Unit -1 Introduction to Network

1.1 Basics of network

Computer network is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.

Two computers are shared to be connected if they can able to exchange information autonomous
means does not follow master slave relation. Master slave means if a computer forcefully start,
control or stop by another computer.

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication

links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Distributed Processing: - Most networks now use distributed processing, in which a task is
divided among multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process, separate computers usually a personal computer or workstation handles a
subset.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Performance:- Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of
a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission
medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.

Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.

We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often
contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we
increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability:- In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency
of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
disaster.

Security:- Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses

Features of Network

(1) Exchange the information

Information is constantly moving in business. For example orders taken by sales

department, number of goods produced by the production department, amount of raw material in
hand by the purchase department etc. are needed to be collected by accounting department and
produced a statistical information and transfer this information to the management.

If we have computer in a stand alone mode you can exchange all this information using
some device like pendrive or CD or moving the information by person but using a computer
network, we can easily exchange all this information very quickly and safely.

(2) Sharing the information

Just as a lot of information is moved in business some information is centrally stored and
shared amongst the users. The information must be kept consistent and secure as well as timely
exchange must be done to those users who need the information.

The information like company letterhead, inventory information, employee records etc. are
centrally stored and shared among the users. The central computer is known as server keep all
these information and special operating system is necessary for sharing and exchange.

(3) Sharing hardware resources

 Using network we can share hardware resources very effectively. For example a small
office with 10 stand alone computer and one printer allows only the user the printer attached to his
or her computer to print. Other user must copy the data to the computer with computer and print it
form there.

But in networking any user can share this printer without disturbing the other user. In
networking environment we can also share fax machine, scanners, hard disk, CD drive, DVD
drive, plotters etc.

(4) Sharing software resources

In stand alone computer we must install the software in each PC. So the cost became very
high, it is time consuming and difficult to install. With a network you can centrally install and
configure the software. In this way, we can reduce the work load and cost.

(5) Preserving the information

A network allows the information to be backed up to a central location. Important

information can be lost by accident if you do not take back up. It is very difficult and time
consuming to maintain regular back up on a number of stand alone computers. While when you
have taken back up from central location it is very easy to maintain regular backup and our
information will be safe. Mostly this task can be done by network administrator.

(6) Protecting the information

Network provides a more secure environment for a company because in a stand alone PC
every one can easily access all the information. Network provides an additional layer of security in
the way of password. You can provide each network user a different account name and password
and allowing only the authorized user can access the information.

1.1.1 Types of Network

 Client , Server & Peer

There are three roles for a computer in a network.

Client : Which uses the resources but do not provide the resources.

Peer : Which both use & provide network resources.

Server: Which provide the network resources.

The type of the operating system in a computer determines each of these computer roles. Servers run
network O/S such as windows 2000 server, window 2003 server, window NT or novel network. Client run
client O/S such as windows 95 / 98 / ME, windows 2000 professional or window XP. Peer run peer network
O/S such as window 95/98/ME or Macintosh O/S. Each of this O/S is providing best services for the role it
plays.

Many times the role of a computer is also determine by its use.

e.g. : A computer running windows 95 is not a peer unless it is sharing the network resources. This means
that it may be in use only as client or it may not be on a network at all. It is also possible to run windows
2000 server as a client O/S.

Based on these roles networks are divided into three types:

1) Server based (client – server): Contain client & server that support them.
2) Peer based (peer to peer): Has no servers & uses the network to share resources among
independent peers.
3) Hybrid network: It is a client server network that also has peer sharing resources. Most
networks are hybrid network.

 Server based network ( client- server ) :

Server base networks are defined by the presence of dedicated servers on a network that provide
security & resource to the network.

In client server network processing task are divided between client & server. Clients are also called
front-end computers & server are called back-end computers. Clint request services such as file storage and
printing services, then servers provide these services. Server computers are more powerful than client
computers; they are designed to function as server.

Server base network are organized into active directory domains. Domains are collection of network
& client that share security information. Special servers are called domain controllers control domain
security & logon permission. Client computers can not access the resources of servers in a domain until a
domain controller has authorized them.

Advantage of server base network :

Server base network has many advantages. Some of them are :

1) Strong central security.

2) Central file storage, which allows all the users to work from the same set of data and provides easy
back-up of critical data.
3) Ability of servers to share available hardware & software, thus by lowering overall cost.
4) Ability to share expensive equipments such as lesser printer & mass (huge) storage.
5) Optimize dedicated server which are faster than peers that sharing network resources.
6) Using a single password allows access to all shared resources on the network.
7) User is free from the task of managing sharing of resources.
8) Easy manageability of a large number of users.
9) Central organization of data helps to keep the data form getting lost among computers.

Disadvantage of server base network :

Server base network also have some disadvantages:

1) Expensive dedicated hardware.

2) Expensive network operating system software & client licenses.
3) A dedicated network administrator.

Peer based network:

 Peer networks are the networks that have no central control over network. There are no server in peer
networks, users can simply share disk space & resources such as printers, fax etc..

Peer networks are organized into workgroups. Workgroups have very less security control. There is
no central login process. If you have logged into one peer on the network, you will be able to use any
resources on this network that are not controlled by a specific password.

Access to individual resources can be controlled if the user, who shares the resources required a
password to access it, because there is no central security. You will have to know the individual password for
each secured shared resources that you wish to access. This can be a very inconvenient process.

Peers are also not optimized to share resources. Generally when a number of users are accessing
resources on a peer, the user of that peer notice degradation of performance. Peers also have licensing
limitation, that is why only limited number of users can perform simultaneous accessing of resources.

Advantages of peer network :

Peer computers have many advantages especially for small business that can not afford to invest
money in expensive server hardware & software.

1) No extra investment in server hardware or software required.

2) Easy setup.
3) Very less network administration required.
4) Ability of users to control resource sharing.
5) No reliance (depend) on other computer for their operation.
6) Lower cost for small network.

Disadvantages of peer network :

Peer networks have some disadvantages they are,

1) Additional load on computers because of resource sharing.

2) Inability of peers to handle as many networks connection as servers.
3) Because of no central organization which can make data hard to find.
4) No central point of storage for file archiving (taking backup).
 5) Weak security.
6) Lack of central management which makes large peer networks difficult to work with (10 or
fewer computers).

Hybrid network :

Hybrid networks have all three types of computers operating on them & generally they have active
directory domains & workgroups. This means that most shared resources are located on servers, network
users still have access to any resources shared by peers in workgroup. It also means network users do not
have to logon to the domain controller to access workgroup resources shared by peers.

Advantages of hybrid computing :

Hybrid networks have following advantages:

1) The advantages of server based networking.

2) Many of the advantages of peer based networking.
3) Ability of users or network administrator to control security based on the importance of shared
resources.

Disadvantages of hybrid computing :

Hybrid networks have the disadvantages of server based networks.

Peer security v/s server security:

One large difference between peer to peer & server based networks depend on how they implement
security.

Peer security Server security

Peer to peer networks are usually less Server base network operate in high
 secured than server based networks, security. Server based networks
because peer to peer network usually use commonly use file level or access
shared level security. permission security.

E.g. The computer that runs windows 95

can allow any other computer on the
network to access shared directory or
device. The user can assign a password to
shared resources to achieve some degree
of security. However the user can not
specify which user on the network can
access the resource – any user on the
network that knows the password can
access the resource.

Another limitation of peer to peer is Most server based networks

sharing is implemented in the manner that implement security differently.
each shared resource that you wish to Instead of requiring a password for
control access must have its own every shared resource, you wish to
password. The number of password to access, the server based network
resources that you must remember can requires only one password for you to
grow very large in large network. access all resource on the network
that you have permission to use.

The security advantage of peer to peer The security advantage of server

network is that each user can control based network is that each user is
access to their own resources. allowed to access only those
resources that that user has privilege
(authority) to access.

The security disadvantage of peer to peer A disadvantage of this network is that

is that you can not differentiate among some one must be there to centrally
network user when you allow access to a administrate the security on your
resource. network.

1.1.2 Different topologies

Topology
The way in which the network connection is made is called topology of the
network. Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout of the network,
especially the location of the computer and how the cable is run between them. It is very
 important to select the right topology according to the requirement. Each topology has its
own strength and weakness (adv. & dis.). The topology can be divided into 2(Two)
physical topology and logical topology.

Physical topology :-
The physical topology can be selected by considering several factor such as office
layout, cost of installation, types of cable use & troubleshooting technique. There are
several types of physical topology can be used: Bus topology, Star topology, Ring
topology, Mesh topology, Star bus, Star ring are some of them. Each and every topology
has its own advantages or disadvantages.

Bus Physical Topology:-

This is the simplest form of topology. It is also known as daisy-chaining. In this
topology the cable run from computer to computer making each computer a link of chain.

In a bus topology all the computers are connected to common channel and machine is the
master it allows to transmit the data.
 At a time only one machine can used the cable and if one computer send message then
all other terminal receive the message.
 The right receiver accepts the message and others discard the message.
 The bus topology standard popularly known as Ethernet IEEE 802.3 cables. This
Ethernet cable is used for transmitting the information.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared
to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet
cabling options many years ago for bus topologies.

However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen
computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the
backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

You can connect the bus topology in two different ways, depending on the types of
cable you are using. If your network use the thick net coaxial cable then the bus network have
central backbone cable as thick net cable. Smaller and thinner cables calling taps or drops will
run from the backbone cable to each PC on the network. A small device called transceiver
connects the thinner cable to the thick net backbone cable. This architecture is commonly used
in mainframe and mini computer networks and now its popularity is decreased.

Bus topology can also use thin cable and this is more flexible. Most of the bus topology
today used thick cable to make the computer link. It is also known as bus topology using
thicknet cable.
 PC1 Transceiver PC3 PC4
Thinner cable

Terminator Network PC
PC2 Printer

Fig. Bus topology using Thicket’s cable

In bus topology uses passive and active topology. In passive topology when one computer
broadcast the message when the receiving computer check the message whether it is address to it.
If it is address to it accept the message otherwise it simply pass the message i.e. in passive
topology the receiving terminal do not regenerate the signal, it just simply passes the signal.

In active topology the receiving terminals regenerating the signal and send it to next node if
it is not address to it.

In bus topology only one computer send a message at a time therefore the number of
computer attach to the bus network can affect the speed of the network. A computer must be
waiting until the bus is free before it can transmit.

In bus topology it should be terminated properly using a device called terminator. If it is

not terminated properly then the network cannot transmit the data.

Advantages: There are several advantages of bus topology.

1. The bus is simple and reliable for small network, easy to use, and easy to understand.
2. The bus requires only the least amount of cable to connect the computer together and it is less
expensive than other topologies.
3. It is very easy to extend a bus. Two cables can join into one longer cable with a BNC (beyond
network connection) barrel connector. This will make a cable longer & allowing more
computer to join the network.
4. A repeater can also use to extend a bus. A repeater boost the signal and allows it to travel a
longer distances.

Disadvantages: There are some disadvantages of bus topology.

1. Heavy network traffic can slow down a bus considerable because any computer can transmit at
any time & computer on most networks do not co-ordinate with each other to reserve the time
to transmit, a bus network with a lot of computer can spent a lot of its bandwidth with the
computer interrupting each other instead of communicating. This problem become more
serious if there is more computers on the network.
2. Each barrel connector weakens the signal and many of these prevent the signal from being
correctly received all along the bus.
3. It is difficult to troubleshoot the bus. A cable break or malfunctioning computer anywhere
between two computers cannot be able to communicate with each other. A cable break or loose
connection will also cause reflections and bring down the entire network and this will cause all
the network activity to stop.

Star Topology:

In Star topology each server & workstation connects to a central hub, that provide connection
to all other devices connected to the hub.
Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resend the message
either to all computers (broadcast star network) or only to the destination computer (switch star
network). The hub in a broadcast network can be active or passive.

An active hub regenerates electrical signals & send it to all the computers connected to it. This
type of hub is also known as multiport repeater. Active hub required electrical power to
regenerate the signal.
A passive hub does not regenerate the signal, it simply pass the signal. Therefore the passive
hub does not require electrical power to pass the signal. There is another type of hub called
intelligent hub (hub with microprocessor) provide the centralized monitoring & management of
the network.

You can use several types of cable to implement a star network. A hybrid hub can
accommodate several types of cable in the same star network.
 You can extent a star network by placing another star hub and allowing several more
computers to be connected that hub. This creates a hybrid star network.

Star topology

Advantages: - There are several advantages to a star topology.

1. It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the rest of the
network.
2. You can attach a new line from the computer to the central location and plugged it into the hub.
When the capacity of central hub is exceeded, you can replace it with one that has larger no. of
ports to plug cables.
3. The centre of the star network is a good place to diagnose (identify) the network faults.
Intelligent hub (hubs with microprocessor) that implement features in addition to boost the
network signals), also provide for centralized monitoring and management of the network.
4. Single computer failures do not affect the whole star network. The hub can detect network
fault, isolate it, and allows the rest of computers on the network to continue operating.
5. You can use several cable types in the same network by the use of hybrid star bus.

Disadvantages: The star topology has few disadvantages.

1. If the central hub fails then the whole network fails to operate.
2. It cost more to cabling a star network, because it need dedicated cable from each and every PC
to a central point, so it required more cable than other network topologies.
3. Many star networks require a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switch the network
traffic.

3. RING topology:-
 In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer and the last one
connected to the first, forming a circle. Data flows in only one direction either clock wise or anti
clock wise. Each device in the ring topology acts as a repeater. It amplifies the signal and transmits
it to the next device. In ring network there is no termination is needed, because all the device are
connected to each other in the form of a closed loop like ring. Each device has only two
neighbours for communication purpose, one is upstream and another is down stream. Data travels
through many points before reaching the destination, which makes it inefficient network compare
to a star network.

 The ring topology use IEEE 802.5 Ethernet cable as transmission media.
 In ring topology one computer send message to its neighbour computer & this computer
check whether it is for own, if it is not then send to the next computer.
 This topology can be divided into static & dynamic.
 Static:
 In static allocation the time is allocated to each computer equally.
 This allocation is based on Round Robin Algorithm.
 It will allow each machine to broadcast the message only when its time-slots come up.
 Static allocation wastes the channel capability and capacity when a machine has nothing to
send during its allocated slot.

 Dynamic:
Dynamic allocation method can be divided into two categories.
(i) Centralized
(ii) Decentralized

 In a centralized method, channel allocation is done by one single computer who determines
who goes next.
 In decentralized channel structure, there is no centralized machine each machine must decide
whether or not to transmit the data.
 The decentralized method is used the effective method like token Ring.
 The token is moving through entire network.
 The computer which wants to send data would capture the token and transmit the data.
 After transmission is finished, token is released.
 That means in token ring, only the computer which has token can send message.

For ex:-

Consider a ring network having 8 devices. If device 1 wants to transmit data to the device 3
data must travel from device 1 to device 2 then to it destination at device 3.
Ring Topology

Ring are used in high performance network, networks require high bandwidth for sending data like
video and audio.

The Ring topology is used to implement the token ring network at 4 or 16 MBPS. In the
token ring network a special signal or a small message called token is continuously passed from
one device to another. The device which has the token is allowed to transmit the data over the
network. The sending computer modifies the token to add an electronic address of the destination
device and send it around the ring. Each computer in sequence receives the token and the
information, and passes them to the next computer until the electronic address match with the
address of a computer. The receiving computer returns a message to the originator indicated that
message has been received. The sending computer then creates another token and places it on the
network on the network, allowing another station to capture the token and being transmitting. The
token circulates until a station is ready to send the data and capture the token.

Advantages or RING topology:-

The ring topology has the following advantages.

 Easier to manage as compared to bus network.

 Collisions are avoided because only one device is allowed to transmit at a time.
  Handles large volume of traffic (data).
 Very reliable and affords great speed.
 Provide a good communication over a long distance and no terminator require.
 Because every computer is given equal access to token no one computer can monopolize
the network.

Disadvantage of RING topology:-

The ring topology has the disadvantage as follows.

 Failure of one computer on the ring can affect the whole network.
 It is difficult to trouble shoot (error finding) a ring network.
 Adding and removing computers disturb the entire network.
 More cable is needed compare to bus topology.

Dual ring topology:-

Dual ring topology consists of two concentric rings, primary and secondary to connect each
device on a network. Primary ring carries data in one direction where as secondary ring carries
data in opposite direction. Secondary ring is used if primary ring stops its working. Thus the
secondary ring is redundant. In dual ring topology it is difficult to add new devices because for
these each station should have two transmit port and two receiver port.
4. Mesh topology:-

In Mesh topology each device is connected to each other. A device can send data to all the
devices in the network. Data send by the device can take any possible path to reach the destination.
In mesh topology, there are many redundant inter connection between two computers. There are
two types of mesh topology are available

1. Fully connected mesh

2. Partially connected mesh

1. Fully connected mesh:-

In fully connected mesh each device is connected to directly each other. Mesh topology
network connection is more typically difficult
PC 5 to install as the number of devices increases. A fully
connected mesh of six devices required 15 connections (5+4+3+2+1)

2. Partially connected mesh:-

 In partial mesh topology some of the devices are connected to all other but there are some
devices with do not exchange the data with all. So they are connected any only to those device
with which they communicate most of the time. It is less expensive and less redundant compared
to fully mesh topology. This topology is useful where connections are easily and frequently
broken.

Mesh topology is not used commonly because of its complex structure. But it perform well when
the devices are spread in the network and do not lie in the same region.

WAN is the example of mesh topology. It is an interconnection of multiple LANs. Thus in WAN
multiple parts are available to reach the destination.

Advantages of Mesh topology:-

Advantages of Mesh topology are

 Provide redundant path which help in sending data using an alternate path, if a specific path
fails sending data.
 Entire network does not get affected by one faulty device.
 Centralized management is not required as in star topology.
 Easy to detect the fault device.

Disadvantage of Mesh topology:-

It has following disadvantages.

 More cabling is required as compared to bus, star, ring topology.

 Each link from one to another device requires and individual NIC ( Network Interference
Card)
 Very expensive as compared to star, bus and ring topology.
 Difficult to re-configure.
 Data capacity is not utilized properly

5. Star Bus Topology

Star bus topology is the combination of BUS and STAR, linking several star hubs together
with bus trunks. If one computer fails, the hub can detect the fault and isolate the computer. If a
hub fails, the computer connected to it will not be able to communicate. If the bus will broken it
divide the network into two segments that can not reach other.

The star bus topology provide both the advantages of BUS and also it has some limitations
of BUS & STAR

6. STAR RING

In the Star ring also called star wired ring. The network cables are laid like a star network. But
a ring is implemented in the central hub. Outlaying hub can be connected to the inner hub to
extent a loop inner ring.

7. Tree Topology

Tree topology connects multiple networks according to the structure of star topology. All the
devices are connected to a central hub. There are multiple hub devices which are connected
directly to form a tree structure. Tree network may have number of branches that contain multiple
devices connected point to point. Signals from transmitting device first reaches the hub to which
is connected. Hubs then direct the signals to tree cable which then travels along the entire
network.
 Advantages of Tree Topology

 Point to point wiring is needed for each device.

 Easy to detect a faulty device.
 Easy to expand a network.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

 More difficult to configure as compared to other topology.

 Fault in the backbone cable affects the entire network.
 More expensive than other topologies.

1.3 Terminologies

A) Internet

What is internet?
The term internet has been derived from two terms, interconnection and network. A
network is simply a group of computers that are connected together for sharing information,
resources & communication.

    

A Network
 Several such networks have been joined together across the world to form internet. Thus,
Internet is a network of networks.

Internet is an ocean of information. Internet is information of information.

2) Intranet

What is an Intranet?
A part of the network, but controlled and used by a private organisation, Intranet has restrictions and can support only
fewer users. Hence, only limited data can be shared over it. Intranet is usually operated on a client/server platform. This
enables the organisations to share files, data, organise information, manage and share calendars, files, etc.

What is the Difference between Internet and Intranet?

A wide network of computers available for all is the internet, while the intranet is a network of computers designed for a
certain group of users. The internet is a public network, while an intranet is a private network. Learn more about what is
the difference between internet and intranet, from the table below.

Difference between Internet and Intranet

INTERNET INTRANET

Simultaneously link computers on different Owned by local or private organisations / companies

network / global network

Support multiple users Users are limited

Unsafe, not protected Protected and secured

It’s a public network with more traffic A private network and traffic is less

Can transfer unlimited data Can transfer only limited data

Can be widely accessed and used Company or organisation employees or admin with access to
login details can only use this

More data or information can be accessed Data or information accessible over intranet will be limited
or availed and specific to the company records or details
Unicast

The cast term here signifies some data(stream of packets) is being transmitted to the recipient(s)
from the client(s) side over the communication channel that helps them to communicate. Let’s
see some of the “cast” concepts that are prevailing in the computer networks field.

1. Unicast –

This type of information transfer is useful when there is a participation of a single sender and a
single recipient. So, in short, you can term it as a one-to-one transmission. For example, if a
device having IP address 10.1.2.0 in a network wants to send the traffic stream(data packets) to
the device with IP address 20.12.4.2 in the other network, then unicast comes into the picture.
This is the most common form of data transfer over the networks.
2. Broadcast –

Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types :

 Limited Broadcasting –
Suppose you have to send a stream of packets to all the devices over the network that you
reside, this broadcasting comes in handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255
(all the 32 bits of IP address set to 1) called as Limited Broadcast Address in the destination
address of the datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information transfer to all the
recipients from a single client (sender) over the network.

 Direct Broadcasting –
This is useful when a device in one network wants to transfer packet stream to all the devices
over the other network. This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of the
destination address to 1, referred to as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for
information transfer.
This mode is mainly utilized by television networks for video and audio distribution.
One important protocol of this class in Computer Networks is Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) which is used for resolving an IP address into a physical address which is necessary for
underlying communication.

3. Multicast –

In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in data transfer traffic. In
this method traffic recline between the boundaries of unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-
all). Multicast lets servers direct single copies of data streams that are then simulated and routed
to hosts that request it. IP multicast requires the support of some other protocols like IGMP
(Internet Group Management Protocol), Multicast routing for its working. Also in Classful
IP addressing Class D is reserved for multicast groups.