Engineering Mechanics

By: Dr. Divya Agarwal

1
 UNIT- I
 Force system: Introduction, force, principle of transmissibility of force, resultant of a force system, resolution of a force,
moment of force about a line, Varigon’s theorem, couple, resolution of a force into force and a couple, properties of couple and
their application to engineering problems.
 Equilibrium: Force body diagram, equations of equilibrium, and their applications to engineering problems, equilibrium of two
force and three force members.
 Distributed forces: Determination of centre of gravity, centre of mass and centroid by direct integration and by the method of
composite bodies., mass moment of inertia and area moment of inertia by direct integration and composite bodies method,
radius of gyration, parallel axis theorem, polar moment of inertia.

 UNIT- II
 Structure: Plane truss, perfect and imperfect truss, assumption in the truss analysis, analysis of perfect plane trusses by the
method of joints, method of section, graphical method.
 Friction: Static and Kinetic friction, laws of dry friction, co-efficient of friction, angle of friction, angle of repose, cone of friction,
frictional lock, friction in pivot and collar bearing, friction in flat belts. 2
 UNIT-III
 Kinematics of Particles: Rectilinear motion, plane curvilinear motion, rectangular coordinates, normal and tangential
coordinates
 Kinetics of Particles: Equation of motion, rectilinear motion and curvilinear motion, work energy equation, conservation of
energy, concept of impulse and momentum, conservation of momentum, impact of bodies, co-efficient of restitution, loss of
energy during impact.

 UNIT-IV
 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies: Concept of rigid body, type of rigid body motion, absolute motion, introduction to relative
velocity, relative acceleration (Corioli’s component excluded) and instantaneous center of zero velocity, velocity and
acceleration.
 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies: Equation of motion, translatory motion and fixed axis rotation, application of work energy principles
to rigid bodies conservation of energy.
 Beam: Introduction, types of loading, methods for the reactions of a beam, space diagram, types of end supports, beams
subjected to couple 3
 UNIT- I
 Force system: Introduction, force, principle of transmissibility of force, resultant of a force system, resolution of a force, moment of
force about a line,Varigon’s theorem, couple, resolution of a force into force and a couple, properties of couple and their application to
engineering problems.
 Equilibrium: Free body diagram, equations of equilibrium, and their applications to engineering problems, equilibrium of two force and
three force members.
 Distributed forces: Determination of centre of gravity, centre of mass and centroid by direct integration and by the method of
composite bodies., mass moment of inertia and area moment of inertia by direct integration and composite bodies method, radius of
gyration, parallel axis theorem, polar moment of inertia.

 UNIT- II
 Structure: Plane truss, perfect and imperfect truss, assumption in the truss analysis, analysis of perfect plane trusses by the method of
joints, method of section, graphical method.

 Friction: Static and Kinetic friction, laws of dry friction, co-efficient of friction, angle of friction, angle of repose,
cone of friction, frictional lock, friction in pivot and collar bearing, friction in flat belts. 4
 CONCEPT OF FRICTION

 It has been observed that surfaces of bodies, however smooth they may be, are not perfect
and possess some irregularities and roughness.
 Therefore, if a block of one substance is placed over the level surface of another, a certain
degree of interlocking of minutely projecting particles takes place.
 This interlocking properties of projecting particles oppose any tendency of the body to
move.
 The resisting force acts in the direction
opposite to that of the motion of the upper
block and is called friction.

5
 CONCEPT OF FRICTION

 Thus, wherever there is a relative motion between two parts, a force of friction comes into play, and hence
to overcome friction some energy is wasted.
 Hence, force of friction or frictional force may be defined as the opposing force which is called into play
in between the surfaces of contact of two bodies, when one body moves over the surface of another
body.

6
 CONCEPT OF FRICTION

 Friction is a force distribution at the surface of contact which acts tangential to the surface of contact and
opposite to the direction of motion.
 Its magnitude depends on the roughness of surfaces.
 In engineering friction is desirable and undesirable.
 There are appliances and devices known as friction devices
such as belts and ropes, friction clutches, jib and cotter joints,
brakes, nuts and bolts, in which friction is desirable and efforts
are made to maximise it.
 On the contrary, the friction is very undesirable in moving
parts of machines. It causes the loss of energy which
manifests itself in the forms of heat energy. Due to friction a
more force is required to cause motion of the parts.
 To improve the efficiency of the machines the friction force is
reduced to the minimum possible by lubrication. 7
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FRICTIONAL FORCE

 The force of friction or frictional force entails the following characteristics :

i. It is self-adjusting. As tractive force P increases, the frictional force F also increases, and at
any instant only as much frictional force comes into play as is necessary to prevent the
motion.
ii. It always acts in a direction opposite to the motion (i.e., always opposes the tractive force).
iii. It is a passive force (since it exists only if the tractive force P exists).

8
 TYPES OF FRICTION

Friction
Dry Friction Fluid Friction

Static Friction Dynamic Friction Boundary Viscous

Sliding Rolling

9
 TYPES OF FRICTION

1. Friction in unlubricated surfaces. The friction that exists between two unlubricated surfaces is
called solid friction or dry friction.
 The friction between dry surfaces in contact is called dry friction. It is also called coulomb
friction.
 The major cause of such friction is believed to be the interlocking of microscopic protuberances
(i.e., minute projections on the surfaces) which oppose the relative motion.
 Such protuberances are always present howsoever smooth the surfaces may be.
 It may be of the following two types :
(i) Sliding friction: The friction that exists when one surface slides over the other is called sliding
friction.
(ii) Rolling friction: The friction that exists between two surfaces separated by balls or rollers, is 10
called the rolling friction. Rolling friction is always less than the sliding friction
 TYPES OF FRICTION: FRICTION IN LUBRICATED SURFACES.

 When lubricant (i.e. oil or grease) is applied between two surfaces in contact, then the friction
may be classified into the following two types depending upon the thickness of layer of a
lubricant.
1. Boundary friction (or greasy friction or non-viscous friction). It is the friction, experienced
between the rubbing surfaces, when the surfaces have a very thin layer of lubricant.
 The thickness of this very thin layer is of the molecular dimension.
 In this type of friction, a thin layer of lubricant forms a bond between the two rubbing surfaces.
 The lubricant is absorbed on the surfaces and forms a thin film.
 This thin film of the lubricant results in less friction between them.
 The boundary friction follows the laws of solid friction.
11
 TYPES OF FRICTION: FRICTION IN LUBRICATED SURFACES.

 When lubricant (i.e. oil or grease) is applied between two surfaces in contact, then the
friction may be classified into the following two types depending upon the thickness of layer
of a lubricant.
2. Fluid friction (or film friction or viscous friction). It is the friction, experienced between
the rubbing surfaces, when the surfaces have a thick layer of the lubricant.
 In this case, the actual surfaces do not come in contact and thus do not rub against each
other.
 It is thus obvious that fluid friction is not due to the surfaces in contact but it is due to the
viscosity and oiliness of the lubricant.

12
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC FRICTION

 Static friction. The static friction is the  Dynamic friction. It is the friction experienced by
friction offered by the surfaces subjected to a body when it is in motion. It is also known as
external forces until there is no motion kinetic friction and is always less than static friction
between them. (the kinetic friction is about 40 to 75 per cent of
the limiting static friction).

13
 LIMITING FRICTION

 Figure shows a graph between the applied force

and the friction.
 During static condition as the applied force is
increased from zero value the frictional force
increases in direct proportion to the applied force.
 A certain stage is reached when the applied force
is just sufficient to overcome friction and motion of
the body takes place.
 After this the friction suddenly decreases to a
magnitude which remains constant throughout the
motion period as shown in Figure. 14
 LIMITING FRICTION

 When the motion is just to commence, maximum

friction is encountered. This condition is known as
limiting equilibrium.The friction acting at this stage is
termed as limiting friction.
 Hence, limiting force of friction may be defined as the
maximum value of friction force which exists when a
body just begins to slide over the surface of the other
body.
 When the applied force or tractive force P is less
than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest,
and the friction is called static friction, which may have
any value between zero and limiting friction. 15
 LIMITING FRICTION

 Consider that a body A of weight W is lying on a

rough horizontal body B as shown in Fig. (a).
 In this position, the body A is in equilibrium under
the action of its own weight W, and the normal
reaction RN (equal to W) of B on A.

16
 LIMITING FRICTION

 Consider that a body A of weight W is lying on a

rough horizontal body B as shown in Fig. (a).
 In this position, the body A is in equilibrium under
the action of its own weight W, and the normal
reaction RN (equal to W) of B on A.
 Now if a small horizontal force P1 is applied to the
body A acting through its centre of gravity as shown
in Fig. (b), it does not move because of the frictional
force which prevents the motion.
 This shows that the applied force P1 is exactly
balanced by the force of friction F1 acting in the
opposite direction. 17
 LIMITING FRICTION

 If we now increase the applied force to P2 as

shown in Fig. (c), it is still found to be in
equilibrium.
 This means that the force of friction has also
increased to a value F2 = P2.
 Thus every time the effort is increased the force
of friction also increases, so as to become exactly
equal to the applied force.

18
 LIMITING FRICTION

 If we now increase the applied force to P2 as

shown in Fig. (c), it is still found to be in
equilibrium.
 This means that the force of friction has also
increased to a value F2 = P2.
 Thus every time the effort is increased the force
of friction also increases, so as to become exactly
equal to the applied force.
 There is, however, a limit beyond which the force
of friction cannot increase as shown in Fig. (d).
19
 LIMITING FRICTION
 After this, any increase in the applied effort will not
lead to any further increase in the force of friction, as
shown in Fig. (e), thus the body A begins to move in the
direction of the applied force.
 This maximum value of frictional force, which comes
into play, when a body just begins to slide over the
surface of the other body, is known as limiting force
of friction or simply limiting friction.
 It may be noted that when the applied force is less
than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest,
and the friction into play is called static friction
which may have any value between zero and limiting
20
friction.
 LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION

 Following are the laws of static friction :

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body
tends to move.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends the
body to move.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction (F ) bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
(RN) between the two surfaces. Mathematically
𝐹/𝑅𝑁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact, between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces. 21
 LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION

 Following are the laws of kinetic or dynamic friction :

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the
body is moving.
2. The magnitude of the kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in
case of limiting friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases
slightly with the increase of speed.

22
 LAWS OF SOLID FRICTION

 Following are the laws of solid friction :

1. The force of friction is directly proportional to the normal load between the
surfaces.
2. The force of friction is independent of the area of the contact surface for a
given normal load.
3. The force of friction depends upon the material of which the contact surfaces
are made.
4. The force of friction is independent of the velocity of sliding of one body
relative to the other body.
23
 LAWS OF FLUID FRICTION

 Following are the laws of fluid friction :

1. The force of friction is almost independent of the load.
2. The force of friction reduces with the increase of the temperature of the
lubricant.
3. The force of friction is independent of the substances of the bearing surfaces.
4. The force of friction is different for different lubricants.

24
 ANGLE OF FRICTION

 Consider a body of weight W resting on an inclined plane

 Body is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces :
1. Weight (W) of the body, acting vertically downwards,
2. Friction force (F) acting upwards along the plane, and
3. Normal reaction (R) acting at right angles to the plane.
 Let the angle of inclination (α) be gradually increased, till the body just starts sliding down
the plane.
 This angle of inclined plane, at which a body just begins to slide down the plane, the angle
which the normal reaction makes with resultant force, is called the angle of friction or
limiting angle of friction.
25
 This is also equal to the angle, which the normal reaction makes with the vertical.
 CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION

 It is defined as the ratio of limiting force of friction to the normal reaction between the two
bodies.
 It is denoted by μ.
 The ratio remains constant.
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 Coefficient of friction μ = tan φ= 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹
 Coefficient of friction μ =
𝑁

∴ F = μN
 where φ = Angle of friction, F = Limiting friction, and R = Normal reaction
26
 ANGLE OF REPOSE

 Consider a body of weight W acting on a rough horizontal plane inclined at angle α.

 If the angle of inclination is slowly increased, a stage will come when the block of
mass m will tend to slide down.
 This angle of the plane with horizontal plane is known as angle of repose.
 The body is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces :
(i) Weight, W (which may be resolved into two components Wsinθ and Wcosθ)
(ii) Normal reaction, N and
(iii) Frictional force, F (= μN).
27
 ANGLE OF REPOSE

 In the limiting condition when the block is about to slide down the inclined plane, the frictional
force must act up the plane and for equilibrium; considering the forces along and perpendicular
to the plane.
𝐹 = 𝑊 sin θ
𝑁 = 𝑊 cos θ
 Getting value of F and N
𝐹 𝑊 sin θ
= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
𝑁 𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝐹
= μ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 φ
𝑁

 where φ is the angle of friction.

 The angle θ is called angle of repose and is equal to the angle of friction when the body is in the 28
condition of limiting equilibrium on an inclined plane.
 CONE OF FRICTION

 If the line OA of Figure making the maximum angle

of friction φ with the normal is revolved about OB
as an axis, the cone generated is called the cone of
friction.
 If the resultant R of the normal reaction and the
friction falls within the cone of friction, the forces
acting on the body are not great enough to cause
motion.
 This principle is used in self-locking mechanisms and
also in taper pins.
 For example, if the angle of taper pin is less than the angle of friction, no force at right
29
angles in the axis of the pin could cause it to move in the direction of its axis.
 FRICTIONAL LOCK MECHANISM AND DEVICES

 Locking device is designed to prevent mated shafts and components from loosening out of place when
they are subjected to movement, varying temperatures, vibrations, stresses, and other conditions.
 They are critical components, as they often ensure the safety of the system.
 They appear frequently in systems that require coupling various components together.
 Frictional locking devices are devices that perform operations using the coefficient of friction between the two
contacting surfaces.
 A primary example occurs when inserting the locking device between the shaft and the hub of a system.
 The locking device then expands to fill the gap, holding the components in place by friction.
 These usually take the form of metallic or non-metallic hollow cylinders, often with a slit on one side.
 Another familiar friction locking device is the nut. These ubiquitous pieces of assembly and mating components
work with a combination of friction on the threads of the shaft, slight tension on the bolt and compression of30
the parts held together.
 FRICTIONAL LOCK MECHANISM AND DEVICES

 Frictional locking devices have the advantage that they do not require keying.
 That is, no need to properly align keys and key-ways, and no need to worry if these will be
compatible when designing systems.
 Indeed, because the locking is completely performed by friction between the locking
device and the shaft, the system can even deal with oversized and undersized shafts.
 No keys also means no worry over loose keyed components at reduced torque ratings;
loose keys can cause vibrations and injuries, and damage equipment.
 All that engineers need out of the system is the ability to insert the shaft into the locking
device, the frictional locking device then exerts radial pressure, locking the components in
place.
31
 FRICTIONAL LOCK MECHANISM AND DEVICES

 When compared to keyed connections, they can be backlash free with proper fit tolerances,
they allow the ability to make adjustments to the axial position and angular timing in a system,
and no impact between key and key-way occurs when reversing the system because no keys
are present.
 Avoid employing them in situations with high external centrifugal forces. These situations can
cause a drop in the pressure between the components and lead to slipping.
 In such applications, use slit-less friction locking devices, which have stricter machining and
application tolerances, or use another type of locking device.
 Frictional locking devices come in varying configurations, usually anywhere from one to three
pieces, Smaller sizes are usually reserved for lower torque, less demanding operations.

32
Figure shows types of friction based locking devices with: (a) a bi-stable brake, (b) an overrunning clutch, (c) a
piezo actuated brake, (d) a statically balanced brake, (e) a wormwheel, (f) a self-engaging brake, (g) a thermic lock,
33
(h) a self-engaging pinion-gear mechanism and (i) a capstan.
 FRICTION IN JOURNAL BEARING

 A journal bearing forms a turning pair as shown in Fig(a).

 The fixed outer element of a turning pair is called a bearing and
that portion of the inner element (i.e. shaft) which fits in the
bearing is called a journal.
 The journal is slightly less in diameter than the bearing, in order to
permit the free movement of the journal in a bearing.
 When bearing is not lubricated (or journal is stationary), then
there is a line contact between two elements as shown in Fig. (a).
 The load W on the journal and normal reaction RN (equal to W)
of the bearing acts through the centre.
 The reaction RN acts vertically upwards at point A. This point A is
known as seat or point of pressure. 34
 FRICTION IN JOURNAL BEARING

 Now consider a shaft rotating inside a bearing in

clockwise direction as shown in Fig. (b).
 The lubricant between the journal and bearing forms a
thin layer which gives rise to a greasy friction.
 Therefore, the reaction R does not act vertically upward,
but acts at another point of pressure B.
 This is due to the fact that when shaft rotates, a frictional
force F = μ RN acts at the circumference of the shaft
which has a tendency to rotate the shaft in opposite
direction of motion and this shifts the point A to point B.

35
 FRICTION IN JOURNAL BEARING

 In order that the rotation may be maintained, there must be a couple rotating the shaft.
 Let φ = Angle between R (resultant of F and RN) and RN,
μ = Coefficient of friction between the journal and bearing,
T = Frictional torque in N-m, and r = Radius of the shaft in metres.
 For uniform motion, resultant force and resultant turning moment on the shaft must be zero
R=W and T = W × OC = W × OB sin φ = W.r sin φ
 Since φ is very small, therefore substituting sin φ = tan φ
T = W.r tan φ = μ.W.r ... (∵ μ = tan φ)
 If the shaft rotates with angular velocity ω rad/s, then power wasted in friction,
36
P = T.ω = T × 2πN/60 watts (N = Speed of shaft in r.p.m.)
 FRICTION OF PIVOT & COLLAR BEARING

 Rotating shafts are frequently subjected to axial thrust.

 The bearing surfaces such as pivot and collar bearings
are used to take this axial thrust of the rotating shaft.
 Propeller shafts of ships, shafts of steam turbines, and
vertical machine shafts are examples of shafts which
carry an axial thrust.
 Bearing surfaces placed at the end of a shaft to take the
axial thrust are known as pivots.
 The pivot may have a flat surface or conical surface as
shown in Fig. (a) and (b) respectively.
 When cone is truncated, it is then known as truncated 37
or trapezoidal pivot as shown in (c).
 FRICTION OF PIVOT & COLLAR BEARING

 The collar may have flat bearing surface or

conical bearing surface, but the flat surface is
most commonly used.
 There may be a single collar, as shown in Fig. (d)
or several collars along the length of a shaft, as
shown in Fig. (e) in order to reduce the
intensity of pressure.

38
 FRICTION OF PIVOT & COLLAR BEARING

 In modern practice, ball and roller thrust bearings are used when power is being transmitted and
when thrusts are large as in case of propeller shafts of ships.
 In a new bearing, the contact between the shaft and bearing may be good over the whole surface
and pressure over the rubbing surfaces is uniformly distributed.
 But when the bearing becomes old, all parts of rubbing surface will not move with the same
velocity, because the velocity of rubbing surface increases with the distance from the axis of the
bearing.
 This means that wear may be different at different radii and which alters distribution of pressure.
 Hence, in the study of friction of bearings, it is assumed that
1. The pressure is uniformly distributed throughout the bearing surface, and
2. The wear is uniform throughout the bearing surface. 39
 FLAT PIVOT BEARING

 When a vertical shaft rotates in a flat pivot bearing (known as foot

step bearing), as shown in Figure, the sliding friction will be along
the surface of contact between the shaft and the bearing.
 Let W =Load transmitted over the bearing surface,
R =Radius of bearing surface,
p =Intensity of pressure per unit area of bearing surface
between rubbing surfaces, and
μ =Coefficient of friction.
 We will consider the following two cases :
1. When there is a uniform pressure and 2. When there is a uniform wear. 40
 FLAT PIVOT BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM PRESSURE
 When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the bearing area, then
𝑊
𝑝=
𝜋𝑅2
 Consider a ring of radius r and thickness dr of the bearing area.
∴ Area of bearing surface, 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
 Load transmitted to the ring, 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑝 × 𝐴 = 𝑝 × 2 𝜋 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 ...(i)
 Frictional resistance to sliding on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,
𝐹𝑟 = 𝜇. 𝛿𝑊 = 𝜇 𝑝 × 2𝜋 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝜇. 𝑝. 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
 ∴ Frictional torque on the ring,
𝑇𝑟 = 𝐹𝑟 × 𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝜇 𝑝 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 × 𝑟 = 2 𝜋 𝜇 𝑝 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 … (𝒊𝒊)
41
 Integrate this equation within the limits from 0 to R for total frictional torque on pivot bearing.
 FLAT PIVOT BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM PRESSURE

 ∴ Total frictional torque,

𝑅 𝑅
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
0 0
𝑅
𝑟3 𝑅3 2
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝 ∗ = 𝜋𝜇 𝑝 ∗ 𝑅3
3 0
3 3
2 𝑊 3 2 𝑊
𝑇 = 𝜋𝜇 ∗ ∗𝑅 = 𝜇𝑊𝑅 ....... 𝑝 =
3 𝜋𝑅2 3 𝜋𝑅2

 When the shaft rotates at ω rad/s, then power lost in friction,

𝑃 = 𝑇. 𝜔 = 𝑇 × 2𝜋 𝑁/60 … ( 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁 / 60)
 where N = Speed of shaft in r.p.m.
42
 FLAT PIVOT BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM WEAR
 Rate of wear depends upon intensity of pressure (p) and velocity of rubbing surfaces (v).
 Assume rate of wear is proportional to product of intensity of pressure and velocity of rubbing surfaces (i.e. p.v..).
 Since velocity of rubbing surfaces increases with distance (i.e. radius r) from axis of bearing, therefore for uniform wear
𝑝. 𝑟 = 𝐶 (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐶 / 𝑟
 and the load transmitted to the ring,
𝛿𝑊 = 𝑝 × 𝐴 = 𝑝 × 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
𝐶
𝛿𝑊 = × 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝐶. 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
 ∴ Total load transmitted to the bearing
𝑅
𝑅
𝑊 = 2𝜋𝐶. 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝐶 𝑟 𝑜 = 2𝜋 𝐶𝑅
0
𝑊
C= 43
2𝜋𝑟
 FLAT PIVOT BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM WEAR
 We know that frictional torque acting on the ring
2
𝐶 2
𝑇𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 ∗ ∗ 𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑇𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝐶𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
 ∴ Total frictional torque on the bearing,
𝑅 𝑅
𝑟2 𝑅2
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇𝐶. 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜇𝐶 ∗
0 2 𝑜
2
T = 𝜋𝜇𝐶𝑅2
𝑊 2
1
T = 𝜋𝜇 ∗ 𝑅 = 𝜇𝑊. 𝑅
2𝜋𝑅 2

44
 FLAT COLLAR BEARING

 Collar bearings are used to take axial thrust of the

rotating shafts.
 There may be a single collar or multiple collar
bearings as shown in Fig. (a) and (b) respectively.
 Collar bearings are also known as thrust bearings.
 Consider a single flat collar bearing supporting a
shaft as shown in Fig. (a).
 Let r1 = External radius of the collar, and
 r2 = Internal radius of the collar.
∴ Area of the bearing surface,
45
𝐴 = 𝜋 [(𝑟1)2 – (𝑟2)2]
 FLAT COLLAR BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM PRESSURE
 When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the bearing area, then intensity of pressure
𝑊 𝑊
𝑝= =
𝐴 𝜋(𝑟1)2 – (𝑟2)2
 Consider a ring of radius r and thickness dr of the bearing area.
∴ Area of bearing surface, 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
 Load transmitted to the ring, 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑝 × 𝐴 = 𝑝 × 2 𝜋 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 ...(i)
 Frictional resistance to sliding on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,
𝐹𝑟 = 𝜇. 𝛿𝑊 = 𝜇 𝑝 × 2𝜋 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝜇. 𝑝. 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
 ∴ Frictional torque on the ring,
𝑇𝑟 = 𝐹𝑟 × 𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝜇 𝑝 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 × 𝑟 = 2 𝜋 𝜇 𝑝 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 … (𝒊𝒊)
46
 Integrate this equation within the limits from r2 to r1 for total frictional torque on collar bearing.
 FLAT COLLAR BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM PRESSURE

 ∴ Total frictional torque,

𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟1 𝑟1
𝑟2
𝑟3 𝑟1 3 − 𝑟2 3
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝 ∗
3 𝑟1
3
 Substituting the value of p from equation i
𝑊 𝑟1 3 − 𝑟2 3
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇 ∗ 2 2
∗
𝜋(𝑟1) – (𝑟2) 3
2 𝑟1 3 − 𝑟2 3
= 𝜇𝑊
3 (𝑟1)2 – (𝑟2)2 47
 FLAT COLLAR BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM WEAR
 Rate of wear depends upon intensity of pressure (p) and velocity of rubbing surfaces (v).
 Assume rate of wear is proportional to product of intensity of pressure and velocity of rubbing surfaces (i.e. p.v..).
 Since velocity of rubbing surfaces increases with distance (i.e. radius r) from axis of bearing, therefore for uniform wear
𝑝. 𝑟 = 𝐶 (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐶 / 𝑟
 and the load transmitted to the ring,
𝛿𝑊 = 𝑝 × 𝐴 = 𝑝 × 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
𝐶
𝛿𝑊 = × 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝐶. 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
 ∴ Total load transmitted to the collar bearing
𝑟2
𝑟2
𝑊 = 2𝜋𝐶. 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝐶 𝑟 𝑟1 = 2𝜋 𝐶(𝑟1 − 𝑟2)
𝑟1
𝑊
C= 48
2𝜋(𝑟1 − 𝑟2)
 FLAT COLLAR BEARING: CONSIDERING UNIFORM WEAR
 We know that frictional torque acting on the ring
2
𝐶 2
𝑇𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑝𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 ∗ ∗ 𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑇𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝐶𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
 ∴ Total frictional torque on the bearing,
𝑟2
𝑟2
𝑟2 (𝑟1)2 – (𝑟2)2
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇𝐶. 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜇𝐶 ∗
𝑟1 2 𝑟1
2
T = 𝜋𝜇𝐶 (𝑟1)2 – (𝑟2)2

Substituting the value of C from equation ii

𝑊 2 2
1
T = 𝜋𝜇 ∗ (𝑟1) – (𝑟2) = 𝜇𝑊. (𝑟1 + 𝑟2)
2𝜋(𝑟1 − 𝑟2) 2
49
 FRICTION IN FLAT BELTS
 In any system where a belt or a cable is wrapped around a
pulley or some other cylindrical surface, we have the
potential for friction between the belt or cable and the
surface it is in contact with.
 In some cases, such as a rope over a tree branch being used
to lift an object, the friction forces represent a loss.
 In other cases such as a belt-driven system, these friction
forces are put to use transferring power from one pulley to
another pulley
 In many belt-driven systems, the belt friction keeps the pulley
from slipping relative to the belt. This allows us to use belts
to transfer forces from one pulley to another pulley 50
 FRICTION IN FLAT BELTS

 If we were to pass a rope over a tree branch to

help lift an object, the rope would experience
belt friction resisting the sliding of the rope
relative to the surface of the tree branch.
 For analysis, we will start a flat, massless belt
passing over a cylindrical surface. If we have an
equal tension in each belt, the belt will
experience a non-uniform normal force from the
cylinder that is supporting it.
With equal tensions on each side of the
belt, only a non-uniform normal force exists
between the belt and the surface
51
 FRICTION IN FLAT BELTS

 In a frictionless scenario, if we were to

increase the tension on one side of the rope
it would begin to slide across the cylinder. If
friction exists between the rope and the
surface though, the friction force will oppose
with sliding motion, and prevent it up to a
point.

With unequal tensions, a friction force will

also be present opposing the relative sliding
of the belt to the surface
52
 FRICTION IN FLAT BELTS
 A flat belt is any system where the pulley or surface only
interacts with the bottom surface of the belt or cable.
 If belt/cable fits into a groove, then it is considered a V belt.
 When analyzing systems with belts, we are usually interested in
the range of values for the tension forces where the belt will
not slip relative to the surface.
 Starting with the smaller tension force on one side (T1), we can
increase the second tension force (T2)to some maximum value
For a flat belt, the belt or cable will
before slipping. interact with the bottom surface. For a
 For a flat belt, the maximum value for T2 will depend on the V belt, the belt or cable will interact
with the sides of a groove
value of T1, the static coefficient of friction between the belt and
the surface, and the contact angle between the belt and the 𝛽𝜇
surface (β) given in radians, as described. 𝑇2max = 𝑇1𝑒 𝑠 53
FRICTION IN FLAT BELTS

The method for determining the

maximum value of T2 before the
belt starts slipping.

54