POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

INTORDUCTION

In modern power system, to prevent and minimize the damages of the costly equipments, we
design a system of protective relays in such a way so that it identifies the faults and takes steps
to isolate the faulty section and reduce the effect of these faults. This is known as protection
system or protection scheme.
Protection System consists of:
i) Sensing element i.e. relay, current transformer, potential transformers.
ii) Isolating equipment i.e. (circuit breaker)

Before coming to the protective relay it is very essential to understand that only two quantities
are responsible which are fed to the relay, these are current and voltage. It is therefore,
essential to look after the current transformer and potential transformer for their proper
maintenance and function because if the current fed by the current transformer and voltage fed
by the potential transformer are not reflecting the fault condition truly, the protection system
can not work. A brief description of these two equipments is given below.
Current Transformers
It is a device to give a fraction of current passing through the line/bus/main circuit, the ratio of
which is already known and decided. There remain two terminals on top of this equipment,
which are connected in series with the main circuit and total current passes through the primary
of the equipment. Secondary coils are provided to give the current in pre-decided ratio (such as
60-120-240/5A or 1A with 3c or 5c, 75-150-300/5A or 1A with 3cor 5c, 100-200-400/5A or
1A with 3cor 5c). Secondary coils may be in different numbers say 1 to 5 which are used for
separate purpose such as indication o/c & E/F, differential, distance, metering, bus bar
protection etc. Secondary coils may be of different ratings 1A or 5A. The metering CTs are
generally of class 0.5 and protection CTs are generally of class 5p10, 5p15, 5p20, PS.

Potential Transformer
This is the device which provide the pre-decided fraction of the voltage of the line/bus such as
220 kV/√3, 132 kV/√3 to give the secondary voltage of 110V between phases and 63.5 volts
between phase and neutral. One end of this equipment is connected to the line and the other
end is connected to the earth. Secondary coils are provided to give the voltage in required ratio
and coil may vary in numbers. Potential transformers used in our system are of Electro-
magnetic type but these days CVT ( capacitive voltage transformer ) are being used because

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these are more economical and less problematic (as ferro resonance) compared to potential
transformers.
Protective relays
It is the device that detects fault/abnormal conditions of the power system and it operates to
complete the trip circuit which results in operation of circuit breaker feeding the fault, thus
faulty circuit is disconnected. The following circuit diagram may clear as to how the protection
systems work and save the system.

1) Circuit breaker
2) Relay
3) Trip coil of circuit breaker.
4) Trip circuit
5) Battery
6) Relay contact
7) PT/CVT
8) CT
9) Auxiliary switch of breaker (closed when breaker is closed).

When a fault occurs in the protected circuit the relay (2) connected to the CT and PT actuates
and closes its contact (6). The current lows from the battery (5) in the trip circuit (4). As the
trip coil of the circuit breaker (3) is energized, the circuit breaker operating mechanism is
actuated and it operates to disconnect the faulty line/equipment.
Fault clearing Time Relay operating time + C.B operating time
Relay operating time Instant of fault to closure of trip circuit
Brief idea about fault and abnormal conditions:
A fault in a electrical equipment is defined as a defect in the its electrical circuit due to which
the current is diverted from the intended paths. Breaking of conductors or failure of insulation
or reduction of clearance of conductors beyond specified limits generally causes faults:

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Faults: Due to Short Circuit
1 Single phase to ground These faults produce unsymmetrical
2 Two phase to ground fault current
3 Phase to Phases
4 Three phase This fault produce symmetrical fault
current
Abnormal conditions:
1. Voltage and current unbalance
2. Over voltage/under voltage
3. Reverse of power
4. Under/over frequency
5. Temperature rise
Actuating quantities:
The discrimination between normal and abnormal condition can be judged by measuring
actuating quantity. The electrical relays respond to current/voltage derived from secondaries of
CT’s or VT’s connected to the protected equipment. During abnormal condition the actuating
quantity varies according to the type of fault. The actuating quantity for the relays can be one
or more of the following parameter of voltage/current derived from CT/VT.
1. Magnitude (or Amplitude)
2. Frequency
3. Duration
4. Rate of change
5. Direction
6. Wave shape
7. Phase angle

Fundamental requirements of the protective relaying:

1. Selectivity or discrimination
The protective relaying should operate only for faults in the part of the system and
should isolate that part as fast as possible.
2. Speed
It should have rapid fault clearing capability, which minimize the damages and improves
power system stability.
3. Sensitivity
It should operate for the smallest value of actuating quantity at which the protection is
required to pickup.
4. Reliability
The protective relaying must be ready to function reliably even after years of non
operation and be correct in operation at all times under any kind of fault and abnormal
conditions of the power system for which it has been designed.

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 Classification of relays:
1) According to operating principles such as:
a) Electromechanical
b) Pressure operated
c) Thermal
d) Static
e) Numerical (Micro processor based)

In case of Electromechanical it may be magnetic attraction, Induction cup.

2) According to functional characteristics such as:

a) Under voltage, under current and under power.
b) Over voltage, over current and over power
c) Directional or reverse current
d) Directional or reverse power
e) Differential
f) Distance

3) According to operational time characteristics such as:

a) Instantaneous
b) Definite time leg.
c) Inverse time leg
d) Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT)

Important terms used in the study of protective Relays

1. Unit of element
A self contained relay unit which in conjunction with one or more other relay
units performs a complex relay function e.g. a directional unit combined with an
over current unit gives a directional over current relay.
2. Pick up
A relay is said to pick up when it moves from the off position to the on position.
The value of the actuating quantity (e.g. current in an over current relay, impedance in
an impedance relay, phase angle in a directional relay) above which this change occurs
is known as pick up value.

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 3. Drop out or reset
A relay is said to drop out when it moves from the on position to the off
position. The value of the actuating quantity below which this change occurs is known
as drop out or reset value.
4. Flag or target
A device used for indicating the operation of a relay it is usually spring or
gravity operated.
5. Reach
A distance relay operates whenever the impedance seen by the relay is less than
a pre-specified values. This impedance or the corresponding distance is known
as the reach of the relay.
Different type of protections:
a) Over current protection:
Over current protection is that protection in which the relay pick up when the
magnitude of current exceeds the set picks up level. Over current protection is
the protection from over load. Over loading of a machine or equipment/feeder
means the machine/feeder is taking more current than its rated current. With
overloading there is an associated temperature rise. The permissible temperature
rise has a limit based on material insulation class. Over current protection
includes short circuit protection. Short circuit can be phase faults, earth faults,
or winding faults. Short circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full
load current. Several protection devices are used for over current protection,
which ultimately isolate the circuit. These include:
(1) phase
(2) circuit breakers fitted with over load coils or separate over current relays
(3) Series connected trip coils operating switching device
(4) Over current relay in conjunction with current transformers.

The over current relays are connected to the system normally by means of
CTs over current relaying has following types:

1. High speed over current protection.

2. Definite time over current protection
3. Inverse minimum time over current protection, this may use as non-
directional over current protection and directional over current protection.

The primary requirements of over current protection are:

1) The protection should not operate for starting current, permissible over
current, current surges. To achieve this the time delay is provided (in case of
inverse relays). If time delay can not be permitted , high set instantaneous
relays is used.
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 2) The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current
protection so as to discriminate the fault.
Application of over current protection.
1. Machine protection.
Machine may be generator, motor and transformer.
2. Line protection

B. Earth fault Protection

When the fault current flows through earth return path the fault is called earth
fault. Other faults, which do not involve earth, are called phase fault. Since
earth faults are relatively frequent, therefore, earth fault relays are necessary in
the protective system. It is noted that the phase relays also sense the earth fault
currents. Following are the method of earth fault protection.
1. Residually connected earth fault relay
I
In absence of earth fault residual=Ias+ I bs I cs=
0

IRS
When earth fault occurs and if residual
current is above the pick up value of earth
fault relay then earth fault relay will
operate. In this scheme the earth fault at
any location near or away from the location
of CTs can cause the residual current flow.
Hence the protected zone is not definite,
such protection is called unrestricted earth
fault protection. For selectivity directional
earth fault protection is necessary.

2. Earth fault relay connected in neutral to earth circuit

This type of protection is produced to
detect earth faults within the protected
zone of the machine the earth fault is
restricted due to insertion of impedance
in neutral grounding. Thus this
protection is known as restricted earth
fault protection.

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 This type of protection is produced to detect earth faults within the protected
zone of the machine the earth fault is restricted due to insertion of impedance in neutral
grounding. Thus this protection is known as restricted earth fault protection.
Combined earth fault & phase fault protection
It is convenient to incorporate phase fault relays and earth fault relay in a combined
phase fault and earth fault protection. The increase in current of phases causes
corresponding increases in respective secondary currents. The secondary current flows
through respective relay unit. Very often only two phase relays are provided instead of
three because in case of phase fault, current in any two phases must increase. Hence two
relay units are enough. The earth fault relay is residually connected.
For various faults the relay will also operate as follows:

1 Between R & Y phase R phase O/c relay will operate

2 Between Y & B phase B phase O/c relay will operate
3 Between R & B phase R & B phase O/c relays will operate
4 Between R phase & earth O/C R and E/F will operate
5 Between B phase & earth O/C B and E/F will operate
6 Between Y and Earth E/F will operate

C) Over voltage protection

There are many reasons for the over voltage in the power system mainly classified as
external & internal source. The most prominent once are:
1.Lightening
2.Neutral displacement during line to ground faults.
3. Operation of switching and over current protective equipment.
4. Resonance effects associated with inductance and capacitance in series.
5.The system can be protected against external over voltages by using a shielding
methods are used which allow an arc path between the ground structure and the line
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 conductor but means are provided to quench the arc. The use of ground wire is a
shielding method whereas the use of spark gaps, and lightening arresters are the non-
shielding methods.
D) Differential Protection
In this protection a differential relay operates when the vector difference of two or more
similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value. Most of the differential relays are
current differential relays in which vector difference between current entering the protected
element and current leaving the protected element is used for relay operation.
For this purpose two current transformers are used at both ends of the system to be protected.
These transformers have the same ratio of transformation and their secondaries are
interconnected as shown in figure , differential protection is a unit type protection.

Application of differential protection

1) Protection of generator, generator transformer.
2) Protection of power transformer
3) Protection of feeder (Transmission line) by pilot wire differential protection.
4) Protection of feeder (Transmission line) by phase comparison carrier current protection
5) Protection of bus zone
E) Distance Protection
In this protection distance relays are used which are double actuating quantity relays
with one coil energized by current & other by voltage. The torque produced is such that when
V/I reduces below a set value the relay operates. During a fault on a transmission line the fault
current increases and the voltages of fault point reduces. The ratio V/I is measured at the
location of CTs & VTs . The voltage at VT location depends on the distance between the VT
and the fault. If fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser. If fault is farther measured voltage is
more. Hence assuming constant fault resistance each value of V/I measured from relay location
correspond to Distance Protection. It is high speed protection can be used as primary and back
up protection widely used in transmission line. This protection is non-unit type protection.

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F) Local Breaker back up protection
When on big capacity sub station of 220kV and above where numbers of buses are used
this type of protection is employed . The title of this protection scheme itself implies that this
protection comes in force when the feeder breaker due to its own fault refused to trip. The
feeders feeding to that bus on which the line feeder is connected trip after a certain pre-set
time. The LBB relay operates only with D.C. supply from the feeder tripping relay as well as
current from the feeder are available to it. If the breaker clears the fault then the current (both
current and DC supply) will not be supplied to the LBB relay. A timer is provided (normally
setting 0.2 second) to prevent unnecessary tripping. If the breaker fails to trip then both current
and DC supply will continue to be fed to LBB relay and after the preset time of 0.2 second
tripping signal will be given to all the breakers which are connected to the same bus, on which
faulty feeder is connected, thus de-energizing the supply to the bus. Provision is also made to
trip the remote end breaker through carrier signal.
G. Bus Bar Protection
To protect bus bar of important GSS and to clear bus faults, bus bar protection is used. This is
based on the differential basis. All the secondaries of current transformer on the same bus are
connected in such a manner that during normal condition the sum of CT’s secondary current is
zero. During the fault condition the current reaching to the bus is more than the current leaving
the bus as some current is fed to this fault and the excess current is fed to a relay which
operates and tripping signal is given to all the breakers connected to the bus, thus isolate the
faulty bus.
DIFFERENT TYPE OF PROTECTION SYSTEM ADOPTED IN RRVPNL.
1. Feeder Protection
i) Transmission line (220 kV, 132 kV): Distance relays such as main and
over current and earth fault relays acts as back up protection.
ii) Distribution line (33 kV, 11 kV): O/c and E/F relays are overall
protection.
2. Transformer protection
i) Differential and buchholz relays acts as primary protection and o/c
relays acts as primary protection against overloading.
ii) O/c and E/F relays acts as back up protection

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Non directional over current and earth fault relay (induction date type) IDMT

These are the most commonly used O/C and E/F relays in our system. The characteristic of
these relays is such that time of operation varies inversely with the fault current upto twenty
times the current setting on the relay and becomes constant at higher values of fault current.
One of the elements of three phase over current relay is used to respond for earth fault. Such a
relay consists of a metallic disc, which is free to rotate between the shaded pole of
electromagnet. The spondaic of this disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed
contact when the disc relates through an angle which is adjustable between 0 degree and less
than 36 degree, By adjusting this angle the travel of the moving contact can be adjusted so that
the relay can be given any desired time setting which is indicated by a pointer on a time setting
dial.
The relay consists of an operation coil fitted on electromagnet with shading ring. The
operation coil is connected to the secondary of a CT. In the line to be protected and is provided
with tapings. These tapings are connected to a plug setting bridge which is usually arranged to
give seven selections of tapings, the current range being 50% to 200% in steps of 25% and the
earth fault 10% to 40% in steps of 5% or 20% to 80% in steps of 10%. These values are
percentages of the current rating of relay. Thus a relay may have a current rating of 5A
indicating that it is suitable for use on CT having a secondary current rating of 5A but with a
setting of 50% the relay would start to operate at 2.5A. Similarly if set at 20% it would start to
operate 10A, Any desired setting can be selected by inserting a pin between the spring loaded
jaw of the bridge type socket at the appropriate tap value. When the pin is withdrawn for the
purpose of changing the setting while the relay is in service the relay automatically adopts the
highest setting, thus ensuring that the CT secondary is not open circulated and that the relay
remains operative for faults during the process of changing the setting. The torque exerted on
the disc is due to the interactions of eddy currents produced there in by means of the flux from
electromagnet.

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For calculating time of operation for the grading purpose we find time from the graph with
respect to PSM i.e. plug setting multiplier. This time is to be multiplied by TMS for getting the
time in sec.

Primary current (fault condition based on fault

Plug setting Multiplier (PSM) = level)
Relay current setting X C.T. ratio

(Current vs. time characteristic of induction relay)

Example of calculating Relay setting and time discrimination between two relays.

Fault current 2000A

CT ratio 200/1A
Relay 1 set on 100%
Relay 2 set on 125%
Time grading between the relay 0.2 sec.
Relay No. 1 has time of operation 0.2 sec.

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Relay 1 Plug setting 100%
Fault current in primary of CT x 100
PSM =
Relay current setting X C.T. ratio

= 2000 x 100
100 x 200/1

= 2000 x 1
200
= 10
Time from the graph for a PSM of 10 = 2.8 sec.
Operating time of relay 0.2 sec
T M S = 0.2/ 2.8 = 0.07.
Relay 2 Plug setting 125%

PSM = Fault current in primary of CT x 100

Relay current setting X C.T. ratio
= 2000 x 100
125 x 200/1

= 2000 x 100 x 1
125 x 200
=8
Time of operation at PSM of 8 = 3.15 sec.
Actual time of operation of Relay 2
= Time of operation of relay 1 + time grading margin
=0.07 + 0.2
=0.27
TMS = 0.27 = 0.85
3.15
There are many types of O/c and E/F relays such as
i) Series Trip Relay
CDS series strip relay has the same characteristics as type CDG but is used
where a separate tripping supply is not available. This relay trips the current
breaker directly using current from the current transformer. Such relays are
generally used on 11 kV switch gear in rural sub stations where separate battery
supply is not available.

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 ii) Self Power Relay
Some IDMT relay has an auxiliary unit, which is powered by a secondary
winding on the electromagnetic through a bridge rectifier and as such a separate
auxiliary supply is not required. The disc unit operates and closes its contacts, the
auxiliary element connected across the secondary winding on the electromagnetic
operates, one normally open contact of the auxiliary element reinforces the disc
contact. Two other contacts of the auxiliary element are brought out to the
terminals of the relay.

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 When directional feature is incorporated in conventional type IDMT relays it
works as directional over current relays. The relay can be set to operate for
particular direction of flow of current i.e. into bus or away from the bus. This is
generally used on ring circuit or for parallel feeder protection. A directional over
current relay responds circuit but also to the fault current direction i.e. to the
phase of current relative to the voltage on the buses.
CDD are directional version of IDMT type CDG. A high set instantaneous over
current unit type CAG can be fitted in the same case to provide instantaneous
protection under maximum short circuit condition.
General:
CDG 11 is the basic IDMT relay of single unit, type CDG 21 is a single pole
type CDG 11 with high set instantaneous unit. CDG 31 is a triple pole version
of CDG II with all the three O/c units or 2 O/c unit and one E/F unit. Type CDG
51 of CDG 31 with 2 unit of high set instantaneous & CDG 61 is a triple pole
version of CDG21.

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 (External and internal connection for directional over current and earth fault relay)

The components of Sub Stations which are generally protected are as follows
1) Power Transformers
2) Transmission line feeders
3) Bus bars
4) Shunt capacitor bank
5) Earthing transformer
6) Station Transformer
But here we shall confine ourselves to transformer and line protection only.

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Protection of Power Transformer
Transformer required protection against following types of faults:
1. Through (or external) faults:
A through fault is beyond the protected zone of a transformer but fed through
the transformer. Protection against through faults can be classified in following
groups:
a) Over current with earth fault protection is provided against phase
to phase or phase to earth faults.
b) Over load protection: The permissible over load and its duration
depends upon the type of cooling adopted i.e. forced air, forced
oil etc. and the material used for insulation.
2) Internal Faults
Internal faults occurs inside the transformer, protection against internal faults
can be classified in following groups:
a) Directional protection:
This is provided against heavy electrical faults (such as phase faults,
short circuit between turns of high voltage and low voltage winding
etc.). This protection is detectable by unbalance of current.
b) Gas and oil pressure protection (Buchholz relay) is provided against
incipient fault, such as:
i) Core fault due to break down of the insulation of lamination
bolts or clamping rings.
ii) Coolant failure which will cause a rise of temperature.
iii) Low oil content or clogged oil flow, which can cause hot spot on
winding.
iv) Oil surge pipe with diapharm.
v) Knife switch trip for OLTC.
c) Restricted earth fault protection/circulating current protection for faults
in transformer winding.
d) Over fluxing protection.

3) Other type of protection

a) Protection against lightening
b) Frame leakage protection
c)

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PROTECTION SYSTEM BEING ADOPTED IN RVPN

1) (a)` Over current and earth fault protection:

Over current and earth fault protection protect the transformer against external
short circuit and excessive over loads. The IDMT (inverse definite minimum
time leg) over current and earth fault relays are generally used. |The over
current and earth fault relays serve only as back up protection both for the
transformer internal and external fault, but serve as main protection against over
loading. The O/c relay has three elements one for each phase and earth fault has
a single element.
Over current / earth fault relay used:
i) Non-directional inverse time CDG with high set.
ii) Directional inverse time CDD with high set.

1(a) Oil and winding temperature protection:

This is a basic protection provided on the transformers, which is based on the temperature rise
of the transformer oil and the transformer winding. The temperature of the transformer oil and
the winding increases or decreases depending upon the loading condition. In case of a fault or
abnormal/high loading the temperature increases and if the temperature rises goes beyond the
protected limit by the manufacturer an alarm signal is obtained at a prescribed setting and if
the temperature goes on increasing the tripping takes place at a prescribed setting. Some
typical setting for oil temperature and winding temperature are as follows:
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Particulars Value of setting
Alarm Tripping °C° For cooling fans

Starting stopping

Oil temperature 75°-85° 85°-95° 60°-65° 55°-60°

indicator
Winding 80°-90° 90°-100°
temperature

2(a) Differential protection:

Differential protection is the most important type of protection used for internal phase
to phase and phase to earth faults and is generally applied to transformers having ratings of 5
MVA and above. The differential protection of transformer is also known as merz price
protection for the transformer.
Problems encountered in |Differential Protection of Transformer
i) Unmatched characteristic of CTs: This trouble is aggravated in the case of
transformers due to unequal ratios being employed on either side of the protected
transformer. This mis-match of the CTs characteristic may cause indiscriminate
operation of the simple differential relay even though the fault may be external to its
protective zone.
ii) Ratio change as a fault of change of on load tappings:
Modern power transformers are equipped with load tap changers at HV side. The ratio
between the primary side and secondary side current transformers can be made to
match at any point of the tap changing range. As the transformer ratio is changed and if
the CTs ratios do not match with new tap setting then unbalance current reached to the
directional relay and relay operates whenever no internal fault occurs in the system.
iii) Magnetizing inrush current
When a transformer is switched on, heavy inrush current flows in the primary winding
(as six to ten times full load currents) and decays relatively slow. Three is no
corresponding current in the other side of the transformer. This current may reach to the
differential relay and cause it relay operates. To make a differential relay stable against
difficulties i) & ii) percentage of biased differential relay used and against difficulty
(iii) one or more feature can be used incorporating with high speed biased differential
relay:
a) Harmonic restraint
b) Even Harmonic cancellation
c) Harmonic blocking
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 d) Resonance blocking
Percentage or biased differential relay
In this relay a restraining coil is provided with operating coil, the operating coil is connected
to the mid point of the restraining coil. The ratio of differential operating current to average
retraining current is fixed in 15,30 & 45%. Hence the relay is called biased differential relay.
Whenever external faults occurs due to CT’s errors or ratio changes as a result of tap changing
then due to restraining coil only some percentage of the through current reaches to the
operating coil that is not sufficient for its operation and hence unwanted operation of
differential relay due to through fault is avoided.

If the secondary current of main CTs are different in magnitude so they can be made
equal in magnitude with the help of suitable ratio interposing current transformer (ICT’s).
Example for selection of current transformer for differential protection.
A 10/12.5 MVA, Y/Y, 132/33 kV transformer will require the following current transformer
characteristic:
Primary full load current =
12.5x106 = 54.67A
√3x132x103

Secondary full load current =

12.5x106 = 218.7 A
√3x33x103

The suitable CT (say CT-1) ratio for primary (or HV side) is 60/5A or 1A

The suitable CT (say CT2) ratio for secondary (or LV side) is 300/5A or 1A but actual
primary current of current transformer in HV side is 54.67 A, therefore,
HV side secondary current of the current transformer
= 54.67x5 (5A CT used)
60
= 0.911 x 5
= 4.555
say = 4.56 A
LV side secondary current of the current transformer
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= 218.7 x 5/300 (If 5A CT used)
= 0.729 x 5
= 3.64 A
At HV side (4.56/ 2.89A)
The secondary current of ICT = 2.89 x √3 (secondary winding of
ICT’s is connected as delta)
= 5A
At LV side (3.64/2.89A)
The secondary current of ICT2 = 2.89 x√3 -do-

Note: For 5A differential relay ICT’s secondary current should be 2.89A

For 1A differential relay ICT’s secondary current ratio should be 0.577 A
For group controlled transformer we shall need the CTs as follows:
CT 1= 120/5 ICT 4.56/2.89 or
CT 2= 600/5 ICT 3.64/1.45
So we may prefer ICT of 3.64/2.89-1.45
General:

Line voltage Line current

√3x phase voltage phase current
Phase voltage √ 3x phase current
Power in both cases = √3V.1.COS Ǿ

HIGH SPEED BIASED DIFFERENTIAL RELAY INCORPORATION WITH HARMONIC

RESTRAINT FEATURE

Magnetizing in rush currents has a high component of even and odd harmonics.
Harmonic component of short circuit current is negligible. The harmonic differential relay
remains sensitive to fault currents but does not operate due to magnetizing currents. The
operating coil of the relay receives fundamental component of current only, the restraining
coil receive rectify some of fundamental and harmonic component:
The second harmonics are produced due to heavy in rush current. The tripping is taken care
off by providing second harmonics restraint in the relays type DTH 31 & DTH 32 & others.

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 GENERAL PRACTICE FOR CONNECTING CURRENT TRANSFORMER SECONDARY
WINDING FOR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF THE TRANSFORMER

The CTs on any star winding of a power transformer should be connected in delta and that the
CTs on any delta winding should be connected in star.
In ∆ -Y transformer there is a phase displacement between the primary and secondary line
currents therefore, for compensating the phase displacement, the CTs on the side of the power
transformer are connected in star and there on the star side of the transformer are connected in
delta.
When the transformer in Y-Y the CT can also be connected in Y-Y in case the transformer
star point are not grounded.

2(b) Gas and oil pressure protection by Bucholz relay

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Whenever a fault takes place in transformer,the oil of the tank gets overheated and gases are
formed. The generation of gas is used as a means of fault detection. Buchholz relay is the
simplest form of protection, which is commonly used for this form of protection in all
transformers provided with conservator. It consists of two hanged floats in a metallic
chamber, which is connected, in the upper side of the pipe run between the oil conservator and
the transformer tank. One of the floats is near the top of the chamber and the other near the
bottom of the chambers as shown in figure below. For a minor or incipient fault condition the
slow generation of gas gives rise to gas bubbles which try to go to the conservator but are
trapped in the upon portion of the relay chamber, thereby a fall in oil level takes place. This
disturbs the equilibrium of the gas float. The float tilts and the alarm circuit is closed through
the mercury switch and the indication is given.
For a heavy fault large volume of gases generated which cause violent displacement of the oil
and impinge upon the baffle plates of the lower float and thus the balance of the lower float is
disturbed. The lower float is tilted and the contacts are closed which are arranged to trip the
transformer. The analysis of gas collected is also done which can show the type of fault inside
the transformer.

2© Restricted earth fault

This type of protection is provided to detect earth faults within the protected zone of the
transformer. Earth fault protection may not clear Earth fault on secondary side on primary
side. When fault occurs very near the neutral point of the transformer the voltage available for
the earth fault current is two small and hence the current is very low. If the relay is set for low
current operation it may be very sensitive and may operate for spurious signals, like switching
surges etc. Hence the practice is to set the relay such that it operates for the earth fault current
of the order of 15% of rated winding current such setting protected restricted portion of the
winding. Hence it is called the restricted earth fault protection.

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Relay Generally used:

S.No. Protection Details Relay type

1 Back up earth i) Non-directional inverse type CDG-11
fault ii) Directional inverse type CDG-21
2 Time delayed To protect the neutral earthinig CDG-12
resistor and back up protection

Over current as well as restricted earth fault protection:

Ideally the output of the CTs is
proportional to the sum of the zero
sequence currents in the line and
neutral earth connection.
For internal earth faults this sum is
equal to two times the total fault
current ,but for external faults ZERO
SEQUENCE currents are either absent
or sum to zero in the line and neutral
earth connection. The amount of
winding protected against earth fault is
determined by the minimum primary
current at which the earth fault relay
operates .

When the neutral point of the star winding of a transformer is earthed through a resistor the
amount of winding protected therefore varies according to the rating of the neutral earthing
resistor and the relay setting.

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 2(d) Over fluxing protection:
The magnetic flux in the transformer core is a function of V/F. Increase in power frequency
voltage causes increase in working flux thereby increases the iron loss and magnetizing. The
core and core bolts get heated and the lamination insulation affected. For over fluxing
protection over flux relay is provided with enough time lag. GTT type relay is generally used.
3) Others
a) Protection against lightening
The transformer body and lightening arrestors provided for the transformers are
required to be earthed separately, but the earth connection should be
interconnected to minimize the earth resistance so that protection to the
transformer is most effective. The lightening arrestors are also to be located as
closed to the transformers as possible. The maximum distance that can be kept
between LA and transformer-bushing terminal is given below. It should never
be more than this distance.
Rated system Maximum distance between LA and transformer
voltage in kV bushing terminal (inclusive of lead length in
mtr.)
220 64
132 42
66 24
33 18
11 12
b) Frame leakage protection
The transformer is lightly insulated from earth maintains it on a concrete plinth. The
arrangement is shown in figure as mentioned below. The tank is connected to earth
through a CT across with a instantaneous earth fault relay is connected.
Earth fault current due to insulation break down in any winding of the transformer will
flow to earth through the tank and single earth connection, thus energizing the CT and
operating the relay.

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 DISTANCE PROTECTION

The term feeder means the overhead lines or underground cables for transmission and
distribution of electric power and the protection provided is called the feeder protection
which is either unit type or non unit type. In case of unit type only one section protected
which is treated as one unit whereas in non-unit type protection we protect one or more
sections of line on time grading basis. For feeders upto 33 kV level, normally non
directional O/C and E/F relays are implied for feeder protection. The relays provided at
EHV s/s have comparatively higher operating time than 33/11 kV s/s relays for the
purpose of discrimination. In case of EHV lines, direction O/C and E/F relays are used
as back up protection. In modern practice, for feeders of 220 kV and above two
protections are used called Main-I and Main-II besides the back up protection. We have
already discussed a lot about the aforesaid back up protection so here we will discuss
only main protections.
For main protection we generally adopt two different system of feeder protection based
on different principle so that blind zones in first system do not coincide with the second
system. These protection schemes may comprise of electromagnet relays or static
distance relays that may be normal or carried added. In distance relays, there is a
balance between the voltage and current the ratio of which can be expressed in term of
impedance which is a electrical measure of distance along a transmission line. The
feeder protection relays are therefore called distance relays and work on principle of
impedance. A distance relay compares the current and voltage at the relaying point.

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 The voltage provided the restraining torque and current provide the operating torque at
the relay. Hence the equation at the balance point in a simple impedance relay is
T=K1*I2 – K2* V2-K3
Where V and I are the magnitude of current and voltage, K3 is control spring effect and
K1, K2 is other constant. At balance point when the relay is at the verge of operation
net torque is zero. Dividing by K2I2
We may neglect the effect of control spring effect, thus the equation becomes:
V/I=K1/K2=Z Expressed as impedance
Therefore, voltage current ratio for such a fault will be Z, which is impedance of line.
For a fault internal to the protected zone V/ I <Z and for a fault beyond the zone V/I> Z
. The relay will operate if the impedance seen by the relay is less than Z.

The operating characteristics of an impedance relay can be represented as follows:

As explained above any value of Z less than the radius of circle will give positive
torque and any value of z greater than radius will produce negative torque regardless of
phase angle between V and I.
It is not desired here to go in more and more details of the distance scheme but some
modification which have been incorporated in the distance schemes are that the relays
have been made directional. The impedance setting has been provided with a provision
of time leg in operation with a view to discriminate the fault. There are called three
zones namely zone-1 and zone-2 and zone-3 . It is shown in the diagram as follows:

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 As for the practical application, zone-1 covers 80% of line distance between the two
stations. This is to account for any error in VT, CT and available transmission line
datas and also for over reach of the relay, so it can be said that operation of relay in
zone-1 is between the two stations and not beyond the adjacent station on which it has
been installed. Zone-2 covers upto 50% of the shortest adjacent section whereas Zone-
3, covers upto 25% of the longest line of next station. This has been illustrated in the
figure shown above. The operation of scheme of different zone is associated with time
so that the fault is properly discriminated. For faults in zone-I the relay operates
instantaneously but for fault in zone-2 the delayed operation is achieved by a timer set
for .3 second whereas for zone 3 fault the operation are delayed for .8 seconds.
It can be further explained that for any fault of zone 2 which is near station, B, the relay
at B looking towards A will see the fault in zone-1 and will operate instantaneously and
will give an inter trip command .The other operations also take place in the same way
and can be understood itself by the characteristic of a modified impedance type relay
shown below:

To achieve the directional feature, which is a basic requirement of distance protection

scheme, mho relays are used. Generally the SSSRR3V electromagnetic schemes is

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 being used in RVPN for the protection of 132 kV and 220 kV feeders. Now numerical
relays are employed in our system. On 220kV& above voltages
Electromagnetic schemes used for line protection:
1. Switched Reactance Distance Scheme (SSRR3V scheme):
This scheme is designed to protect short and very short distance feeders.
Distance is measured in terms of reactance. In this scheme only reactance part of the
fault is measured and resistance part is ignored, because in a short distance feeder due
to arcing resistance the total fault impedance increases and relay may fail to measure
this impedance or may see it as outside zone fault. In such type of scheme there is only
one reactance measuring unit and three ‘Mho” starters units are used. Measuring unit
automatically connected to the phases in which fault takes place. Therefore, switching
of various auxiliary relays and fault detected impedance starters as such this relay due
to switching action is inherently a slow type relay involving more operation time.
The switching is performed by ‘mho’ starting units.
Static schemes used for line protection

The various types of static schemes used in RVPNL system for protection of
transmission lines are as under:
1. Quadramho Distance Protection Scheme

The quadramho is a static distance protection scheme specially designed

for comprehensive high-speed protection of EHV transmission lines. This is a
microprocessor-based scheme with a wide range of built in features selected by
option switches. Three zones of protection are provided in the scheme each
employing separate measuring elements for phase to phase and phase to earth
fault. Thus a total of 13 elements are provided, thereby increasing the reliability
of the scheme. Various characteristic shapes like mho, offset-mho, quadrilateral
and lentrcular characteristics are also available in the relay to suit different line
requirement.
In conjunction with the carrier equipment, the relay can either be used as
an inter tripping scheme or as an inter blocking scheme. The relay is suitable for
both single pole and three pole tripping of the circuit breaker. The typical
operating time for this relay is from 18 ms to 25 ms and the measurement
accuracy is between 5% to 10%.

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 2. Switched distance scheme type PYTS / RAZOA

This scheme is being used for protection of 132 kV transmission lines .

The scheme provides normally 3 zone directional distance protection with a 4 th
directional or non-directional zone. Easy fault clearance is only obtained within
the normal zone one reach of the measuring unit. . Faults on the line beyond the
zone-1 reach steps are cleared by the respective zone times.

3. Numerical Distance relays Type 7SA 522, MICOM, P442, REL 100
Numerical relays having basic feature of distance protection & other
features are being installed in RVPN system. The detailed features of the relays
are described here under.

Numerical relays

Application
The numerical distance protection is a fast and selective protection device for
overhead lines and cables with single – and multi ended infeeds in radial, ring
or any type of meshed systems with insulation ratings. The system star point
can be earthed, resonant - earthed or isolated.
The device incorporates the functions which are normally required for the
protection of an overhead line feeder and is therefore, capable of universal
application. It may also be applied as time graded back up protection to all
types of comparison protection schemes used on lines, transformers, generators,
motors and bus bars of all voltage levels.
Protection Functions.
Reorganization of the distance to fault with distance protection measurement is
the basic function of the device. In particular for complex multi phase faults,
the distance protection has non-switched 6 impedance – loops design (full
scheme). Different pick up schemes enable a good adoption to system
conditions and the user philosophy. The influence of wrong distance
measurement due to parallel lines can be compensated by feeding the earth
current of the parallel line to the relay. Parallel line compensation can be used
for distance protection as well as for the fault locator. It may be supplemented
by tele protection using various signal transmission schemes (for fast tripping
on 100% of the length). In addition an earth faults protection (for high
resistance earth faults, ordering option). Is available, which may be directional,
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 non directional and may also be incorporated in signal transmission. On lines
with weak or no infeed at one line end, it is possible to achieve fast tripping at
both line ends by means of the signal transmission scheme. Subsequent to
energizing the line into a fault which may be located along the entire line length
, it is possible to achieve a non delayed trip signal.
In the event of a failure of the measured voltages due to a fault in the secondary
circuits (e.g. trip of the voltage transformer MCB or a fuse) the device can
automatically revert to an emergency operation with an integrated time delayed
over current protection, until the measured voltage again becomes available.
The over current protection consists of three definite time over current stages
and an inverse time (IDMT) stage. For the lDMT stage, a number of
characteristics based on various standards are available. The stages can be
combined according to the user’s requirements. Alternatively, the time delayed
over current protection may be used as back up time delayed over current
protection, i.e. it functions independent and in parallel to the distance
protection.
Depending on the version most short circuit protection functions may also trip
single pole.. It may work in cooperation with an integrated automatic reclosure
(available as an option) with which single pole, 3 pole or single and three pole
automatic reclosure as well as several interrupt cycles are possible on overhead
lines. Before reclosure , after three pole tripping, the permissibility of the
reclosure can be checked by voltage and and/or synchronization check by the
device. It is possible to connect an external automatic reclosure and/or
synchronization device as well as double protection with one or two automatic
reclosure functions.
Apart from the short circuit protection functions mentioned , further protection
functions are possible such as earth fault detection (for isolated or resonant –
earthed systems), multi stage over voltage and under voltage protection, circuit
breaker failure protection and protection against the effects of power swings
(for impedance starting, simultaneously active as power swing blocking for the
distance protections), as well as thermal overload protection for protecting the
operational equipment (especially cables). Against too much heating due to
For the rapid location of the damage to the line after a short circuit, a fault
locator is integrated which also may compensate for the influence of a parallel
line and load.

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 Messages and measured values: Storage of data faults recordings.
A series of rating messages provides information about conditions in the power
system and the relay itself. Measurement quantities and values that are
calculated can be displayed locally and communicated via the serial interfaces.
Messages of the relay can be indicated by a number of programmable
LEDs on the front panel, externally processed through programmable output
contacts and communicated via the serial interfaces. With the help of the CFC
graphic tool (continuous function chart) user defined annunciations and logical
combinations of internal or external signals can also be generated.
Important events and changes in conditions are saved under
Annunciation in the Event Log or the Trip Log, the latter being used for faults..
The instantaneous measured values during the fault are also stored in the device
and are subsequently available fault analysis.
Communication
Serial inter faces are available for communication with PC\s, RTUs and
SCADA systems.
A 9- pin D-subminiature female connector on the front cover is used for local
communication with the personal computer. Software is required to
communicate via this port. Using the operator software, all operating and
evaluation procedures may be implemented via this operating interface, such as
setting and modification of configuration and parameter settings, configuration
of user specific logic functions, reading out and display of operating and fault
event messages as well as measured values, reading out land display of fault
records, queries of device states as well as queries of measured values, and
issuing of control commands.
Depending on the version ordered, further interfaces are on the rear side
of the device. Thus a comprehensive communication can be built up with other
digital operating control and storage system.
The service interface can be operated via data or fibre optic cables.
Communication via modems is also possible. This enables remote operation
from a PC using the operating software, e.g. if several devices are to be
operated from a central PC.
The system interface is used for central communication between the device and
the control centre. It can also be operated via data and fibre optic cables.
Standardized protocols for data transfer in accordance with IEC 60870 –5-103

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 are available. This profile also enables the integration of devices into the
automation systems.
As an alternative numerical relay also provides a fields bus interface with
PROFIBUS FMS. The PROFIBUS FMS. According to DIN 19240 with a very
high capacity is wide spread communication standard in the control and
automation technology. The profile of the PROFIBUS communication covers
all types of information transmission needed for sub station control and
protection systems. Via this profile the devices are connected to the energy
automation system
Features.
Powerful 32 bit microprocessor system.
Complete digital processing of measured values and control from the
sampling and digitalization of measured values to close and trip decisions for
the circuit breaker.
Complete galvanic and reliable separation between the internal processing
circuits of the relay and the external measurement, control and DC supply
circuits because of the design of the analog input transducers, binary inputs and
outputs and the DC converters.
Complete scope of functions which are normally required for the protection of
the line feeder.
Different pick up modes can be selected enabling the user to adept the distance
protection system to different network conditions and his requirements.
Polygonal tripping characteristic with separate setting along the X axis (reach)
and R- axis (arc resistance reserve) and separate R setting of earth faults.
Direction determination is done with unfaulted loop (quadrature) voltages and
voltage memory, thereby achieving unlimited directional sensitivity.
Compensation of the influence of a parallel line during earth fault is possible.
Abundance of additional protective and control functions available, some as
options.
Continuous calculation and display of measured quantities on the front of the
device.
Simple device operation using the integrated operator panel or by means of a
connected personal computer.
Storage of operational data, fault data and oscillographic fault records with
SER information to be used for analysis and trouble shooting.

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 Communication with central control and data storage equipment via serial inter
faces through the choice of data cable, modem or optical fibers, as an option.
Constant monitoring of the measurement quantities, as well as continuous self-
diagnostics covering the hardware and software.

Commonly DPS used in RVPN are as follows

400kV & 220 kV feeders
(i) EPAC 3000
(ii) REL 100
(iii) MICOM P442
(iv) Siprotec 7SA 522
(v) 7SA 6
(vi) SEL 321
(vii) D 60
132 kV feeders
(i) PD 521
(ii) D 30
Numerical Differential Protection

Transformer differential relay provides a package of functions primarily for the

protection of transformers & generator transformers but may also be applied to
protect reactors & generators. These relays can be integrated into an overall
protection & control system by utilizing its integral serial communication
facility.

Features
Fully numerical design.
Biased differential protection.
Restricted earth fault protection.
Over fluxing protection.
Integral CT ratio and vector group compensation.
Remote transformer tap control.
Measurement of phase, differential & bias currents.
Record of fault current magnitudes for the last fault.
Relay flag details for the previous faults.
Programmable opto-isolated inputs to monitor the status of external plant.
IEC 60 870-5 compatible communications.
Integral disturbance recorder accessible from a local / Remote PC.
Integral event recorder accessible from a Local / Remote PC.
Comprehensive self-checking and alarms.

Commonly Differential schemes used in RVPN are as follows

(i) KBCH 130
(ii) MICOM 632

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 (iii) 7UT51

Overcurrent & Earth Fault Relays

The KCGG, KCEG relays use numerical techniques to derive protection and
control functions.
They can have up to eight multiplexed analogue inputs, sampled eight times per
power frequency cycle. The Fourier derived power frequency component
returns the rms value of the measured quantity. To ensure optimum performance
frequency tracking is used. The channel that is tracked is chosen on a priority
basis , Va, V b, V c, I a I b I c.
Up to eight output relays can be programmed to respond to any of the protection
or control functions and up to eight logic inputs can be allocated to control
functions. The logic inputs are filtered to ensure that induced AC current in the
external wiring to these inputs does not cause an incorrect response. Software
links further enable the user to customize the product for their own particular
applications. They select/inter connect the various protection and control
elements and replace the inter connections that were previously used between
the cases of relays that provided discrete protection or control functions.
The relays are powered from either a DC or an AC auxiliary supply which is
transformed by a wide ranging DC/ DC converter within the relay. This
provides the electronic circuits with regulated and galvanically isolated supply
rails . The power supply also provides a regulated and isolated field voltage to
energize the logic inputs.
An interface on the front of the relay allows the user to navigate through the
menu to access data, change settings and reset flags etc. As an alternative the
relays can be connected to the computer via their serial communications ports
and the menu accessed on line. This provides a more friendly intuitive method
of setting the relay, as it allows a whole column of data to be displayed at one
time instead of just a single menu cell. Computer programs are also available
that enable setting files to be generated off line and these files can then be down
loaded to the relay via the serial port.
In addition to protection and control functions the relays can display all the
values that it measures and many additional ones that it calculates. They also
store useful time stamped data for post fault analysis in fault records, event
records and disturbance record. This data is available via a serial
communication port for access locally and/or remotely with a computer. The

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 fault record, event record and disturbance record and extracted automatically
via the serial port and values can be polled periodically to determine trends.
Remote control actions can also be made and to this end many K range relays
have been integrated into SCADA systems.

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