1.3.

Block diagram of computer

The Basic components & parts of computer system are given below:

 Input Devices
 Output Devices
 CPU (Central Processing Unit)
o CU
o ALU
 Storage Unit
o Primary storage unit
o Secondary storage unit

Input Unit:
 Input Devices accepts or receives the data or instruction from outside the world such as
input devices like keyboard and mouse
  It converts the data or instruction or information into binary form for further processing.
 They act like a connection between outside the world and the computer system
 Keyboard and mouse are examples of input devices.

Output Unit:
 The output unit display the results of the processing.
 The output unit converts the binary codes into human readable form for better
understanding.
 They acts as a connection or link between outside world and computer system.
 Printers, monitors and projectors are the prime examples of output devices.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit is also called the brain of a computer. It performs all the operation such
as arithmetic and logic operation.

The different component of CPU is

 Arithmetic logical unit :

 Control Unit:

 Control Unit
o control unit of a CPU controls the entire operation of a computer. It also controls all
devices such as memory, input/output devices connected to the CPU.
o CU fetches instructions from memory, decodes the instruction, interprets the
instruction and sends suitable control signals to the other components to execute
the instruction.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Here arithmetic logic unit performs all arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. It also uses logic operation for comparison.

Storage Unit
Data and instruction enters into a computer system through input device have to stored inside the
computer before actual processing start. It stores programs, data as well as intermediate results and
output results.

Two types of storage unit are

 primary storage unit

 secondary storage unit.

 Primary Storage Unit

They are also called as Main memory or in other words as RAM (Random Access Memory).The
Data or set of instruction is stored in primary storage before processing and later the data is
transferred to ALU where further processing is done. The data store in this memory is
temporary. They are very expensive.

 Secondary Storage Unit

The Secondary storage is also called a permanent storage unit as when the data store in this
memory is stored permanently user can recall the data whenever they need. They are much
cheaper than primary memory.

1.4 Generation of computer

The history of computer development characterized by a major technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in smaller, cheaper, powerful and
efficient computing devices.

First generation (1940 - 1956)

The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes as a major piece of technology. Vacuum
tubes were larger components and resulted in first generation computers being quite large in
size, taking up a lot of space in a room or even a house.

Example:

The ENIAC, EDSAC, IBM 701, and Manchester Mark 1.

Second generation (1956 - 1963)

The second generation of computers saw the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
Transistors were smaller than vacuum tubes and allowed computers to be smaller in size, faster
in speed, and cheaper to build.

Example:

IBM 7070, RCA 501.

Third generation (1964 - 1971)

The third generation of computers introduced the use of IC (integrated circuits) in computers.
Using IC's in computers helped reduce the size of computers even more compared to second-
generation computers, and make them faster.

IC's are still used in computers today. Over 45 years later, today's computers have deep roots
going back to the third generation.

Example:

IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series

Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)

The fourth generation of computers took advantage of the invention of the microprocessor,
more commonly known as a CPU. Microprocessors, with integrated circuits, helped make it
possible for computers to fit easily on a desk and for the introduction of the laptop.

Example:

Altair 8800, IBM 5100.

Fifth generation (2010 to present)

The fifth generation of computers is beginning to use AI (artificial intelligence), an exciting

technology with many potential applications around the world.

Example:

Apple's Siri, Microsoft's. The Google search engine also utilizes AI to process user searches.

1.5. Types of Computer

Classify on the basis of principle of operation:

• Analog Computer
• Digital Computer
• Hybrid Computer

Classify on the basis of size:

• Micro Computer
• Mini Computer
• Mainframe Computer
• Super Computer

On the basis of principle of operation:

Analog Computer

Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous range of values. It deals with
physical variables such as voltage, pressure, temperature, speed, etc. Speedometer and mercury
thermometer are examples of analog computers.

Digital Computer

The digital computer is designed using digital circuits in which there are two levels for an
input or output signal. These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1.
Digital computer are used in the field of design, research and data processing. All modern
computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office are
digital computers.
Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analog and digital computer. It is fast like an analog
computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. A processor is used in petrol
pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are
used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.

On the basis of size

Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support multiple programs at the same time. It means
they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers
make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage
and process a high volume of data.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. Mini computers are used for tasks billing, accounting
and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer
as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is
designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory,
storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers.

Supercomputer:

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. Supercomputers are used in scientific and engineering applications such as
weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research.

1.6. Types of Software

Various types of computer software are used to simplify the operations and applications of
computer programs.
Basically, there are only 2 main types of Software.
• System Software
• Application Software
Besides these, software can also be categorized depending on the nature of use.
• Ready-made (of-the-shelf) Software
• Tailored (custom) Software
Also, we can categorize software as:
• Open Source Software
 • Closed Source (Proprietary) Software

System Software
Offers a protective shield to all software applications, physical components of computers.
System software sits directly on top of computer's hardware components . This includes the
operating system, drivers for your hardware devices, linkers and debuggers.

Application Software
Application software is used for commercial purpose. Applications software, sits on top of
system software, as it is unable to run without the operating system and other utilities.
Computer games, Industrial automation, databases, business software and medical software are
examples of application software.

Ready-made (off-the-shelf) Software

These types of software are made and distributed by large enterprise companies. They are
made with a general purpose requirement in mind. These kind of software may
need to adjust in few features and usability.
Advantages:
 Lower up-front cost
 Support is often included or can be added with a maintenance contract
Disadvantages:
• Slow to adapt or change to industry needs
• May require you to change your process to fit the software
• Higher customization fees

Tailored (custom) Software

These types of software are made with a specific customer in mind.
Advantages:
• You can start with the minimum necessary requirements and add on later
• Can be tailored to your exact business needs and processes
• Changes can be made quickly
Disadvantages:
• Very high initial cost
• May occur additional costs for hiring new developers

Open Source Software

These types of software provide have their source code available publicly. They are
maintained and contributed by people all over the world. They are generally free of cost as well,
but not all of the open source software are free of cost.
Examples:
Linux Kernel, Firefox Web Browser, Apache Web Server etc.

Closed Source (Proprietary) Software

These types of software do not provide their source code to the general public.
They are generally controlled by a particular enterprise company. These software generally
charge money for license or subscription. But, there can be closed source software that are free
of cost, they are called Freewares.
Examples:
Microsoft Windows, Internet Explorer, Skype, etc.

1.7. Types of Programming Languages

Programming language is classified into three categories.

 Machine level Language
 Assembly level Language
 High-level Language

Machine level languages:

Machine level language consist only two condition i.e. either true (1) or false (0);

Advantages:
 Machine level languages are directly interacting with computer system.
 There is no requirement of software of conversion like compiler or interpreters.
 It takes very less time to execute a program, because there is no conversion take place.

Disadvantages:
 Its machine dependent language i.e. individual program required for each machine.
 Its time consuming to develop new programs.
 Debugging process is very hard .

Assembly level languages:

It contains the same instruction as machine level language, but the instructions and the
variables have specific name or called commands instead of being just binary numbers.

Advantages:
 It is easily understood by human because it is uses statements instead of binary digits.
 To develop a program it takes less time.
 Debugging and troubleshoot is easy due to easily find error.

Disadvantages:
 It’s a machine dependent language.
 Sometime it’s hard to understand the statement or command use.

High-level language:
High level languages are understandable by humans. C, C++, JAVA etc are example of high level
language.

Advantages:
 In this instructions and commands much easier to remember by programmer.
 Its logic and structure are much easier to understand.
  Debugging is easier compare to other languages.
 Less time consuming to writing new programs.

Disadvantages:
 It takes more space compare to machine level language and Assembly level language.
 This programming language execute slowly.

1.8 Language translator or language processor:

Assembly language is machine dependent yet mnemonics that are being used to represent instructions
in it are not directly understandable by machine and high Level language is machine independent. A
computer understands instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s. It is a tedious task to
write a computer program directly in machine code. The programs are written mostly in high level
languages like Java, C++, Python etc. and are called source code. These source code cannot be executed
directly by the computer and must be converted into machine code to be executed. Hence, a special
translator system software is used to translate the program written in high-level language into machine
code is called Language Processor and the program after translated into machine code (object program /
object code).

The language processors can be any of the following three types:

Compiler
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high level language as a
whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine language is called as a
Compiler. In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of errors.
The compiler specifies the errors at the end of compilation with line numbers when there are any errors
in the source code. The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the
source code again.
Example: C, C++, C#, Java

Assembler
The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code. The
source program is a input of assembler that contains assembly language instructions. Assembler
converts source code to an object code first then it converts the object code to the machine language
with the help of linker programs. The output generated by assembler is the object code or machine code
understandable by the computer.
 Interpreter
The translation of single statement of source program into machine code is done by language processor
and executes it immediately before moving on to the next line is called an interpreter. If there is an error
in the statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an
error message. The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after removal of the error.
An Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language without
previously converting them to an object code or machine code.
Example: Perl, BASIC and Matlab.
Object Code(Machine
Source Code(High Level
Interpreter Language)
Language) one line at a
time
 1.9. Traditional (Structured) Programming Concepts
procedure oriented programming (POP)

In pop large program is divided into smaller programs. Programs are written as a sequence of
procedures(functions).

Features of Structured Programming:

 each procedure contains a series of instructions for performing a specific task.

 During the program execution, each procedure can be called by other procedures.
 To call the procedure, we have to write procedure name only.
 Major emphasis of these languages is on the procedures and not on the data.
 Pop languages allow data to move freely around the system.
 Top down program approach is used by POP languages
 Eg: COBOL, FORTRAN, C, ALGOL, BASIC.

The Top-Down Approach

In the top-down approach, a complex algorithm is broken down into smaller fragments, better known as
‘modules.’ These modules are then further broken down into more smaller fragments until they can no
longer be fragmented. This process is called ‘modularization.’ During the modularization process, you
must always maintain the originality of the algorithm. In this approach, each function in a code is unique
and works independently of other function.
 2. PROGRAMMING LOGIC

Stages involved in Problem solving or Software Development Life Cycle(SDLC)

1. Problem
Definition

2. Requirement
analysis

3. design

a. algorithm

b. flowchart

4.Coding

5. compilation and
execution

6. debugging and
testing

7. delivery and
maintenance

8. Documentation
 Problem definition:
It is also called problem analysis. In this step, we should define problem in understandable way
without ambiguity or confusion.

Requirement analysis:
In this phase we should specify following requirements:
 Objectives
 Input requirement
 Output requirement
 Processing requirement
 Feasibility evaluation

Design
This can be done through:
a) Algorithm
Set of instruction written in simple English language to solve a particular problem.
b) Flowchart
The pictorial/ graphical representation of an algorithm is called flowchart.

Coding
Each programming language has its own syntax. So we should follow rules and syntax properly
while coding. The statements should be arranged and comments should be added whenever
necessary.

Compilation and execution:

The program needs to be translated using some translator in a machine code which is called
compilation. Compiler checks syntax error in the program. The compilation figure is shown
below.

Source code Example.c

compiler

Object code
Example.obj
Other library files
linker

Executable code Example.exe

run
Fig: compilation process
Debugging and testing
Debugging is the process of detecting or finding the errors and removing it.
Testing is the process of checking the desired output for number of inputs.

Delivery and maintenance

After the desired product has been developed, it needs to be delivered to concerned authority.
The software needs frequent maintenance or update to address problem arising in the future.

Documentation
It starts with very beginning of the project and ends with delivery of the product.
a) Documentation for programmer
It is required for other developers working on the project for future.
b) User manual
A user may need a manual to operate a software system.

Algorithm and flowchart

Algorithm:

It is a set of instructions or steps written in simple English language to perform a particular task.

Features of algorithm:

 Should be written in simple English language.

 Should be understandable and clear to any user
 Should be language independent (should not depend on any particular programming language)
 It should consist of finite number of steps.
 It should not contain any ambiguous instructions or any confusing statements.
 It should terminate after finite number of steps.

Example: The algorithm to add two numbers can be stated as:

Step1: Input numbers as a and b

Step2: Sum = x + y

Step3: Print the sum

Flowchart:

It is a pictorial representation of an algorithm. The flowcharts are helpful in understanding the logic of
complicated and lengthy problems. Once the flowchart is drawn it becomes easy to write the program in
any high-level language. It contains following standard symbols.
Questions on algo and flowchart. Refer class note.