Study Material: Environmental Studies {21CIV57}

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Study Materials
Environmental Studies
21CIV57
As per VTU syllabus
CBCS – OBE
2021 Scheme

Mrs.BrundaG S, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, AIT, Bangalore 1

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MODULE 1

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INTRODUCTION

The four major components of environment are Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and
Biosphere.

BIOSPHERE

The outer layer of the planet Earth can be divided into several compartments: the hydrosphere (or
sphere of water), the lithosphere (or sphere of soils and rocks), and the atmosphere (or sphereof
the air). The biosphere (or sphere of life), sometimes described as "the fourth envelope", is all
living matter on the planet or that portion of the planet occupied by life. The biosphere is the part
of the earth, including air, land, surface rocks, and water, within which life occurs, and which
biotic processes in turn alter or transform.

Biosphere, a thin shell of organic matter on surface of earth comprising of all living things; is a
subsystem responsible for recycling and occupies least volume of all 3 spheres. In hydrosphere
oceans take responsibility of sinks while rivers play the role of conveyors. Atmosphere has the
least storage capacity for matter while it supports transportation the most. Atmosphere in
conjunction with hydrosphere form effective transporters of matter.

HYDROSPHERE

The Earth's hydrosphere consists of water in all forms: the ocean (which is the bulk of the
hydrosphere), other surface waters including inland seas, lakes, and rivers; rain; underground
water; ice (as in glaciers and snow); and atmospheric water vapor (as in clouds). The average depth
of the oceans is 3,794 m (12,447 ft), more than five times the average height of the continents.

The abundance of water on Earth is a unique feature that distinguishes our "Blue Planet" from
others in the solar system. Approximately 70.8 percent (97% of it being sea water and 3% fresh
water) of the Earth is covered by water and only 29.2 percent is landmass.

The water cycle describes the methods of transport for water in the hydrosphere. This cycle
includes water beneath the Earth's surface and in rocks (lithosphere), the water in plants and
animals (biosphere), the water covering the surface of the planet in liquid and solid forms, and the
water in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor, clouds, and precipitation.

The water in the oceans moves as it is of different temperature and salinity on different locations.
Surface waters are also moved by winds, giving rise to surface ocean currents. Warm water is
lighter or less dense than cold water which is more dense or heavier and salty water is also denser
than fresh water. The combination of the water's temperature and salinity determines whether it
rises to the surface, sinks to the bottom, or stays at some intermediate depth.

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ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on
planet Earth. The gases are attracted by the gravity of the body, and are retained for a longer
duration if gravity is high.

The sky appears blue during daytime and blazing red-orange at sunset due to the phenomenon of
scattering. Blue color has shorter wavelength and hence is scattered more than other colors during
sunrise as sun is high on horizon and blue encounters very less molecules.

During sunset, sun is low on the horizon; sunlight passes through more of the atmosphere and
hence encounters more molecules. This is because red has longer wavelength while blue scatters
off our line of sight.

The pressure of an atmosphere decreases with altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above
each location. However, atmospheres are not uniform in temperature, so the exact determination
of the atmospheric pressure at any particular altitude is more complex. Atmospheric gases scatter
blue light more than other wavelengths, giving the Earth a blue halo when seen from space.
The Earth's atmosphere consists, from the ground up, of the troposphere as lowest layer,
stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere (or thermosphere) and the exosphere.

The ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet energy from the Sun, is located primarily in the
stratosphere, at altitudes of 15 to 35 km. The Kármán line, located within the thermosphere at an
altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and
outer space.

Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere that begins at the surface and extends to between
7 km at the poles and 17 km at the equator. The troposphere has a great deal of vertical mixing due
to solar heating at the surface. Hence most weather activities take place here. Stratosphere from
the troposphere's 7-17 km range to about 30 km, here temperature increases with height. Global
warming, ozone depletion originate here. Mesosphere starts about from 50 km to the range of 80-
85 km, here temperature decreasing with height. Thermosphere starts from80–85 km to 640+ km,
temperature increasing with height. Ionosphere is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by
solar radiation. It plays an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of
the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among otherfunctions, it influences radio
propagation to distant places on the Earth. It is located in the thermosphere.

Exosphere begins from 500-1000 km up to 10,000 km, free-moving particles that may migrate into
and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind. The boundaries between these regions are named
the tropopause, stratopause, mesopause, thermopause and exobase.

Commercial airliners [subsonic] fly in lower stratosphere, jet airliners [supersonic] fly in the
troposphere. Spy satellites orbit in exosphere at about 434 miles [700 km], where in while
meteorites burn up in thermosphere.

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COMPOSITION OF AIR [by volume]

75.523% nitrogen
23.133% oxygen
1.288% argon
0.035% carbon dioxide
0.001267% neon
0.00029% methane
0.00033% krypton
0.000724% helium
0.0000038 % hydrogen

LITHOSPHERE

The lithosphere is the solid outermost shell of a rocky planet. The lithosphere is about 100 km
thick. If you could slice the Earth in half, you would see four layers: the crust, the mantle, the inner
core, and the outer core. Each layer is made of different materials, has a different density, and has
a different thickness.

The Crust

The crust is Earth's outermost layer. The crust varies from 5 to 70 kilometers in thickness. The
crust includes rocks, minerals, and soil. There are two kinds of crust: continental and oceanic. Yes,
there is even crust under the ocean! The crust is constantly moving, which is why continents move
and earthquakes happen. The science that studies how the parts of the crust move is called "Plate
Tectonics."

Earth's oceanic crust is a thin layer of dense rock about 5 kilometers thick. The continental crust
is less dense, with lighter-colored rock that varies from 30 to 70 kilometers thick. The continental
crust is older and thicker than the oceanic crust.

The crust is made of many types of rocks and hundreds of minerals. These rocks and minerals are
made from just 8 elements: Oxygen (46.6%), Silicon (27.72%), Aluminum (8.13%), Iron
(5.00%), Calcium (3.63%), Sodium (2.83%), Potassium (2.70%), and Magnesium (2.09%). The
oceanic crust has more Silicon, Oxygen, and Magnesium. The continental crust has more Silicon
and Aluminum.

The Mantle

Directly below the crust is the mantle. The mantle makes up the largest volume of the Earth's
interior. It is almost 2900 kilometers thick and comprises about 83 % of the Earth's volume. It has
two parts, an upper layer and a lower layer. The upper mantle is about 670 kilometers in depth. It
is brittle and less dense. It is thought to be made of peridotite, a rock made from the minerals
olivine and pyroxene. The rocks in the upper mantle are more rigid and brittle because of cooler
temperatures and lower pressures. The Lower Mantle is much thicker and denser. It is 670 to 2900
kilometers below the Earth's surface. This layer is hot and plastic. The higher pressure in this layer
causes the formation of minerals that are different from those of the upper mantle.

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The Outer and Inner Core

The region beneath the mantle is called the core, and is made of two parts, a liquid outer core that
is about 2250 km thick and a solid inner core which is 1220 km thick. The core is mostly made of
iron, with a little bit of nickel.

The outer core is at 1,800 - 3,200 miles (2,890-5,150 km) below the earth's surface. The
temperature in the outer core is about 7200 - 9032 ºF (4000-5000ºC). The molten, liquid iron in
the outer core is important because it helps create Earth's magnetic field.

The inner core is 3,200 - 3,960 miles (5,150-6,370 km) below the earth's surface and mainly
consists of iron, nickel and some lighter elements (probably Sulphur, carbon, oxygen, silicon and
potassium). The temperature in the inner core is about 9032 - 10832 ºF (5000-6000 ºC). Because
of the high pressure, the inner core is solid.

Earthquake is an outcome of pressure buildup in lithospheric plates called tectonic plates that move
about each other, generating friction and resulting in pressure built up. But when pressure exceeds
sustenance, huge amount of force is released destroying tectonic plates resulting in phenomenon
called earthquake.

ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem can be defined as any situation where there is interaction between organisms and
their environment. The ecosystem is composed of two entities, the entirety of life and the medium
that life exists in. They can be classified as AQUATIC and TERRESTRIAL.

A BALANCED ECOSYSTEM is one in which there is a Population balance existing between

Prey-Predators, Producers-Consumers relationship and as well its ensured that there is constant
and optimum recycling of matter.

Plants constitute 99 percent of earths living species and the rest 1 per cent include animals and
man who depend on the plant world for their food. If this ratio (99:1) is disturbed by elimination
of plants (i.e., deforestation), then the natural balance will be lost and the entire living world will
suffer most. The dynamic balance is among plants (producers), bacteria and micro-organisms
(decomposers who decompose mineral salts in soil into elements which are cycled back into the
plants) and animals plus man (consumers). Once this dynamic balance is upset, there would be
ecological crisis and the entire biosphere would be in danger.

Soil (edaphic factors) includes soil texture, soil air, soil temperature, soil water, soil solution and
pH, together with soil organisms and decaying matter.

Winds carry water vapor which may condense and fall in the form of rain, snow or hail. Wind
plays a role in pollination and seed dispersal of some plants, as well as the dispersal of some
animals, such as insects. Wind erosion can remove and redistribute topsoil, especially where
vegetation has been reduced.

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Physiographic factors are those associated with the physical nature of the area, such as altitude,
slope of land and the position of the area in relation to the sun or rain-bearing winds. Altitude plays
a role in vegetations zones.

Slopes are important when considering the temperature of the soil surface on land with a northern
slope, on level and on land with south facing slopes.

The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Oxygen is used by all living organisms during respiration. Carbon dioxide is used by green plants
during photosynthesis. Nitrogen is made available to plants by certain bacteria and through the
action of lightning.

Plant and animal habitats vary from entirely aquatic environments to very dry deserts. Water is
essential for life and all organisms depend on it to survive in especially desert areas. Plants can
be classified into 3 groups according to their water requirements. Hydrophytes are plants which
grow in water e.g. water-lilies and rushes. Mesophytes are plants with average water requirements
e.g. roses, sweet peas. Xerophytes are plants which grow in dry environments where they often
experience a shortage of water e.g. cacti and often succulents.

The distribution of plants and animals is greatly influenced by extremes in temperature for instance
the warm season. The occurrence or non-occurrence of frost is a particularly important determinant
of plant distribution since many plants cannot prevent their tissues from freezing or survive the
freezing and thawing processes.

Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems. It is the energy
that is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of photosynthesis; a
process during which plants manufacture organic substances by combining inorganic substances.
Visible light is of the greatest importance to plants because it is necessary for photosynthesis.
Factors such as quality of light, intensity of light and the length of the light period (day length)
play an important part in an ecosystem.

Macronutrients are those elements, which generally occur in 1000 ppm or higher in plants. They
include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur
(S), whereas the micronutrients are generally found in plants at levels of 500 ppm or less. Group
of minerals that plants use in very small amounts are commonly referred as "trace or micro"
nutrients and include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo),
boron (B), chlorine (Cl) and nickel (Ni). The classical approach to assessing micronutrient
limitations is based on the law of limiting factors, sometimes also referred to as Liebig’s law of
the minimum.

Biotic factors include INTRASPECIFIC AND INTERSPECIFIC relations.

Interspecific relations are interactions between different species, usually described according to
their beneficial, detrimental or neutral effect. Intraspecific relations are those that are established
between individuals of the same species, forming a population.

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Positive Interactions:

[a] Mutualism: Populations help each other through mode of symbiosis.

[E.g. Pollination, lichens]

[b] Commensalism: Only one species is befitted while neither is harmed or

Benefited. [E.g. Epiphytes]

[c] Proto-co-operation: Non-obligatory symbiotic relationship.

[E.g., Sea Anemone attached to molluscan shell harboring hermit crab].

Negative Interactions:

[a] Competition:
[i] Resource competition: Battle for resources in scarcity
[ii] Interference competition: Battle for resources in non-scarcity
[b] Parasitism: Receiving benefit at cost of other’s survival or well-being.

The most significant relation is the relation of predation (to eat or to be eaten), which leads to the
essential concepts in ecology of food chain.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The movement of water around, over and through the Earth is called the water cycle. The water
cycle has no starting point. However, we'll begin in the oceans, since that is where most of Earth's
water exists. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates
as vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor.

Organisms play an important role in the water cycle. As you know, most organisms contain a
significant amount of water (up to 90% of their body weight). This water is not held for any length
of time and moves out of the organism rather quickly in most cases. Animals and plants lose water
through evaporation from the body surfaces and through evaporation from the gas exchange
structures (such as lungs).

In plants, water is drawn in at the roots and moves to the gas exchange organs, the leaves, where
it evaporates quickly. This special case is called transpiration because it is responsible for so much
of the water that enters the atmosphere. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere,
along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water transpired from plants andevaporated
from the soil. Guttation is the process of loss of water form roots.

The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents
move clouds around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow and fall out of the sky as precipitation.
Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store
frozen water for thousands of years.

Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation
flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the

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landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and ground-water seepage,
accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes.

Snowmelt refers to the runoff produced by melting snow. Runoff includes the variety of ways by
which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it
flows, the water may infiltrate into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or
reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.

Once water condenses, gravity takes over and the water is pulled to the ground. Gravity continues
to operate, either pulling the water underground (groundwater) or across the surface (runoff). In
either event, gravity continues to pull water lower and lower until it reaches the oceans. Infiltration
is the flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated,the water becomes
soil moisture or groundwater.

Not all runoff flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some
water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which
store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration finds openings in
the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. Subsurface Flow is the flow of water
underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface as a
spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Groundwater tends to move slowly,
and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

FOOD CHAIN

A food chain is the flow of energy from one organism to the next. Organisms in a food chain are
grouped into trophic levels. Trophic levels may consist of either a single species or a group of
species that are presumed to share both predators and prey. They usually start with a primary
producer and end with a carnivore. Below a food chain has been depicted beginning from grass
extending to hawk in a single linear chain.

GRASS ---> GRASSHOPPER --> MOUSE ---> SNAKE ---> HAWK

FOOD WEB

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A food web extends from a food chain concept from a simple linear pathway to a complex network
of interactions. Food chains, food webs graphically represent the transfer of material and energy
from one species to another within an ecosystem. Below a food web has been depicted showing
the complex nature of interactions between each trophic level influencing directly and indirectly.

ORGANISMS REPRESENTED IN FOOD CHAINS

Producers/Autotrophs -- An organism that produces complex organic compounds from simple

inorganic molecules and an external source of energy, such as light or chemical reactions of
inorganic compounds.

Autotrophs are considered producers in a food chain. Plants and other organisms that carry out
photosynthesis are phototrophs (or photoautotrophs). Bacteria that utilize the oxidation of
inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonium or ferrous iron as an energy source are
chemoautotrophs

They take energy from the environment (sunlight or inorganic sources) and use it to process
carbon-based and other organic molecules that are used to carry out various biological functions
such as cell growth. Other organisms, called heterotrophs, utilize autotrophs as food to carry out
these same functions.

Consumers/Heterotrophs -- animals, which can be primary consumers (herbivorous), secondary or

tertiary consumers (carnivorous) and Tertiary consumers (omnivores). There are some speciesof
organisms that require organic compounds as a source of carbon, but are able to use light or
inorganic compounds as a source of energy. Such organisms are not defined as autotrophic, but
rather as heterotrophic. An organism that obtains carbon from organic compounds but obtains
energy from light is called a photo heterotroph, while an organism that obtains carbon from organic
compounds but obtains energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds is termed a chemo
heterotroph.

Decomposers --organisms that consume dead plants and animals, and, in doing so, carry out the
natural process of decomposition. The primary decomposers are bacteria and fungi. When a plant
or animal dies, it leaves behind nutrients and energy in the organic material that comprised its
body. Scavenger and detrivores may feed on the carcasses or litter, but they will inevitably leave
behind a considerable amount of unused energy and nutrients. Decomposers complete
decomposition by breaking down this remaining organic matter. Although decomposers are
generally located on the bottom of ecosystem diagrams such as food chains, food webs, and energy
pyramids, decomposers in the biosphere are crucial to the environment.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Pyramid of Numbers: Developed by Charles Elton, it depicts the number of

organisms at each trophic level. The general representation shows maximum
numbers at the base [producers] and least at the top usually Homo sapiens.

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Pyramid of Biomass: The biomass of the members of the food chain present at any time forms the
pyramid of bio-mass. The pyramid depicts decrease in bio-mass as one move from base to apex.

Pyramid of Energy: when production is considered in terms of energy that i.e., chemical energy,
the scenario is same displaying energy losses as the movement is towards the apex

ENERGY FLOW

All ecosystems must have a source of energy (usually the sun) because all organism functions such
as growth and reproduction require energy. Energy moves through the ecosystem by a series of
events that link organism’s together.Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert light into
chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, which creates glucose (a simple sugar) and
releases free oxygen. Glucose; thus, becomes the secondary energy source which drives the
ecosystem.

Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + Water + Sunlight (Energy) = Glucose + Oxygen

Some sugars produced during photosynthesis are broken down during respiration to release energy
needed by the plant for growth and reproduction. Others are used to make "building blocks" that
are combined to make plant cells, hence plant parts.

Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (Heat)

Animals that eat plants (herbivores) use them to make animal parts or burn them to produce energy
for their cell functions. Any compounds not used immediately are combined and stored asfats.
Tissues of animals eaten by other animals (predators/carnivores) are broken down and re-
combined into new parts for that animal and so on. Thus, all animals depend on plants for food. In
any food network, the energy contained in the level of the producers is not completely transferred
to the consumers, the higher one[n] goes up the chain, the more energy and resourcesis lost and
consumed. It is often the case that biomass of each trophic level decreases from the base of the
chain to the top. This is because energy is lost to the environment with each transfer. On average,
only 10% of the organism's energy is passed on to its predator. The other 90% is used for the
organisms life processes or is lost as heat to the environment.

Anthroposystem

In an ecosystem most of the materials are transferred from the producers (plants) to the recyclers
(bacteria), and only a small fraction is passed through the consumers to the recyclers. The
decomposers (recyclers) return most of the materials to the producers from reuse. In the
Anthroposystem the flow from the producers to the recyclers is small or even nonexistent since it
would be pointless to produce (mobilize) materials and immediately recycle them without a
consumer in the loop. In the Anthroposystem much of the mobilized materials are transferred to
the rest of the material environment, to the producer and to the consumer. Hence, it is mostly an
open system, where recycling accounts for only a small fraction of the mobilized matter.

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In the Anthroposystem, there is usually a significant physical displacement between the producer
and the consumer.

Balanced Ecosystem
A Balanced Ecosystem occurs when there is a Population balance existing between Prey- Predators
and Producers-Consumers relationships. It ensures that there is constant and optimum recycling of
matter. Plants constitute 99 percent of earth’s living species and the rest one percent include
animals and homo-sapiens. If this ratio (99:1) is disturbed by elimination of plants (i.e.,
deforestation), then the natural balance will be lost and the entire system will collapse. There is a
dynamic balance among green plants (producers), bacteria and micro-organisms (i.e., decomposers
who decompose mineral salts in soil into elements which are cycled back into the plants) and
animals (consumers). Once this dynamic balance is upset, there would be ecological crisis and the
entire biosphere would be in danger. To avoid this, there must exist equilibrium between the biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living). To overcome imbalances and for survival, organisms sometime
undertake in Ecological succession, a process in which ecological communities respond to changes
in their environment.

Classification of Ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystems

Marine Ecosystems: These cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and form
approximately 97% of the planet's water. Marine ecosystems generate 32% of the world's net
primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of
dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water. Marine ecosystems can be divided into oceanic
shelf, salt marshes, coral reefs and hydrothermal vents. Classes of organisms found in marine
ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks.

Freshwater Ecosystems: These cover 0.8% of the Earth's surface and contain 0.009% of its total
water. They generate nearly 3% of its net primary production. There are 2 basic types of freshwater
ecosystems.

 Lentic: Slow-moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes.

 Lotic: Rapidly-moving water, for example streams and rivers.

Organisms in marine ecosystems tolerate salinity, while many freshwater organisms are intolerant
of salt. Estuaries are special ecosystems formed where sea water mixes with fresh water and
nutrients from rivers, streams, and runoff. The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem. During
rainy seasons, when a pond begins to fill, its life forms such as the algae and microscopicanimals,
aquatic insects, snails, and worms come out of the floor of the pond where they remained dormant
in the dry phase. The vegetation in the pond consists of floating weeds and rooted vegetation on
the periphery which grows on the muddy floor under water and emerges outof the surface of the
water. As the pond fills during the monsoon, a large number of food chains are formed. Algae are
eaten by microscopic animals, which are in turn eaten by small fish.

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The temporary ponds dry after the rains and surrounding grasses and terrestrial plants spread into
the exposed moist mud. Frogs, snails and worms remain dormant in the mud, anticipating next
monsoon.

Lake Ecosystem
Lakes are large natural bodies of standing-water, which is formed when precipitation, runoff, or
groundwater seepage fills depressions on the Earth’s surface”.

The parts of a lake also can be classified by temperature:

 The epilimnion [the upper layer of warm water].
 The hypolimnion [the lower layer of colder, denser water].
 The thermocline [the area in between in which water temperature decreases rapidly with
depth].

Lakes and ponds are divided into 4 different “zones” usually determined by depth and distance
from the shoreline. The four zones of a lake from top to bottom are the littoral zone, the limnetic
zone, the profundal zone and the bathyal zone.

 Littoral zone encompasses the area near the shore at the top of the lake that receives
sunlight, extending down to the depth where rooted plants stop growing. This zone has
high biodiversity. This zone is the warmest since it is shallow and can absorb more of the
Sun’s heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community, which can include several species of
algae (like diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects,
crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians. As further depth increases, dissolved oxygen levels

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decreases, so the epilimnion has the highest amount of oxygen and the hypolimnion the
lowest amount.
 Limnetic zone the near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone. The limnetic
zone is essentially the open area away from the shore. Most photosynthesis occurs in this
part of the lake itself. The zone is well-lighted just like the littoral zone and is dominated
by plankton, both phytoplankton and zooplankton.

 Profundal zone the deep open water where it is tough for photosynthesis to happen and the
planktons here have short life spans. This zone is much colder and denser than the other 2
as little light penetrates. The fauna are heterotrophs, meaning that they eat dead organisms
and use oxygen for cellular respiration.\
 Benthic zone is the very bottommost layer of the lake. Organisms here tend to tolerate
cooler temperatures much better. Low levels of photosynthesis result in low levels of DO
in this level.

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems include Forests, Grasslands, Semi-arid areas and Deserts.

Forest Ecosystem
A forest is a highly complex, constantly changing environment encompassing variety of living and
non-living things. The word forest is derived from the Latin word Foris. Forest cover
approximately occupies 9.4% geographical portion of the earth. Forests Ecosystem sub-
Classification includes Tropical Rainforests, Sub-Tropical Forests, Mediterranean Forests,
Temperate Forests, Coniferous Forests, Montane Forests, Plantation Forests, Deciduous Forest
and Evergreen Forest.

Functions of Forest Ecosystem

Regulatory functions

 It helps regulate water cycle.

 The ecological benefit apart from cleansing of air, water includes carbon sequestration,
and reducing Global warming.
 It helps regular global ambient air temperature.
 It provides raw material for paper and pulp industries.

Habitat functions
 Provides a reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals
 Contributes to in-situ conservation of biological and genetic diversity and the
evolutionary process.

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Production functions
 Through the process of photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts energy,
carbon dioxide, water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate structures which
are then used by secondary producers to create an even larger variety of living biomass.

Information functions
 Provides an essential 'reference function‘
 Contribute to the maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for reflection,
spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic experience.
 Trees also help in absorbing noise and creating an aesthetic environment free of stress
and peace.
 It serves for tourism attraction and provides recreational activities like hunting, camping,
hiking, fishing, watching wildlife, off road biking, horseback riding and plant collecting.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are terrestrial ecosystems found around the tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn in
Northern and Southern Hemispheres. They have mega-thermal climate, as per Koppen climate
classification. The desert is the hottest biome on Earth and occupies about one fifth of the Earth's
land surface. Sahara Desert, Arabian Desert, Gobi Desert, Kalahari Desert and Thar Desert are
few of famous deserts around the world.

Hot deserts

 Temperature is very warm entire year, with summers being extremely hot.
 More flora and fauna can be found here compared to cold desert.
 Water is very scarce.
 Temperature is very high during day and very low at night.
 Xerophytes have modifications like pulpy stem to store water and wax covered thorny
leaves to reduce transpiration. The roots are very long to reach the water table.
 Animals such as reptiles, rodents, wolves display nocturnal behaviour.

Cold deserts

 This type of desert has short and warm summers, and Long, cold winters
 Found in places near the north and south poles
 Less flora and fauna can be found compared to hot desert.

Functions of Desert Ecosystem

 Deserts contain valuable mineral deposits like silica, gypsum, borates are found here.
 Due to consistent dryness, deserts are ideal places for natural preservation of artifacts and
fossils.

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Structure of Desert Ecosystem

 The abiotic factors include sunlight, oxygen, carbon-di-oxide, ground water, temperature,
humidity, pH.
 The producers mainly include shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees

Abiotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem

 The thin soils frequently attacked by sand storm and wind with lack of humus makes
them infertile.
 The moisture lost through evaporation is much greater than that gained during rainfall.
 The rainfall is extremely irregular.
 The drought period is usually longer than a year.

Biotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem – Fauna

 Hundreds of different animals thrive in deserts.

 Most of these are found only at dawn or dusk, when climate is much cooler.
 The fauna include snakes, owls, mice, armadillo lizards, fennec foxes, bats, vultures and
camels.

Biotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem – Flora

 There are several varieties of plants that are able to survive in the desert.
 Most plants survive due to their tap roots that are able to reach underground water.
 The vegetation of the Desert Biome is mostly characterized by dominance of annual
plants, often annual grasses.
 These plants have special parts and adaptations that help them save water.

BIODIVERSITY & ITS VALUES

Biodiversity can be defined as the richness of the diversification of all the species living in a
particular area. The values of biodiversity are classified as Ecosystem service value, Ethical
Values, Aesthetic Values, Ecosystem service value, Option value, Social value and Productive use
values.

Ethical Value is also sometimes called as existence value. It incorporates the ethical issues that
all life must be preserved. This is based on the concept of Live and Let Live. Biodiversity is
valuable in all facets and If we want our human race to survive, then we must protect all
biodiversity. The ethical aspect means that we may or may not use a species, but knowing the very
fact that this species exists in nature gives us pleasure. We are not deriving anything directly
animals from Kangaroo, Zebra or Giraffe, but the strong urge must be that these species should
co-exist in nature. Hence it means, there is an ethical value or existence value attached to every
species on earth.

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Option values include the potential of biodiversity that are presently unknown and needs to be
explored from their realms for their true function. There is a hint that we might have potential cure
for diseases such as AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical
rainforest. Option value is hence knowing that there are biological resources existing on this
biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for the future. The option value of
biodiversity therefore suggests that any species may prove to be a useful someday. The
biodiversity is a precious gift of nature and we should not commit the folly of losing these gifts
even before unwrapping them.
Social values are associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of
the humans. Many plants are considered holy and sacred in our country such as Tulsi, Peepal,
Lotus, Bael. The leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in worship of deities or the plant
itself is sometimes worshipped. The tribal people are very closely linked with social values of the
forests. The social life, songs, dances and customs of tribes are closely woven around the forest
and its wildlife. Many animals like Cow, Snake, Bull, Peacock, Owl have significant placein our
psycho-spiritual arena and hence gains social importance.

Ecosystem service values refers to the services provided by ecosystems in preventing soil erosion
and floods, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks, pollutant absorption
and mitigating the threat of global warming. Ecosystem services those are often not readily visible.
It plays a part in regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere. Biodiversity is directly involved in
recycling nutrients and providing fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have
revealed that humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs.Example: Insect
pollination cannot be mimicked by human-made construction.

Productive use values are the commercially viable values where the product is marketed and sold
for profitable ventures. This includes lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded by scientists
for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals. This may include the
animal products like silk from silk-worm, wool from sheep, fir of many animals, lac from lac
insects. Many industries are dependent upon productive use values of biodiversity such as paper
and pulp industry, plywood industry, Silk industry, textile industry. Developing nations of Asia,
Africa and Latin America are the richest biodiversity centers.

Consumptive use value includes direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested
and consumed directly.

Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be explained at three levels, namely Genetic Diversity, Species Diversity and
Ecosystem Diversity.

 Genetic biodiversity reflects at the variation of genes within a species. Diversity of genes
within a species increases its potential ability to adapt to disease, pollution and the other
changes in habitat or environment. When a variety of particular specie is destroyed, the
genetic diversity gets diminished; hence increase in genetic diversity is essential for a
species to evolve.

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 Species Diversity is portrayed as the variability found within the population of a species
or between different species of a community. It indicates broadly the species richness and
their abundance of community. Species biodiversity indicates variability of species within
a region. Species diversity can be measured on the basis of species in a region. Greater
species biodiversity reflects at more biological wealth.

 Ecosystem diversity is defined as ‘the aggregation of various habitats, community types

and abiotic environments of a given area’. This is essentially the diversity of ecological
complexity showing variations in ecological niches, tropic structure, food-webs and
nutrient cycling. This diversity reflects on the variations with respect to physical
parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude precipitation. The ecosystem diversity is
of great value that must be kept intact as its destruction would disrupt the ecological
balance. This diversity refers to diversity at habitat level. For example in a forest
ecosystem, the ecosystem diversity is reflected by tropical rainforest, deciduous forest,
temperate deciduous forest and boreal forest.

Human knowledge of the world’s biodiversity is still inadequate. There are three levels of
biodiversity, global, national and local levels. All the three global, national and local levels are
linked and constitute a gene pool.
India is a signatory to Convention on Biological Diversity by ratifying it in 1993. There are 34
world biodiversity hot spots. Overall 6% of the global species are found in India itself.

Biodiversity Hot-Spots

Threats to Biodiversity
As human population expands and natural habitats shrink, they constantly and increasingly come
into conflict over living space and other resources. Humans unlike other animals prefer to change
the environment around them instead of adjusting himself according to the environment.

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Animals often end crossing paths without humans for reasons such as loss of habitat, loss of food
and natural pathway of migration and movement. Environmental pollution and global warming
also causes certain animals especially those who cannot regulate body temperature and under stress
to lock horns with humans. The other major threats are:

 Loss of habitat
 Poaching and Over hunting
 Man-wildlife conflicts
 Deforestation
 Dams
 Urbanisation
 Agriculture
 Deforestation
 Forest fires
 Introduction of new species
 Natural disasters
 Mining
 Desertification

Control measures to conserve and protect Biodiversity

 Proper Land-use planning
 Community Based Management
 Ensuring forests are free of human interference.
 Controlling rate of deforestation.
 Strict adherence to forest laws.
 Strict implementation of law, punishments and penalties for violators and poachers.
 Regular monitoring by foot patrol and GIS tracking.
 Strict control on the issuance of license of firearms around important protected areas.
 Spread awareness amidst general public about conservation and preservation of wildlife
and their habitat.
 Protection of the habitats permanently through formation and conservation of national
parks, nature reserves and wilderness areas will help preserve biodiversity.

In-situ & Ex-situ conservation of Biodiversity

The enormous value of biodiversity in the form of their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic
and ecological importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity.

There are two approaches to biodiversity conservation: In-situ conservation and Ex-situ
conservation. In situ conservation (within habitat) is achieved by protection of wild flora and
fauna by creating environment similar to nature such as national parks, forest reserves, and
Sanctuaries. Ex-situ conservation (outside habitats) is done by establishing gene banks, seed banks,
zoos, and botanical gardens. Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from
one generation to the other. The genes found in organisms can form enormous combinations each
of which gives rise to some variability. When the genes within the same species show different
versions due to new combinations, it is called genetic variability.

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NATURAL RESOURCES
Nature provides life support materials or resources for sustenance of life on earth for plants,
animals and man. These are known as Natural Resources. Examples are water, air, soil, forests,
minerals, crops etc.

There are 2 categories of natural resources:

1. Renewable resources: These can be recycled and regenerated within a given span of time.
E.g., Forests, wind energy, solar energy, biomass energy, hydropower etc.
2. Non-Renewable Resources: These cannot be regenerated e.g., fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum, minerals etc.

The major natural resources are:

1. Forest resources
2. Water resources
3. Mineral resources
4. Food resources
5. Energy resources
6. Land resources

FOREST WEALTH

Forest resources play a vital role in the economy of India, the following section deal with the
forest resources, its utility and emerging threats

COMPONENTS OF FOREST
A forest is a highly complex, constantly changing environment made up of a variety of living
[wildlife, trees, shrubs, wildflowers, ferns, mosses, lichens, fungi and microscopic soil organism]
and non-living [water, nutrients, rocks, sunlight and air] things. Trees are the most dominant
component of this environment

BENEFITS OF FOREST
Forests cover much of the planets land area. They are extremely important to humans and the
natural world. For humans, they have many aesthetic, recreational, economic, historical, cultural
and religious values. Timber and other products of forests are important economically both locally
and as exports.

Forest provides wood for fuel as a significant for those who harvest the wood or products of the
living forest. Other non-wood products come in the form of medicinal compounds, dyes and
fabrics. One-third of the world’s population depends on wood for fuel as a significant energy
source. Some indigenous people [tribal] depend completely on forest as their home and for many
it’s a source of their livelihood.
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Key benefits of forest are:

Provides clean water by intercepting water from rain and slowing it down and hence aids soil
absorption for gradual release into streams at a slow and even rate. Cleansing action is done by
root system.

Provides clean air by mode of photosynthesis wherein they release oxygen and take in carbon-di-
oxide. Trees filter air off harmful pollutants and moderate the air temperature.

Provides home/shelter to a wide array of species of flora and fauna. There is a possibility that many
herbs of potential medical treatments, cures and vaccines may lie undiscovered within forests.

As source of economic growth by providing timber and playing important role in wood based
industries and paper and pulp industries. Also it serves for tourism attraction And finally it also
provide fruits, nuts, flowers and many other products of economic value.

Provides recreational activities like hunting, camping, hiking, fishing, watching wildlife, off road
biking, horseback riding and plant collecting.

The ecological benefit apart from cleansing of air, water includes carbon sequestration i.e., taking
carbon-di-oxide of out of the earth atmosphere to produce wood and leaf matter.

Trees as well help in absorbing noise, creating an aesthetic environment free of stress and peace.
Trees protect topsoil from erosion and reduce risk of failure of slopes and hence prevent landslides
and avalanches.

Water from roots is drawn up to the leaves where it evaporates. The conversion from water to gas
absorbs huge amounts of heat cooling hot city air. Trees help to offset the heat island effect
resulting from too much glass and concrete in city environments.

DEFORESTATION

It refers to the loss of forest cover; land that is permanently converted from forest to agricultural
land, golf courses, cattle pastures, homes, lakes or desert. It is sometimes referred as change of
forest with depletion of tree crown cover more than 90%.

UNCED 1992 defined deforestation as land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub humid areas
resulting from various factors including climatic variations and human activities.

Causes:

Agriculture – most of the forest clearing around the world is done for agricultural
purposes [grazing cattle, planting crops etc.] poor farmers cut down small areas [few
acres] and burn down the trees and proceed with agriculture. Intensive an extensive
agriculture destroys forest on a larger scale.

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Commercial logging – cutting trees for timber or pulp. Logging can occur selectively [only the
economically valuable species are cut] or by clear cutting [all tree are cut]. Commercial logging
employs heavy machinery.

The cash crop economy – this is an integral part of the Third World Development and a major
cause of deforestation. The best land is taken to earn export income, which is very often used to
pay the foreign debt. Farmers are forced onto marginal land.

Mining and Dams – mining, hydro-electric schemes and industrial development are also
significant causes of deforestation, both in terms of land they occupy and displacement of forest
people.

Effects:
Fewer trees result in insecure work for forest workers
Heavy rainfall and high sunlight damage the topsoil in absence of trees.
Erosion of soil, landslide frequented
Loss of future markets for eco-tourism
Indigenous people loss livelihood
Loss of rare/endangered wildlife species
Loss of habitat and migration of wild animals to rural and urban zones
Cutting or burning o tees give a lot of carbon-di-oxide into atmosphere
Reduction in rainfall
Desertification
No recycling of water
Less carbon-di-oxide and nitrogen exchange
Desiccation of soil

Remedies
Reduce the consumption of forest and related products
Avoid harmful products by consumer boycotts; such has tropical rainforest wood, old growth
wood from the tropical rainforest.
Boycott products of companies involved in deforestation.
Compel govt. and industries to make changes in forest policies
.Increase public awareness.

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