Digital Logic

Er. Gaurav Gautam

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Introduction:
• In decimal system which is used • Similarly, to solve or simplify the
in our day to day life , the logical expressions used in the
arithmetic operation such as digital circuits we need to use
addition , subtraction, logical operators.
multiplication , division , square • Some common logical operators
root, modulus, etc. are used to are:
solve the equations. • AND Operator: (A.B Logical
Multiplication )
• OR Operator: (A+B logical
addition )
• NOT Operator (𝐴ҧ logical
Inversion )

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Common Number Systems

System Base Symbols Used by Humans? Used in Computers?

Decimal 10 0, 1, … 9 Yes No
Binary 2 0, 1 No Yes
Octal 8 0, 1, … 7 No No
Hexa- 0, 1, … 9,
decimal 16 No No
A, B, … F

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Conversion among Bases
• Possibilities

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

• Example
2510 = 110012 = 318 = 1916
Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102
Base
Decimal to Binary
• Technique
• Divide by two, keep track of the remainder
• The remainders read from bottom to top give the equivalent binary integer number.
• Example - 1  Example - 2
12510 = ?2 2 125 1
0.687510 = ?2 integer fraction
2 62 0
2 31 1 0.6875 x 2 = 1.3750 1 + 0.3750
2 15 1 0.3750 x 2 = 0.7500 0 + 0.7500
2 7 1 0.7500 x 2 = 1.5000 1 + 0.5000
2 3 1 0.5000 x 2 = 1.0000 1 + 0.0000
2 1 1
0 0.687510 = 0.10112
12510 = 11111012 Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102
Binary to Decimal
• Technique
• Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
• The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right. Finally, Add the results.
• Example - 1  Example - 2
1010112 = ?10 11.112 = ?10
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 . 1 1

1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 1 x 2-2
32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25

1010112 = 4310 11.112 = 3.7510

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102
Decimal to Octal
• Technique
• Divide by eight, keep track of the remainder
• The remainders read from bottom to top give the equivalent octal integer number.
• Example - 1  Example - 2
12510 = ?8 0.687510 = ?8
8 125 5 integer fraction
8 15 7
0.6875 x 8 = 5.5000 5 + 0.5000
8 1 1
0.5000 x 8 = 4.0000 4 + 0.0000
0

12510 = 1758 0.687510 = 0.548

Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102

Octal to Decimal
• Technique
• Multiply each digit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the digit
• The weight is the position of the digit, starting from 0 on the right. Finally, Add the results.
• Example - 1  Example - 2
7248 = ?10 43.258 = ?10
7 2 4 4 3 . 2 5

7 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 4 x 80 4 x 81 + 3 x 80 + 2 x 8-1 + 5 x 8-2
448 + 16 + 4 32 + 3 + 0.25 + 0.0781

7248 = 46810 43.258 = 35.328110

Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102
Octal to Decimal
• Technique
• Multiply each digit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the digit
• The weight is the position of the digit, starting from 0 on the right. Finally, Add the results.
• Example - 1  Example - 2
7248 = ?10 43.258 = ?10
7 2 4 4 3 . 2 5

7 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 4 x 80 4 x 81 + 3 x 80 + 2 x 8-1 + 5 x 8-2
448 + 16 + 4 32 + 3 + 0.25 + 0.0781

7248 = 46810 43.258 = 35.328110

Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102
Decimal to Hexa-Decimal
• Technique
• Divide by sixteen, keep track of the remainder
• The remainders read from bottom to top give the equivalent hexadecimal integer number.
• Example - 1  Example - 2
123410 = ?16 0.0312510 = ?16
16 1234 2 integer fraction
16 77 13=D
0.03125 x 16 = 0.5000 0 + 0.5000
16 4 4
0.5000 x 16 = 8.0000 8 + 0.0000
0

123410 = 4D216 0.0312510 = 0.0816

Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102

Hexa-Decimal to Decimal
• Technique
• Multiply each digit by 16n, where n is the “weight” of the digit
• The weight is the position of the digit, starting from 0 on the right. Finally, Add the results.
• Example - 1  Example - 2
ABC16 = ?10 43.2516 = ?10
A B C 4 3 . 2 5

A x 162 + B x 161 + C x 160 4 x 161 + 3 x 160 + 2 x 16-1 + 5 x 16-2

10 x 162 + 11 x 161 + 12 x 160 64 + 3 + 0.125 + 0.0195
2560 + 176 + 12

ABC16 = 274810 43.2516 = 67.144510

Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102
Logic Gates
• Most basic logical unit of the digital • Types of gate circuits are as follows
system is gate circuit. Basic Gates:
• It is electronic circuit having one or 1. AND Gate
more than one inputs and only one 2. OR Gate
output. 3. NOT Gate (Inverter)
• The relationship between the input Universal Gates:
and output is based on certain 1. NOR Gate
logic . 2. NAND Gate
• Based on the logic , the gates are Special Purpose Gates:
named as NOT gate, AND gate, OR 1. XOR Gate
gate, NAND gate, NOR gate, etc. 2. XNOR Gate

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

1. AND Gate
 AND Gate has an output which is normally at logic level “0” and only goes “HIGH” to a logic
level “1” when ALL of its inputs are at logic level “1”

2-input AND Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴∙𝐵
C
B 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

2. OR Gate
 OR Gate or Inclusive-OR gate has an output which is normally at logic level “0” and only goes
“HIGH” to a logic level “1” when one or more of its inputs are at logic level “1”.

2-input OR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴+𝐵
C
B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

3. NOT (Inverter) Gate
• NOT gate has an output which is always opposite to input level.

Inverter Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A C 𝐶 = 𝐴ҧ 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝐴′
A C
0 1
1 0

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

4. NOR Gate
• NOR Gate is an OR gate followed by an inverter.
• NOR Gate has an output which is normally at logic level “1” and only goes
“LOW” to a logic level “0” when one or more of its inputs are at logic level “1”.

2-input NOR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 = 𝐴+𝐵 ′
C
B 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

5. NAND Gate
• NAND Gate is an AND gate followed by an inverter.
• NAND Gate has an output which is normally at logic level “1” and only goes
“LOW” to a logic level “0” when ALL inputs are at logic level “1”.

2-input NAND Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∙ 𝐵)′
C
B 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

6. Exclusive-OR (X-OR) Gate
• X-OR gate that has 1 state when one and only one of its two inputs assumes a
logic 1 state and has 0 state when all of its input are same.
• Also known as anti-coincidence gate or inequality detector.
2-input XOR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴⨁𝐵
C
B 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

7. Exclusive-NOR (X-NOR) Gate
• X-NOR gate that has 1 state when all of its input are same and has 0 state when
one of its input has 0 state and other input is 1 state.
• Also known as coincidence gate or equality detector.

2-input XNOR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴⨀𝐵
C
B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

NAND as Universal Gate
(AB)’ ((AB)’)’ = AB
A A’ A
B
NOT using NAND AND using NAND

A’
A
(A’B’)’ = (A+B)
B
B’
OR using NAND

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

NOR as Universal Gate
(A+B)’ ((A+B)’)’ = A+B
A
A A’
B
NOT using NOR OR using NOR

A’
A
(A’+B’)’ = AB
B
B’
AND using NOR

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Boolean Algebra Laws
• AND laws  OR laws
1. 𝐴 ∙ 0 = 0 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑤 1. 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑤
2. 𝐴 ∙ 1 = 𝐴 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑎𝑤 2. 𝐴 + 1 = 1 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑎𝑤
3. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐴 3. 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴
4. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐴ҧ = 0 4. 𝐴 + 𝐴ҧ = 1

• Commutative laws  Associative laws

1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴 1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
2. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∙ 𝐴 2. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵 ∙ 𝐶)

Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102

Boolean Algebra Laws
• Distributive laws  Redundant Literal Rule
ҧ =𝐴+𝐵
1. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵
1. 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
2. 𝐴 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵

• Idempotent laws
 Absorption laws
1. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐴
1. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴
2. 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴 2. 𝐴(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴
 De Morgan’s Theorem
1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴ҧ𝐵ത
2. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത

Break the line change the sign

Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102
Proof of 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴ҧ 𝐵ത 𝐶ҧ
L.H.S. R.H.S.

A B C ഥ
A+B+C 𝐀 + 𝐁 + 𝐂 𝐀 ഥ
𝐁 𝐂ത ഥ𝐁
𝐀 ഥ 𝐂ത
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
From truth table, it is clearly visible that L.H.S. = R.H.S. Hence, the complement of
a sum of variables is equal to the product of their individual
Er. Gaurav Gautam , 9801104102
Proof of 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ
L.H.S. R.H.S.

A B C ABC 𝐀𝐁𝐂 ഥ
𝐀 ഥ
𝐁 𝐂ത ഥ+𝐁
𝐀 ഥ
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 + 𝐂ത
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0
From truth table, it is clearly visible that L.H.S. = R.H.S. Hence, the complement of
a product of variables is equal toEr. Gaurav
theGautam
sum of their individual
, 9801104102
Simplification using Boolean algebra:
1. 𝑥ҧ 𝑦ത 𝑧 + 𝑥ҧ y 𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦ത
2. x y + 𝑥ҧ 𝑧 + y 𝑧
3. 𝑥ҧ 𝑦ത 𝑧ഥ + 𝑥ҧ y 𝑧ഥ + x 𝑦ത 𝑧ഥ + x y 𝑧ഥ
4. AB + A(B+C) + B (B+C)

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Prove that:
ҧ
• A(𝐴+C)( 𝐴ҧ B+C)(𝐴ҧ BC+ 𝐶ҧ )=0
• (A+B)(𝐴ҧ 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ ) + 𝐴(B+C)
ҧ =
A+B+C

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Boolean Expressions and Boolean Function:

• Boolean algebra deals with binary • Eg.

variables and logic operations.
F(A,B,C,D) = A+B 𝐶ҧ +ADC

Boolean Boolean
• A Boolean function is described by an Function Expression
algebraic operation called Boolean
expression which consist of binary Any logical expression can be expressed
variables, the constants 0 and 1 and in the following two standard forms:
the logical operation symbols.
i. Sum-of-Products (SOP)
ii. Product of Sum (POS)

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Sum-Of-Product (SOP)
• When two or more product • SOP form can also contain a
terms (or Anded terms) are term with a single variable such
summed by Boolean algebra, the as F= A+𝐴ҧ𝐵ത + 𝐵𝐶
ത
resulting expression is Sum-Of-
Product.
• O represents 𝐴ҧ
• Eg. F = AB+ 𝐴ҧ𝐵𝐶
ത
• 1 represents A
F = ABC + C𝐷 ҧ
ഥ + 𝐵ത 𝐶𝐷
• Only high (1’s) output is taken
SOP expression is two or more
AND function OR ed together.

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Standard SOP (or Canonical SOP)
• Standard SOP is one in which all • Each individual term in standard
the variables in the domain SOP form is called as minterm.
appear in each product term in • Standardization makes the
the expression. evaluation , simplification ,
F= AB+BC+A 𝐷 ഥ implementation, realization of
is not Standard SOP Boolean expression more
systematic and easier.
ത
F= A 𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶ҧ 𝐷ഥ
is standard SOP

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Minterms for three variables(A,B,C):
A B C Terms Designation (mi) A B C Function Function
0 0 0 𝐴ҧ 𝐵ത 𝐶ҧ m0 Output (F1) Output (F2)

0 0 1 𝐴ҧ 𝐵𝐶
ത m1 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 𝐴ҧ 𝐵 𝐶ҧ m2 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 𝐴ҧ 𝐵 𝐶 m3 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 A 𝐵ത 𝐶ҧ m4 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 A 𝐵ത 𝐶 m5 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 A B 𝐶ҧ m6 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 ABC m7 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1

F1 =𝐴ҧ 𝐵ത 𝐶+
ҧ 𝐴ҧ 𝐵 𝐶+A B 𝐶ҧ • F2 =𝐴ҧ 𝐵 𝐶 + A 𝐵ത 𝐶 + A B 𝐶ҧ +A B C
= m0 + m3 + m6 = m3 + m5 + m6 + m7
=σ𝑚(0,3,6)
Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102
Converting SOP to Standard SOP
• Multiply each product term by • Convert A+B to Standard SOP.
ҧ where A is the missing
(A+ 𝐴), Here, F = A+B
term.
ത + B(A+ 𝐴)ҧ
= A(B+ 𝐵)
• Expand the multiplication and
ത
= AB+A 𝐵+AB+ ҧ
𝐴B
repeat step 1 until standard SOP
is obtained ത 𝐴B
= AB+A 𝐵+ ҧ

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Convert A+A 𝐵ത + 𝐵C
ത to standard SOP

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Product-Of-Sum (POS)
• When two or more sum terms • POS form can also contain a
are multiplied the resulting term with a single variable such
expression is product of sum. as F= A(𝐴ҧ + 𝐵)(
ത 𝐵ത + 𝐶)
• eg (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത +C)(A + 𝐵ത + 𝐶)ҧ (𝐴ҧ +
𝐵+C) • O represents A
• 1 represents 𝐴ҧ
• AND function of two or more or • Only low(0’s) output is taken
ed functions.

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Standard POS (or Canonical POS)
• Standard SOP is one in which all • Each individual term in standard
the variables in the domain POS form is called as maxterm.
appear in each product term in • Standardization makes the
the expression. evaluation , simplification ,
F= A(𝐴ҧ + 𝐵)(
ത 𝐵ത + 𝐶) implementation, realization of
is not Standard POS Boolean expression more
systematic and easier.
F= (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത +C)(A + 𝐵ത + 𝐶)ҧ (𝐴ҧ +
𝐵+C)
is standard POS

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Maxterms for three variables(A,B,C):
A B C Terms Designation A B C Function Function
(mi) Output (F1) Output (F2)
0 0 0 A+B+C M0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 A+B+𝐶ҧ M1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 A+ 𝐵ത + 𝐶 M2 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 A+ 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ M3 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 + 𝐶 M4 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 𝐴ҧ +B+𝐶ҧ M5 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶 M6 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ M7 1 1 1 0 1
ҧ
F1 = (A+B+𝐶)(A+ 𝐵ത + 𝐶)(𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 + • F2 = (A+B+C) (A+B+𝐶ҧ ) (A+ 𝐵ത +C)
𝐶)(𝐴ҧ +B+𝐶)ҧ (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶)ҧ (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 + 𝐶 )
= M1M2M4M5M7 = M0M1M2M4
=σπ(1,2,4,5,7) = =σπ(0,1,2,4)
Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102
Converting POS to Standard POS
ҧ where A
• Add each term by (A.𝐴), • Convert (A+ 𝐵ത + C)(𝐵ത + C+D) to
is the missing term. Standard SOP.
• Apply the rule Here, F = (A+ 𝐵ത + C)(𝐵ത + C+D)
A+BC = (A+B)(A+C) =?
• A.A=A =?
• Repeat the above process until =?
standard POS is obtained

Er. Gaurav Gautam, 9801104102

Convert Standard SOP to POS
• Evaluate each SOP terms and Similarly the same process for POS
determine its binary to SOP.
representation.
• Determine all the binary number
not included in evaluation in
above step.
• Write equivalent sum term for
each binary number obtained in
step 2.

Er. Gaurav Gautam

Convert standard SOP to POS:
𝐴ҧ𝐵𝐶
ത + 𝐴𝐵𝐶ҧ ത + ABC
+ 𝐴𝐵C
Step 1: 𝐴ҧ𝐵𝐶
ത + 𝐴𝐵𝐶ҧ ത + ABC
+ 𝐴𝐵C
: 001, 011, 101,111

Step 2: 000,010,100,110

Step 3: POS is given by:

:
ҧ
(A+B+C)(A+ 𝐵ത +C)(𝐴+B+C)(𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶)

Er. Gaurav Gautam

Convert POS to SOP:
ҧ 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶)
(A+B+𝐶)(
• Step 1:
=(A+B+𝐶)( ҧ 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 + 𝐶)(𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶)
=001, 100,110

Step 2: remaining binary number

= 000,010,011,101,111

Step3: SOP
=𝐴ҧ𝐵ത 𝐶ҧ + 𝐴𝐵
ҧ 𝐶ҧ + 𝐴𝐵𝐶
ҧ ത + 𝐴𝐵𝐶
+ 𝐴𝐵𝐶
Er. Gaurav Gautam