SEMESTER 1-2022/2023 ACADEMIC YEAR

PHY232 Lecture notes

Week 1&2

Physical Properties of matter

ELASTICITY Recap: if F is positive, the material will be under

tension and if F is negative the material will be
Deformation of solids can be understood interns
under compression
of STRESS and STRAIN, where:
Stress strain diagram
STRESS: a quantity proportional to the force
causing deformation that is load per unit area. A plot of strain vs stress diagram gives the
behaviour of a material to the applied forces.
𝐹
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎) = Stress-strain diagrams are different for different
𝐴 materials.
Where F is the load applied in Newtos; A is the
crosssectional area in 𝑚2 and 𝝈: STRESS in a Pa

STRAIN: a measure of degree of deformation, as

measured by the elongation of a material from its
original length.

∆𝐿 Figure 1: stress strain diagram

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀) = 𝐿𝑜
Region 1→ 2: Elastic region

The material will return to its original

shape after the material is unloaded. (e.g.
rubber band)
the stress is linearly proportional to strain
in this region

𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆 = 𝐸 ∗ 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁
𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆 𝜎
𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = =
Where e = is ∆𝐿 the elongation or the amount of 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁 𝜀
Where 𝜎 =STRESS and
lengthening.
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 E is the elastic modulus (or Young’s 1.2 Poisson’s ratio
modulus). Sometimes Y is used to Note that longitudinal strain does not occur in
represent Young’s modulus isolation. There is also thinning (or widening) of
the sample. Note tension is applied along the axis
Region 2: Yield strength
of the
A point at which permanent deformation occurs. If sample,
it is passed, the material will no longer return to there is
its original length.

Region 2→3: Plastic region

if the material is loaded beyond the yield

strength, the material will not return to its
original shape after unloading
it will have some permanent deformation
if the material is unloaded at POINT 3, the longitudinal strain (sample increases in length
curve will proceed from Point 3 to Point 4, from L to L’) and also there transverse strain=
the slope will be same as the slope latitudinal strain (sample decreases in diameter
between Point 1 and 2. from D to D’.
The distance between Point 1 and 4
indicates the amount of permanent 𝐷′ − 𝐷 ∆𝐷
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
deformation. 𝐷 𝐷

Strain hardening 𝐿′ − 𝐿 ∆𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝐿 𝐿
If the material is loaded again from point
4, the curve will follow back to point 3 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
with the same elastic modulus (slope). 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The material now has a higher yield ∆𝐷
strength at Point 4.
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝜐) = 𝐷 = 𝜐
Raising the yield strength by permanently ∆𝐿
straining the material is called STRAIN 𝐿
HARDENING Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse
contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain
Region 3: Tensile Strength
in the direction of stretching force. Tensile
The largest value of stress on the diagram deformation is considered positive and
is called Tensile Strength or the ultimate compressive deformation is considered negative.
tensile Strength- it is the maximum stress The definition of Poisson's ratio contains a minus
which the material can support without sign so that normal materials have a positive ratio.
breaking Poisson's ratio, also called Poisson ratio or the
Poisson coefficient.
Region 5: Fracture

If the material is stretched beyond Point 3,

the stress decreases as necking and non-
uniform deformation occurs.
Fracturing will finally occur at Point 5.

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Material Poisson's ratio Wrought
190 17 33
Rubber 0.48- ~0.5 Iron
Indium 0.45
Gold 0.42 Steel 200 30 50
Lead 0.44
Copper 0.37 Tensile 16 – 12
Aluminum 0.34
Compressive 9 – 12

Young’s Modulus, Shear Modulus and Bulk

Modulus
As seen in the STRESS vs STRAIN diagram
(Figure 1), there is a region where the From the table, you can observe that Young’s
stress is linearly proportional to strain moduli for metals are large. This means that
(elastic region). This constant of metals require a large force to produce a small
proportionality is the Elastic Modulus change in length. Hence, the force required to
increase the length of a thin wire of steel is much
𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆 larger than that required for aluminium or copper.
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁 Therefore, steel is more elastic than the other
There are three types of elastic modulus: metals in the table.

Young’s modulus: a measure of elasticity

1.2.2 Shear deformation
in length
Shear modulus or
Shear modulus: a measure of elasticity in
the plane modulus of rigidity,
Bulk modulus: a measure of elasticity in denoted by G, or
volume sometimes S or μ, is
defined as the ratio
In the case of deformation. The elastic modulus is of shear stress to the
called Young’s Modulus shear strain. when we have deformation caused
𝐹 by a force acting parallel to one face of an object
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆
′
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑌 = = 𝐴 whilst an opposing force acts on another face in
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁 ∆𝐿
the opposite direction, we ac define Shear stress
𝐿𝑜
and shear strain as
Common values for Young’s Modulus
𝐹
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
Young’s Elastic 𝐴
Tensile
Modulus Limit Where F is the applied force and A is the cross-
Materials Strength
Y (109 (107 sectional area
(107 N/m2)
N/m2) N/m2)
And
Aluminum 70 18 20 Δ𝑥
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙
Copper 120 20 40

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Where 𝚫𝒙 is the horizontal distance that the Hooke’s Law
sheared force moved and l is the height of the
Consider Figure 1 which shows stress vs strain
object.
relationship.
The shear modulus is then defines as
In the elastic region, extension is proportional
𝐹 to applied force, i.e. there’s a linear relationship
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = = 𝐴 between force and extension (also elongation).
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Δ𝑥
𝑙 This proportionality is sometimes called Hooke’s
Law. Mathematically,
Note that shear modulus or coefficient of rigidity
can also be called torsion modulus or modulus of 𝚫𝑭 = 𝑲𝚫𝑳
rigidity.
where: k is the elastic constant (N/m).

Bulk Modulus (a measure of compressibility)

When stress is a uniform pressure on all sides of
an object and the resulting deformation is a
volume change, we speak of bulk stress and bulk
strain.

𝐹
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃 =
𝐴
Δ𝑉
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉

note that
Note – beyond the elastic limit Hooke’s Law
breaks down.

The work done in moving a particle a distance x

for a constant force F is

𝑊 =𝐹∗𝑥

But this is only true if F is constant. In case F is a

fuction of x
Δ𝑉 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑥𝑓
= 𝑉′ − 𝑉
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥) ∗ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖
𝐹
−P
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐵 = 𝐴 =
Δ𝑉 Δ𝑉
𝑉 𝑉
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.

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Example 1:

A rubber band of natural length 1m has an elastic

constant of 100 N/m. How long will it be when a
mass of 100 g is hung from it?

Solution

𝚫𝑭 = 𝑲𝚫𝑳
In the above diagram we stretch a rod which
ΔF Δm  g 0.1kg  9.8m / s 2
has a Young’s modulus:
∴ ΔL = = = = 0.0098m
k k 100N / m
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑌:
The final length of the rubber band is
𝐹 𝐹
1m+0 . 0098 m=1. 0098 m . 𝐴 𝐴 𝐹𝐿
𝑌 = Δ𝐿 = 𝑥 = equation 3
𝐴𝑥
𝐿 𝐿

Week 2 note Δ𝐿 = 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

From equation 3, make F the subject

1.1.1 Potential Energy 𝑌𝐴
𝐹(𝑥) = ∗ 𝑥 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝑥, (same form as Hooke’s
𝐿
law)
𝒀𝑨
𝑲= which is the elastic
𝑳
constant.

The work done in stretching this rod increases the

potential energy of the rod. The elastic energy
stored can be calculated as
Fig2: Potential energy in the elastic region.
𝑥 𝑥
1
Energy = Work done = F x d 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥) ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐾 ∫ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐾 𝑥2
0 0 2
= mean Force x Extension 𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟐 𝑲 𝒙𝟐
= (initial Force + final Force)/2 x
Extension The Energy stored can also be expressed in terms
of the Young’s moduli as
𝟎+∆𝑭 ∆𝑭
= ∗ ∆𝑳 = ∗ ∆𝑳 … (𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝒀𝑨 𝟐 𝟏 𝒙 𝟐
𝑬= 𝒙 = 𝒀( ) 𝑨 ∗ 𝑳
but 𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝑳
𝚫𝑭 = 𝑲𝚫𝑳---- (2) 𝟏
Or 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒀(𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝟐 ) ∗ 𝑽 note V is the
equation (1) becomes volume
kΔL 1
Energy = × ΔL= kΔL2 ;
2 2

1
Thus, PE or E= 2 kΔL
2

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The energy density stored within the material is Example 4:
then
Find an
𝟏
𝐸 𝒀(𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝟐 )∗𝑽 𝟏 expression for Δ𝐿
𝑈=𝑉= 𝟐
= 𝒀(𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝟐 )
𝑉 𝟐 such that the
beam remains
𝟏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝟐
𝑼 = 𝟐∗( ) horizontal.
𝒀

Find the ratio a:b

in terms of Y1 and
Example 2: Y2 if the beam
Calculate the energy stored in example 1: remains horizontal
Solution

1 1
E= k * L2 =  100  0.00982 = 4.802 10 −3 Joules Solution
2 2
F1 / A ΔL
(a) Y1 = or F1 = Y1 A
ΔL / L L
Example 3: F2 / A ΔL
and Y2 = or F2 = Y2 A
Find the net extension in the figure shown below. ΔL / L L

From the diagram, F 1 +F 2 =Mg or

ΔL
A(Y1 + Y2 ) = Mg  L =
MgL
L A(Y1 + Y2 )

(b)in order for the beam to remain horizontal,

clockwise moment must equal counter clockwise
moment i.e 𝐹1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝐹2 ∗ 𝑏; substitute F2 and F1
and simplify to get the final answer
Solution 𝑎 𝐹2 𝑌2
= =
Mg / A 𝑏 𝐹1 𝑌1
Mg / L
(i) Y 1 = ΔL1 / L therefore, ΔL1 =
AY1

Mg / A Mg / L
(ii) Y 2= ΔL 2 / L therefore, ΔL2 =
AY2

The next extension is given by

ΔL=ΔL 1 +ΔL2 =
MgL MgL MgL 1 1
+
AY 1 AY 2
= +
A Y1 Y2 . ( )

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Example 5: ΔV
Note: 100× V i = change.
How much pressure is needed to compress the
volume of an iron block by 0.10%? [Bulk V i ΔP ΔV ΔP
modulus for iron = 90 x 109 N/m2 – as given in the From − B= ΔV ⇒ V = − B
i
book.]
Therefore,
Solution ΔV ΔP 100× 199× 1. 05× 105 N /m2
100× = − 100× =− = − 2× 10− 2 .
Vi B 90× 10 9 N /m2
Δ𝑉
So we have = 0.10% = 0.001
𝑉𝑖 The negative sign indicates that the interior space
−𝑉𝑖 ∗Δ𝑃 got smaller by 0.002%.
Thus, 𝐵= ; note 𝑉𝑖 is the initial
Δ𝑉
volume Example 7

−𝐵Δ𝑉 𝑁 A wire of original length 2 m, radius of 0.001 m

Δ𝑃 = = −(0.001) ∗ 90 ∗ 109 2
𝑉𝑖 𝑚 and Young’s modulus, 𝑌 = 9.6 ∗ 1010 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑁 experiences an extension of 0.0005 m when a load
= 90 ∗ 106 2
𝑚 is suspended on it.

Determine its stress.

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Example 6: 𝑌 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ∆L = ; →
0.00025
𝐿

At depths of 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌 ∗ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 9.6 ∗

2000m in the 1010 𝑁⁄𝑚2 ∗ 0.00025 = 2.4 ∗ 107 𝑁⁄𝑚2
pressure in the sea, Determine the mass of the load
the pressure is
about 200 times 𝐹 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 2;→ 𝑚 =
atmospheric 𝐴 𝜋𝑟 𝑔
pressure (1.0 x 105 24000000 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.0012
=
N/m2). By what 9.8
percentage does an = 7.694 𝑘𝑔
iron bathysphere’s
(spherical deep-sea
submersible)
volume change at this depth?

Solution

The percentage change in volume is found by

multiplying the relative change in volume by 100.
The change in pressure is 199 times atmospheric
pressure, since it increases from atmospheric
pressure to 200 times atmospheric pressure.

ΔP=P− P 0= 200× 1. 0× 105 N / m2− 1 . 0× 105 N /m2

= 199× 1. 0× 10 5 N /m2 Example 8

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 A rubber band (diameter =0.002 m and 𝐹 𝑚𝑔 25000 ∗ 9.8
𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆 = = =
Y=1 x 109 N/m2) is under a tension of 205 𝐴 𝐴 1.4
N. 248000
=
1.4
By how much is it lengthened from its original
= 175000 𝑁⁄𝑚2
length of 0.8m?
𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆 𝐹/𝐴 (𝐹/𝐴) ∗ 𝐿 The associated strain.
𝑌= = =
𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁 ∆𝐿/𝐿 ∆𝐿 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆
𝑌= ; → 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁 =
𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁 𝑌
205 175000
( )∗𝐿 = = 0.0000035
0.002 2 50 ∗ 109
(𝐹/𝐴) ∗ 𝐿 𝜋( 2 )
∆𝐿 = =
𝑌 109
205 ∗ 0.8 Week 1 and 2 pratice questions
= 3.14159 ∗ 10−6
109 PHY232:
52202865.43
= Attempt the following questions at home
109
= 0.0522 𝑚 Q1. A nylon string on a tennis racket is under a
tension of 275 N. if its diameter is 1.00mm, by
Calculate the energy stored in the rubber band.
how much is it lengthened from its untensioned
length of 30.0 cm?
1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ∗ 𝐾 ∗ ∆𝐿2 Q2. A sign of mass 1700 kg hangs from the end of
2
a vertical steel girder with a cross-sectional area of
1 𝑌𝐴
= ∗ ∗ ∆𝐿2 0.0012 m2.
2 𝐿
90.002 2 What is the stress with the girder?
1 10 ∗ 𝜋 ( 2 ) What is the strain on the girder?
= ∗
2 0.8 If the girder is 9.50 m long, how much is it
∗ 0.05222 lengthened? (ignore the mass of the gieder)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 Q3. A 15 cm long tendon was found to stretch 3.7
2 mm by a force of 13.4 N. the tendon was
9 0.002
1 10 ∗ 𝜋 ( 2 ) approximately round with an average diameter of
= ∗
2 0.8 8.5mm. Calculate the Young’s modulus of the
∗ 0.05222 = 5.350 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 tendon

Q4. The femur bone in the human leg has a

Example 9: minimum effective cross-section of about 3.0 cm2
A marble column of cross-sectional area 1.4 m2 How much compressive force can it withstand
before breaking?
and Y = 50 x109 N/m2, supports a mass of
25000 kg. Calculate: Q5. An iron bolt is used to connect two iron plated
together. The bolt must withstand shear forces up
The stress in the column, and
to about 3300 N. calculate the minimum diameter
for the bolt, based on a safety factor of 7.0.

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