated in either volumetric or mass
367
 units. In many of the systems currently in use, an intermediate
amplifier/computer is also included to calculate a fuel flow/time ratio
and to transmit signals to indicators which can display not only flow
rate but also the .tmount of fuel consumed.

Basic system
Figure 15.15 is a sectioned view of a transmitter that forms the
measuring unit of a simple flow rate indicating system. It has a cast
body with inlet and outlet connections in communication with a
spiral-shaped metering chamber containing the metering assembly.
The latter consists of a vane pivoted so that it can be angularly
displaced under the influence of fuel passing through the chamber. A
small gap is formed between the edge of the vane and the chamber
wall which, on account of the volute form of the chamber, increases
in area as the vane is displaced from its zero position. The variation
in gap area controls the rate of vane displacement which is faster at
the lower flow rates (gap narrower) than at the higher ones. The vane
is mounted on a shaft carried in two plain bearings, one in each
cover plate enclosing the metering chamber.
At one end, the shaft protrudes through its bearing and carries a
two-pole ring-type magnet which forms part of a magnetic coupling
between the vane and the electrical transmitting unit, which m::.y be a
precision potentiometer or an ac torque synchro. The shaft of the
transmitting unit carries a two-pole bar-type magnet which is located
inside the ring magnet. The interaction of the two fields provides a
'magnetic lock' so that the potentiometer wiper (or synchro rotor) can
follow any angular displacement of the metering vane free of friction.
The other end of the metering vane shaft carries the attachment for
the inner end of a specially calibrated control spring. The outer end

Figure 15.15 Rotating vane

fuel tlowmeter.
of the spring is anchored to a disc plate which can be rotated by a
pinion meshing with teeth cut in the periphery of the plate. This
provides for adjustment of the spring torque during flowmeter
calibration.
Any tendency for the metering assembly to oscillate under static
flow conditions is damped out by a counterwejght and vane, attached
to the metering vane shaft, and operating in a separate fuel-filled
chamber secured to one side of the transmitter body.
When fuel commences to flow it passes through the metering
chamber and deflects the metering vane from its zero position and
tends to carry it round the chamber. Since the vane is coupled to the
calibrated spring, the latter will oppose movement of the vane,
permitting it to take up only an angular position at which spring
tension is in equilibrium with the rate of fuel flow at any instant.
Through the medium of the magnetic-lock coupling the vane will also
cause the potentiometer wiper, or synchro rotor, to be displaced. In
the former case, and with a steady direct voltage across the
potentiometer, the voltage at the wiper is directly proportional to the
fuel flow. The voltage is fed to an amplifier, whose output current
drives a milliammeter pointer to indicate the current in terms of fuel
flow in gal/hr or lb/hr.
In a system employing synchros, the current flow due to
differences in angular positions of the rotors will drive the indicator
synchro rotor directly to the 'null' position and thereby make the
pointer indicate the fuel flow.
In meters of this type it is also necessary to provide a bypass for
the fuel in the event of jamming of the vane or some other
obstruction causing a build-up of pressure on the inlet side. As may
be seen from Fig. 15.15, this is accomplished by a spring-loaded
valve incorporated in the metering chamber. The spring tension is
adjusted so that the valve lifts· from its seating and allows fuel to
bypass the metering chamber when the pressure difference across the
chamber exceeds 2.5 lbf/in 2 •

Integrated tlowmeter systems

An integrated flowmeter system may broadly be defined as one in
which a fuel consumed measuring element is combined with that of
fuel flow, thus permitting the display of both quantities in a single
indicator.
In order to accomplish this it is necessary to introduce an
integrating system to work out fuel consumed in the ratio of fuel flow
rate to time. Such a system may be mechanical, forming an integral
part of an indicator mechanism, or as in electronic fuel flow
measuring systems, it may be a special dividing stage within the
amplifier, or even a completely separate integrator unit.
Figure 15.16 Integrated Decoupling disc
flowmeter system.
LVDT Turbine
------. J 60 V ac

To INLET
Engine

Fuel Fuel
passage passage

Reset
switch
.......
..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--4,,

The components of a typical system are shown in Fig. 15.16. The

transmitter comprises an impeller driven by a two-phase ac motor, a
turbine which is interconnected with a calibrated restraining spring,
and an LVDT sensor. A decoupling disc is located between the
impeller and turbine, its purpose being to prevent an 'hydraulic
transmission' effect on both units when operating at low rates of fuel
flow. The indicator is servo-operated with the drive to the flow rate
pointer being effected by means of an eddy-current drag type of
mechanism similar to that adopted in some rpm indicators (see page
350). The fuel consumed indicator is a digital counter which is·
mechanicaily integrated with the servomotor via a gear transmission,
the ratio of which is preselected to establish the requisite relationship
between the m.otor speed, which is proportional to flow rate, and
time.
The system is supplied with 115 V single-phase 400 Hz ac from an
aircraft's power system and this is utilized by a power supply unit
within the indicator, the primary coil of the LVDT in the transmitter,
and by a separate power supply unit (not shown in the diagram). This
unit contains a temperature stable oscillator connected to a
voltage/frequency converter which converts the main supply into a
two-phase 60 V 8 Hz output; this, in turn, is supplied to the
370
transmitter impeller motor. The rotating field set up in the rotor
windings interacts with its permanent magnet rotor which rotates in
synchronism and drives the impeller at a constant speed.
Fuel flow rate is, in the first instance, always established by an
engine's fuel control unit which is calibrated or 'trimmed' to control
rates commensurate with the varying operational conditions and the
other associated power parameters, i.e. rpm, EGT and EPR. When
fuel enters the transmitter it passes through passages in the impeller
which, on account of its rotation, causes the fuel to swirl at a
velocity governed by the flow rate. The fuel is then diverted around
the decoupling disc, and in passing through passages in the turbine, it
imparts a rotational force which tends to continuously rotate the
turbine in the same direction as the impeller. This tendency is,
however, restrained by the calibrated spring such that the rotation is
limited and balanced at an angular position proportional to the flow
rate of. fuel passing through the transmitter.
The movement of the turbine and its shaft alters the position of the
LVDT sensor core, so that a signal voltage (up to 5 V at maximum
flow rate) is induced in the secondary winding and supplied to the
indicator servomotor via the closed contacts of the reset relay and
amplifier. The servomotor rotates at a speed proportional to tht flow
rate, and by means of the eddy-current drag mechanism posi;irn,., the
pointer to indicate this rate.
The reset switch is separately located on a flighl deck panel. and
when pressed it energizes the relay in the indicator to supply l l 5 V
ac to the servo amplifier and motor, causing it to drive 'downscale'
rapidly in order to reset the fuel consumed counter display to zero.
Figure 15.17 illustrates the components of another type of
integrated system. It differs from the one just described in that the
transmitter utilizes two electromagnetic pick-off elements, and the
processing of signals relevant to flow .ate and fuel consumed is
carried within a separate electronic unit.
The transmitter consists of a light-alloy body containing a flow-
metering chamber, a motor-driven impeller assembly, and the
externally-mounted coils of the pick-off elements. The impeller
assembly consists of an outer drum which is driven through a
magnetic coupling and reduction gear by a synchronous motor, and
an impeller incorporating vanes c>nd fuel passages to impart swirl and
angular velocity to the fuel flowing through the metering chamber.
The drum and impeller are coupled to each other by a calibrated
spring. The motor is contained within a fixed drum at the inlet end
and rotates the impeller at a constant speed (a typical value is 100
rpm). Straightening vanes are provided in the fixed drum around the
motor to remove any angular velocity already present in the fuel
before it passes through the impeller assembly. A point to note about
the use of a magnetic coupling between the motor and impeller
371
Figure I 5. 17 Electronic ··
integrated flowmeter system.
I Fixed drum, 2 fuel passages,
3 fllO!or shaft, 4 rotating drum,
5 fuel passages, 6 impeller,
7 calibrated spring, 8 pick-off
(drum), 9 magoets, 10 pick-off
(impeller), II magnetic
coupling, 12 motor.

TO ELECTRONIC
UNIT

SUl'l'I.Y TO TRAHSMITTER SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

.--------0

2. 3.
ELECTRONIC UNIT

assembly is that it overcomes the disadvantages which in this

application would be associated with rotating seals. The motor and its
driving gear are isolated from the fuel by enclosing them in a
chamber which is evacuated and filled with an inert gas before
sealing.
Each of the two pick-off assemblies consists of a magnet and an
iron-cored inductor. One magnet is fitted to the outer drum while the
other is fitted to the impeller, thus providing the required angular
reference points. The magnets are so positioned that under zero flow
372
conditions they are effectively in alignment with each other. The coils
are located in an electrical compartment on the outside of the
transmitter body, together with solid-state circuit units which amplify
and switch the signals induced.
The electronic unit performs the overall function of providing the
power for the various circuits of the system, detecting the number of
pulses produced at the transmitter, and computing and integrating the
fuel flow rate and amount of fuel consumed. It consists of a number
of stages interconnected as shown in Fig. 15.17. The power supply
section (l) controls the voltage and frequency of the supply to the
transmitter synchronous motor, and consists of a transformer, crystal
oscillator, output and power amplifier units.
From the diagram it will be noted that section (2) is made up of
three stages: inhibitor, gate and divider. The respective functions of
these stages are: to suppress all transmitter signals below a certain
flow rate; to control or gate the pulse signals from the power supply
oscillator; and to produce output signals proportional to true flow
rate, and to provide the time dividing factor and output pulses
representing unit mass of fuel consumed. Section (3) is also made up
of three stages: signal comparator, modulator and servo amplifier.
The respective functions of these stages are: to compare the
transmitter output signals with time-base signals fed back from the
indicator; to combine the comparator output with 400 Hz ac and
produce a new output; and to provide an operating signal to the
indicator servomotor control winding.
The indicator employs a flow indicating section consisting of an ac
servomotor which drives a pointer, a digital counter display, and a
potentiometer wiper through a reduction gear train. The reference
winding of the motor is supplied with a constant alternating voltage,
while the control winding receives its signals from the servo amplifier
in the electronic unit. The potentiometer is supplied with de and its
wiper is electrically connected to a solid-state time-base circuit, also
within the indicator. Transmitter output signals are fed into the time-
base circuit via a pre-set potentiometer which forms part of the
electronic unit's comparator stage. The difference between the time-
base and the indicated fuel flow signal voltages is fed to the
servomotor, which operates to reduce the error voltage to zero and so
to correct the indicated fuel flow.
The fuel consumed section of the indicator consists of a solenoid-
actuated five-drum digital counter and a pulse amplifier. The
amplifier receives a pulse from the divider stage of the electronic unit
for each unit mass of fuel consumed and feeds its output to the
solenoid, which advances the counter drums appropriately. A
separately located reset switch is also provided for returning the
counter to zero; it operates in a similar manner to that described on
page 371.
373
 A
Figure 15. 18 Operation of
pick-offs.

OUTER & INNER DRUMS

INTERCONNECTED BY
CALIBAATED SPRING

(8)

(b)

A Pick-offs
B&C Magnets
D Stop
9 Lag angle at which
impeller and drum rotate
together

When electrical power is switched on to the system, the transmitter

impeller motor is, as already mentioned, rotated at constant speed.
Under zero fuel flow conditions, the magnets of the pick-offs are
effectively in line with each other, although in practice a small
angular difference (typically 3°-5°) is established to maintain a
deflection representing a specific minimum flow rate. This is
indicated in Fig. 15.18(a).
As the fuel flows through the metering chamber, a constant angular
velocity is imparted to the fuel by the rotating impeller and drum
assembly, and since the two are interconnected by the calibrated
spring, a reaction torque is created which alters the angular
displacement between the impeller and drum and their corresponding
magnets. Thus, angular displacement produces a time difference
between signal pulses in the pick-offs, both being proportional to
flow rate. Diagrams (b) and (c) illustrate the displacement for typical
cruising and maximum fuel flow rates respectively.
The position of each magnet is sensed by its own pick-off coil, and
374
 the primary pulses induced as each magnet moves past its coil are fed
to the dividing stage in the electronic unit (see Fig. 15.17). The
output from this stage is fed to the control winding of the indicator
servomotor via section (3) of the electronic unit, and the indicator
pointer is driven to indicate the fuel flow. At the same time, the
motor drives the potentiometer wiper, producing a sigflal which is fed
back to the signal comparator stage for comparison with the output
produced by the transmitter. Any resultant difference signal is
amplified, modulated and power amplified to drive the indicator
motor, pointer and digital counter to a position indicating the actual
fuel flow rate.
The divider stage of the electronic unit also uses the transmitter
signals to produce pulse 'time' signals for the operation of the fuel
consumed counter of the indicator. During each successive revolution
of the transmitter impeller assembly the pulses are added and divided
by a selected ratio, and then supplied to the counter as an impulse
corresponding to each pound of fuel consumed.

Engine vibration Engine vibration is a feature of engine operation which cannot be

monitoring eliminated entirely even with turbine engines, which, unlike piston
engines, have no reciprocating parts. Thus, by accurate balancing of
such components as crankshafts, compressor and turbine rotor discs,
vibration must be kept down to the lowest levels acceptable under all
operating conditions. In respect of turbine engine operation, however,
there is always the possibility of these levels being exceeded as a
result of certain mechanical failures occurring. For example, a
turbine blade may crack or 'creep', or an uneven temperature
distribution around turbine blades and rotor discs may be set up;
either of these will give rise to unbalanced conditions of the main
rotating assemblies and possible disintegration. In order, therefore, to
indicate when the maximum amplitude of vibration of an engine
exceeds the pre-set level, monitoring systems, which come within the
control group of instrumentation, are provided.
A block diagram of a typical system is shown in Fig. 15 .19. It
consists of a vibration pick-off, or sensor, mounted on an engine at
right angles to its axis, an amplifier monitoring unit, and a moving-
coil milliammeter calibrated to show vibration amplitude in
thousandths of an inch (mils).
The sensor is a linear-velocity detector that converts the mechanical
energy of vibration into an electrical signal of proportional
magnitude. It does this by mea,s of a spring-supported permanent
magnet suspended in a coil attached to the interior of the case.
As the engine vibrates, the sensor unit and core move with it; the
magnet, however, tends to remain fixed in space because of inertia.
375
Figure 15.19 Vibration
monitoring system. r------------------1
INPUT & TEST - - - -
AMPLIFIER
& FILTERS RECTIFIER I
1

SUSPENDED
I
I

I
MAGNET
PICK-UP I WARNING
CIRCUIT

I
I

I
I
I

: I
L_ __ --- --~:::!-==;=_==_!::_-:::!/_ - - - - - - INDICATOR _j
115V 400HZ
SINGLE· PHASE
SUPPLY

In other words, its function is similar to that of an accelerometer.

The motion of the coil causes the turns to cut the field of the magnet,
thus inducing a voltage in the coil and providing a signal to the
amplifier unit. The signal, after amplification and integration by an
electrical filter network, is fed to the indicator via a rectifying
section.
An amber indicator light also forms part of the system, together
with a test switch. The light is supplied with de from the amplifier
rectifying section and it comes on when the maximum amplitude of
vibration exceeds the pre-set value. The test switch permits functional
checking of the system's electrical circuit.
In some engine installations, two sensors may be fitted to an
engine: for example, in a typical turbofan engine, one monitors
vibration levels around the fan section, and the other around the
engine core section.
In systems developed for use in conjunction with LCD and CRT
display indicators, the vibration sensors are of the type whereby
vibration causes signals to be induced in a piezoelectric stack (see
also page 165). A CRT display of vibration is shown in Fig. 16.2 .

.376