INTERNSHIP ALLOCATION REPORT 2019-20

Name of the Department: Mechanical Engineering

(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the
Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself
during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)

Name of the Programme : B.E., Mechanical Engineering

Year of study and Batch/Group : II & B5/G2
Name of the Mentor : M. Bala Kumaran
Title of the assigned internship :

FLOATING SOLAR POWER PLANT

Nature of Internship : Individual

Reg No of Students who are assigned with this internship:

BME18085

Total No. of Hours Required to complete the Internship: 45

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme

Examiner Head
 INTERNSHIP EVALUATION REPORT 2019-20
Name of the Department: Mechanical Engineering
(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the
Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself
during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)
Name of the Student SIDDHARTH SINGH
Register No and Roll No BME18085 & MEC349
Programme of study B.E, Mechanical Engineering
Year and Batch/Group II & B5/G2
Semester IV
Title of Internship FLOATING SOLAR POWER PLANT
Duration of Internship 45 Hours
Mentor of the Student M. Bala Kumaran
Evaluation by the Department
Sl Criterion Max. Marks Marks
No. Allotted
1 Regularity in maintenance of the diary. 10 10
2 Adequacy & quality of information recorded 10 10
3 Drawings, sketches and data recorded 10 10
4 Thought process and recording techniques used 5 5
5 Organization of the information 5 4
6 Originality of the Internship Report 20 20
7 Adequacy and purposeful write-up of the Internship 10 10
Report
8 Organization, format, drawings, sketches, style, language 10 10
etc. of the Internship Report
9 Practical applications, relationships with basic theory and 10 9
concepts
10 Presentation Skills 10 9
Total 100 97

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme

Examiner Head
 135, EAST COAST ROAD, KANATHUR, CHENNAI - 603 112.
TAMILNADU, INDIA

FLOATING SOLAR POWER PLANT

A Report on Internship

In
Department of Mechanical Engineering

By

SIDDHARTH SINGH
BME18085

APRIL 2020

AMET UNIVERSITY KANNATHUR CHENNAI-603112

 CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

NO. ABSTRACT I

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 What is Floating Solar Power Plant 1-2

1.2 Advantages 3

1.3 Disadvantages 3

1.4 Objectives 4

2 METHODOLOGY 5-6
3 PROBLEMS INCLUDED WITH THIS PROJECT 7

3.1 Shading on panels due to water 7

3.2 Effect of flood in rainy season 7

3.3 How to transfer energy from panel to battery 8

4 CASE STUDY 8

4.1 Features 8

4.1.1 Indigenously developed floaters 8

4.1.2 Benefits 8

4.1.3 PV Modules 8

4.1.4 Specifications of a single solar panel 9

5 ANALYSIS 10-28

6 CONCLUSION 29

7 LIST OF ADDITIONAL FIGURES 30

 Page I

ABSTRACT

The high energy demand and the constant depletion of the fossil fuels lead us to shift our focus to
renewable energy sources which are not only the future unlimited source of energy, it is also eco-friendly and
viable for the environment. Hydro and Wind though are renewable sources but are area specific. Solar energy
on the other hand can be installed in any place. The major issue with the solar energy is the requirement of
land which is scarcely available in the world and even costly to get. But floating solar plants can be installed
in any water bodies which will not only reduce the cost of the land but will increase the amount of generation
with the cooling effect on water. This report concentrates upon the design parameters of the floating platform
but will also focus upon the effect of panel shade on the ecosystem. The solution is to overcome the
limitations of land with the existence of solar power plants. FSPV or Floating Solar Photovoltaic can be
installed in any water sections that will not only lower the land cost but will also increase the amount of
generation by the cooling effect of water. Modeling and simulation for FSPV design is done. The 1MWp
design is arranged on inverters with each having a 250 kWp capacity spread over a minimum of 4 blocks and
20 strings. The constant depletion of fossil fuels and high energy demand make renewable energy sources not
only unlimited energy sources in the future, but also environmentally friendly and sustainable for the
environment. Although solar power plants have some advantages over other forms of power generation, the
main problem is the land requirements that are virtually unavailable in the world and the cost.
 Page 1

INTRODUCTION

What is Floating Solar PV: FSPV also known as Floatovoltaics is a solar PV application in which PV
panels are designed and installed to float on water bodies such as reservoirs, hydroelectric dams, industrial
ponds, water treatment ponds, mining ponds, lakes, and lagoons. In this, solar panels are usually mounted
upon a pontoon-based floating structure and to keep its location fixed. Floating structure is anchored and
moored. Recently there has been an interest in FSPV globally as well as in India. Further, it is also seen that
if the capacity of FSPV deployment is scaled up, the tariff may also come down closer to the tariff
discovered for ground-mounted solar PV.
The use of photovoltaic (PV) has increased very rapidly in recent years. In 2015, the PV market had achieved
a massive expansion on a world scale with an installed capacity of 230GW, where its development began to
move from Europe to Asia and the USA. This is certainly not without reason. With the massive movement in
the use of clean and environmentally friendly energy, solar power has the highest attractiveness from society
because of the abundant and endless energy resource. Easy installation, semiconductor technology as a basis
for growing PV technology, and policy intensives are the main reasons why PV is increasingly favored by
the public. PV converts solar radiation into electrical energy without polluting the environment. PV
performance itself depends on climatic conditions, electrical operation parameters, and design parameters
such as temperature, solar irradiance, etc. In general, PV can convert 4- 17% of solar radiation into electrical
energy, depending on the factors above. The higher the intensity of solar radiation will increase the module
temperature and will reduce PV cell efficiency. Solar energy is energy produced by sun created through a
thermonuclear process and this process crates heat and electromagnetic radiations. These electromagnetic
radiations have the energy that reaches the earth. As solar energy is an indirect source of energy so we need
two components: one the collector and other the storage device initially. The collector will collect the
radiations coming from the sun and convert it in the form of electrical energy. One the other hand we require
storage unit since the radiations keeps varying throughout the day and during night hours there will be no
radiations.
Now let us discuss the types of collectors. These are of three types-
1) Flat-plate collectors
2) Focusing collectors
3) Passive collectors
 Page 2
Most of the time we use flat- plate panel which is a combination of array of solar cells arranged in a simple
plane. The output of these panels depends upon the size of panel, intensity of radiations and the cleanness of
the panel. Now with the concept of floating solar we are enchasing the availabilities of water bodies in
different regions. Since with this idea we do not have to utilize a large area, so the problem of land for the
solar plant can be easily solved. Also, keeping in mind the fact that land acquisition in India is not an easy
task, this sort of an idea keep itself away from disputes.

(As this diagram indicates, this is how a Floating Solar Power Plant should look like)

A solar cell or PV cell converts solar energy into electrical energy by the photo voltaic effect. When the
sunlight is incident upon a material surface, the electrons present in the valence band absorb energy and,
being excited, jump to the conduction band and become free. These highly excited, non-thermal electrons
diffuse, and some reach a junction where they are accelerated into a different material by a built-in potential
(Galvani potential). This generates an electromotive force, and thus the light energy is converted into electric
energy. An Array of solar panels are used to generate electricity. The output of solar panel is of DC (Direct
current) nature. The output of each solar panel is combined through the combiner who has two input ports
and two output ports and has connected with the lightening arresters and store in the storage device. Output
of the combiner is attached to inverter which converts DC into 3-phase AC. The 3 phase AC power is then
given to meet the load demand or fed to grid. Now introducing the concept of floating to the above previous
theory is what we aim to do. With this, the basic idea is that, we float the solar panels over the water bodies.
With this not only we can solve the problem of land as we have discussed earlier but there are many other
environmental benefits that we can accomplish. We all know, that during summers canals face the threat of
drying up due to which irrigation problems arise. With floating solar, around 70% of the evaporation could
be prevented which would in turn help in the retaining sufficient amount of waters in the canals and small
river bodies.
Page 3
ADVANTAGES:
 Floating power plant can freely movable at sea or river.
 The Floating power plant can economically supply electricity to a specific district or to a specific facility
that temporarily uses electricity, and can minimize limitations caused by environmental regulations, and can
be used as an emergency electric power source.
 The floating power plant is freely movable on the sea, so that the power plant is not limited to the place.
Thus, the floating power plant can be moved to any district having facilities requiring electricity or can
generate electricity on the open sea or river.
 Floating power plant overcomes problems of conventional land power plants and, particularly, solves the
problem of the waste of land caused by construction of power plants on land, and thus reduces environmental
pollution.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Floating Power Plant as a problem with end-user power demand and supply not being synchronized.
 The access to the installations is critical when working off-shore.
 Infrastructure is costly when working off-shore.
 Page 4

OJBECTIVE:

 FLOATING SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (FSPV): FSPV is a concept of utilizing a water body as a PV

installation area, certainly not independent of floating technology. In short, FSPV is a combination of PV
technology and floating technology that produces electricity generation. The most important parameter in
evaluating the performance of FSPV is that effective conversion efficiency in operative conditions, which
has an impact on electricity generation as the main objective of the FSPV components. PV module
conversion efficiency is a comparison between the electricity generated and the solar radiation intensity
incident, which is formulated accordingly as follows:

SOLAR RADIATON: It is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that creates
electromagnetic energy. The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of
about 5800 K. About half of the radiation is in the visible short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Page 5
METHODOLOGY:
 PONTOON:
Pontoon is a floating device made up of Polymer and has enough buoyancy to float on water with heavy load
placed on it. The platform is design to hold suitable number of modules in series parallel combination
according to the requirement and space availability.

(The figure representing above is a PONTOON)

 FLOATS:
Floats multiple plastic hollow floats with effective buoyancy to self weight ratio are connected in series such
as to formed a giant pontoon. The floats are typically made of HDPE (high density polyethylene), known for
its tensile strength, maintenance free, UV and corrosion resistance. Glass fiber reinforced plastic (GRP) can
also be used for construction of floating plat-form. HDPE is commonly used for the fabrication of fuel tanks,
milk bottles, water pipes, and can be recycled as well.

(The figure representing above is a FLOATING STRUCTURE)

Floating structure characteristics:

1) Main float supporting PV module
2) Secondary float
3) Tab connection
4) Gasket to mount module

Page 6
5) Module locking

 MOORING SYSTEM:
It is a permanent structure that holds the system at a place. Examples include quays, wharfs, jetties, piers,
anchor buoys, and mooring buoys. In the case of a floating solar system, the mooring system keeps the
panels in the same position and prevents them from turning or floating away. The biggest challenge is that to
installed mooring system in deep water. Mooring system for floating platform can be done with nylon wire
rope slings which can be tied to bollards on bank and lashed at each corner.

(The figure representing above is a MOORING SYSTEM)

The layout of plant:

1) Module
2) Structure
3) Substation
4) Distribution line
5) Buoyancy anchor
6) Floater
7) Weight
8) Under water cable
 Page 7

PROBLEMS INCLUDED WITH THIS PROJECT:

 Shading on panels due to water- Solar shading is the dirty phrase of the solar industry. Due to
waves created in the water, sometimes water come on the surface of the panels. So, due to this the PV
cells acts as a load and the efficiency reduces, also the power out decreases. Because without getting
the heat, electrons whole pairs cannot formed in the solar cells and the energy cannot be generated.
So, to eliminate this effect panels tilted by some angle so, water can easily removed. As compare to
land mounted system the energy generation decreases only 2-3% of total energy that of in land
mounted it decrease 50% of total.

 Effect of flood in rainy season- As it is known in rainy season more water come into the reservoir
with more kinetic energy. So, due this more waves created in the reservoir and system gets displaced
& some time it gets damaged. Mostly system is installed in the man-made pond. So there is no such
causing. But if the system installed in river, so it has to protect and eliminate this effect. So, to
eliminate this and to save the system, mooring system must be strong enough to with stand and more
weights are connected to system.

 How to transfer energy from panel to battery- Cables used for this system should be robust and
mechanically strong. High temperature resistance and excellent weatherproofing characteristics
provide a long service life to the cables used. The connectors with high current capacity and easy
mode of assembly are to be used for the connections of the power plant cables. With this cables
power can be transfer to the battery, which is installed in battery room.

The floating solar power plant or FSPP or FSPV is designed to be a project that can function in the daytime
that is when the sunlight shines on the panels, the electricity is generated which is then directly transmitted to
the electricity grid or to any source to power up. In the case of using it with electricity grid, the DC or Direct
Current electricity that is generated by the solar panels is first converted to AC or Alternating Current with
the help of a inverter and then it is stepped up with the help of a step up transformer according to the desired
voltages by the user.
 Page 8

CASE STUDY:

India’s largest floating Solar Energy Plant at Kerala, capacity of 100 kWp SELECT Energy Systems Ltd (a
leading Manufacturer of Solar PV Modules & Integrator of High Quality Solar PV Power Systems) has
successfully built and commissioned India’s largest Floating Solar Energy plant at Rajiv Gandhi Combined
cycle power plant (RGCCPP in Kayamkulam, Kerala) for NTPC. The floating structure was commissioned
in a short span of 22 days. This plant was constructed under campaign of 'Made in India'. To reduce the cost
of the system, a collaborative indigenous floater development project has been taken up by NETRA with
Central Institute for Plastic Engineering and Technology (CIPET), Chennai. NETRA, NTPC and SWELECT
Energy Systems Ltd worked jointly in this program. And system has 25 years of continues working life

Features:
1) Indigenously developed floaters:
 Cost effective (compared to commercially available floating PV system).
 India’s largest installation of its kind at NTPC.
 A good display of Make in India initiative.

2) Benefits:
 No land required (no land cost/availability/acquisition issues/no uprooting of trees).
 Reduction of evaporation of water and algae growth in water bodies.
 Expected increased generation because of cooling effect on PV panels (water is at cool temperature
when the atmospheric air is hot – per day generating around 5.7 kWh / kWp).
 Reduced installation time when compared to land.
 PV modules stay free from dust to large extent – resulting in low maintenance on cleaning.

3) PV Modules: The CEA specifies design qualifications and quality standards for both crystalline and thin
film modules. In addition, the MNRE also specifies standards through the National Solar Mission. These
standards are: IEC 61215 for crystalline silicon PV modules.
 Page 9

 IEC 61730, that provides requirements for construction of the module, testing and safety qualification.
IEC 61701, that specifies the salt mist corrosion testing for modules that are used in coastal corrosive
atmospheres. The IEC standards apply to all modules, used in Indian solar PV projects, either manufactured
in India or imported into India. They, however, consider the environmental effects of the Indian weather
conditions into their quality check process.

Specification of a single solar panel:

Nominal Max Power 310 Watts

(Pmax)
Operating Voltage (Vmp) 36.4 Volts

Operating Current (Imp) 8.52 Amperes

Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 44.9 Volts

Short Circuit Current (Isc) 9.08 Amperes

Module Efficiency 16.16%

Operating Temperature -40°Celcius ~ +85°Celcius

Max. System Voltage 1000 Volts (IEC) or 1000 Volts (UL)

Dimensions 1954 x 982 x 40mm

Weight 22 Kilograms

Other Salt mist and blown sand resistance, for

seaside.
 Page 10

ANALYSIS:

There are several reasons for this development:

 No land occupancy: The main advantage of floating PV plants is that they do not take up any land,
except the limited surfaces necessary for electric cabinet and grid connections. Their price is
comparable with land based plants, but they provide a good way to avoid land consumption.
 Installation and decommissioning: Floating PV plants are more compact than land-based plants,
their management is simpler and their construction and decommissioning straightforward. The main
point is that no fixed structures exist like the foundations used for a land-based plant so their
installation can be totally reversible.
 Water saving and water quality: The partial coverage of basins can reduce the water evaporation.
This result depends on climate conditions and on the percentage of the covered surface. In arid
climates such as India, this is an important advantage since about 80% of the evaporation of the
covered surface is saved and this means more than 20,000 m3/year/ha. This is a very useful feature if
the basin is used for irrigation purposes.
 Cooling: The floating structure allows the implementation of a simple cooling system. Cooling
mechanism is natural but can also be active by generating a water layer on the PV modules or using a
submerged PV modules, the so-called SP2 (Submerged Photovoltaic Solar Panel).[8] In these cases
the global PV modules efficiency rises thanks to the absence of thermal drift, with a gain in energy
harvesting up to 8-10%.
 Tracking: A large floating platform can be easily turned and can perform a vertical axis tracking:
this can be done without wasting energy and without the need for a complex mechanical apparatus as
in land-based PV plants. A floating PV plant equipped with a tracking system has a limited
additional cost while the energy gain can range from 15 to 25%.
 Storage opportunity: The presence of water naturally suggests using gravity energy storage mainly
in the coupling with hydroelectric basins. However other possibility has been explored and in
particular CAES systems have been suggested.
 Environment control: A parallel advantage is the containment of the algae bloom, a serious
problem in industrialized countries. The partial coverage of the basins and the reduction of light on
biological fouling just below the surface, together with active systems can solve this problem. This is
 only a part of the more general problem of managing a water basin generated by industrial activities
or polluted by them. See for example the mining managing.

Page 11

 Efficiency improvement: Many studies claim that there is a significant improvement in efficiency
putting solar panels over water. These studies are not conclusive and differ in their conclusion. The
energy gain reported range from 5 to 15%.

Upon receiving the clearance from ESIA, designing of FSPV plants can begin. For the sake of simplicity, the
entire project design needs the following three components:

 Meteorological data – Meteorological or MET data are essential to understand the local resources
pertaining to FSPV. The met data comprise solar radiation, wind direction, wind velocity, wave
height and amplitude, humidity, ambient temperature, rainfall, etc.

 Water quality information – Water quality information is really crucial in selecting the material of
anchoring and mooring system, floating platform, cables and understating the long-term effects it
may cause on the life of FSPV plant components. Hence it is essential to have a thorough
investigation on water quality of the water body while taking the sample from multiple points. A
typical water quality report should contain information such as physical and chemical properties of
water (PH, turbidity, salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS) level, temperature
of water, etc., and must follow ISI:10500 2012.

 Simulation – Simulation software like PVsyst, HelioScope, ANSYS, OrcaFlex, CFD, etc., can be
used in designing the layout, angle of tilt, plot size, designing of anchoring and mooring lines,
placement of inverters, plant capacity, balance of system (BOS), estimates of energy generations for
the entire project life, etc.
 Page 12

 Bathymetry/Hydrography and Soil Testing: A bathymetric survey is a method to estimate the

depth of a water body, and it also helps in understanding the underwater geography of a particular
water body. There are several methods available for carrying out bathymetric surveys such as
multibeam, single beam, sub-bottom profilers, EcoMapper Autonomous Under Vehicle (EAUV), and
acoustic doppler current profiler (ADCP). A hydrography survey deals with providing physical
features such as understanding underwater navigations, accurate positions, depictions of hills, etc., of
water bodies. Both bathymetric and/or hydrographic surveys are useful in understanding the
topography of water-bed such as locating any bed-rock outcrops, obstacles at bed level if any, and
optimum locations for placing anchors and mooring for the floating platform.

(A flow chart of steps in floating solar PV project design)

 Page 13

In comparison to ground-based solar PV plants, FSPV plants are easy to install and may not require heavy
civil construction in most cases. The entire process of installation and commissioning can be divided into
three steps:-
A) Site preparation and construction;
B) Installation
C) Commissioning.
As in any solar PV-based plant development, the first step is to prepare the site. This involves civil works for
grading and leveling, excavating the foundation for mooring and anchoring, fabricating a dedicated
launching platform for launching the floating platform into the water surface (this depends upon access to the
water surface at the site), fabricating inverter housing, building embankment for foundation protection, etc.
Installation begins after the initial site preparation is completed. It includes connecting the rows of floats to
form a floating platform, mounting PV panels on the floating platform, connecting cables, inverters,
transmission lines, etc. Since FSPV plants are installed on water bodies and are often subjected to harsh
environmental conditions like high humidity, high winds, etc.

Recommended that the solar PV panels, supporting structure and other balance of systems such as inverters,
cables, etc., are chosen wisely. Some activities involved under installation and commissioning are likely to
generate air and noise emissions. Such emissions and wastes generated could have an adverse impact on
local bio-diversity. SWOT Analysis is the most renowned tool for analysis of the overall business and its
environment. SWOT is an acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. Strengths (S) and
Weaknesses (W) are considered to be internal factors over some measure of control exist. Opportunities (O)
and Threats (T) are considered to be external factors over which essentially no control exists. SWOT
Analysis is a useful technique for understanding the Strengths and Weaknesses, and for identifying both the
Opportunities open and the Threats faced. SWOT analysis is the foundation for evaluating the probable
opportunities and threats from the external environment and the internal potential and the changing trends. It
views all positive and negative factors inside and outside the project that affect the success. It helps in the
decision-making process and helps in forecasting/predicting the success of the project. The strength,
weakness, opportunities and threats of Floating solar plants are highlighted in the following section.
 Page 14

 Strength (internal, positive factors)

1) Floating solar power generating systems typically generate more electricity than ground-mount and
rooftop systems due to the cooling effect of the water.
2) The floating platforms are designed and engineered to withstand extreme physical stress, including
typhoon and storm conditions.
3) LSA installations reduce water evaporation and algae growth by shading the water.
4) Geographically any water bodies with abundant sunlight can be used to install floating plants.
5) Floating platforms are 100% recyclable, utilizing high- density polyethylene, which can withstand
ultraviolet rays and resists corrosion.
6) More module install compares with the other system.
7) Non-use (and disturbance) of land which conserves the local environment.
8) Easy to erect and faster deployment.

 Weakness (Internal, Negative factors)

1) Long-term maintenance requirements and durability of floating solar PV is yet to be seen.
2) Ecological and adverse impacts on water ecosystem.
3) Relatively young and immature technology.
4) Lack of experience and knowledge.
5) Lack of cooperation from local distribution utility.
6) Solar energy concentration levels on floating platform.
7) High waves and salt water possibly damage the solar panels over time.

Environmental effects of floating solar: Floating solar platform allows standard PV panels to be installed
on large bodies of water such as drinking water reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals or remediation and
tailing ponds. Simple and affordable floating solar platform is particularly well suitable for energy and water-
intensive industries who cannot afford to waste either land or water. Wineries, dairy farms, fish farms,
mining companies, wastewater treatment plants, irrigation districts and water agencies are industries which
can benefit from the synergy that floating solar system creates between sun and water.
 Page 15

Solar PV Market: There are two main types of solar energy technologies currently available in the market.
The two technologies operate from two different fundamental processes for harvesting solar energy: heat and
photoreaction. These technologies are solar PV and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP). Both technologies are
used for a diverse range of applications, from domestic water heating to utility scale electricity production.
This thesis work is focusing on solar PV applications and performance. Solar PV is currently the most cost-
effective solar technology in the market, due to its simplicity and the decreasing manufacturing costs. For
about one decade, solar PV has started to expand rapidly in the world, including utility scale generation
installations especially in India, Asia, USA and South-America. At the end of 2016, the total installed
capacity globally was around 303 GW (IEA 2016). It represents around 1.8% of the world’s electricity
generation. According to the IEA, the global share of PV in the electricity mix could reach 16% by 2050,
representing a total installed PV capacity of 4,600 GW. The global growth is actually caused by many
contrasting developments at a regional level. Asia ranks in the first place with around 67% of the global PV
market in 2016. China leads the cumulative capacities with 78 GW, followed by Japan, Germany and USA
with 42.8 GW, 41.2 GW and 40.3 GW respectively. At the end of 2016, 24 countries in the world had at least
1 GW of cumulative PV capacity (IEA 2016). In 2016, the PV market expands by 50% with an annual
installed capacity of 75 GW. In 2015, the PV annual capacity growth was only 25%. Before 2012, Europe
was dominated the global PV market in terms of annual installations. However, Asia PV market started to
grow since 2012 and this growth is confirmed in recent years, as illustrated by Figure 5. China actually
represented by itself 48% of the annual installed capacity in 2016, while Europe share was around 34% in the
same year (IEA 2016). The market in Europe has actually declined in the previous years, moving from 8 GW
of annual added capacity in 2015 to around 6 GW in 2016. Solar PV is today used in a diverse range of
installations, ranging from solar roof-top to ground mounted power plants. Roof-top PV power stations are
generally located on residential or commercial buildings. They are relatively small in terms of capacity,
featuring a capacity of about 5-20 kW for residential building and often 100 kW on commercial structures.
Ground mounted PV systems are generally large, utility scale solar power plants with capacities in the MW
range. There are located in region with very high irradiance, and involve high investment costs. A new way
of installing solar PV power is growing rapidly since a couple of years: floating solar PV, using water bodies
to avoid the burden of intense land requirement and to create new synergies.
 Page 16

 Photovoltaic Fundamentals:
PV Effect: Solar photovoltaic systems use the PV effect to convert solar energy into electricity. Simply
stated, the PV effect is the generation of a current under exposure to light. PV cells absorbs direct normal
irradiance (DNI) and diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI). When a photon from solar light makes contact with
a PV material, the photon can be transmitted, absorbed or reflected. In the case of absorption (Figure 6), an
electron can be released and removed if the energy of the photon is higher than the band gap of the
semiconductor. This physical effect is done through the P-N junction of the PV cell, which basically acts like
a diode, and thus creating an electric direct current, as free electrons are flowing between the N-type and the
P-type semi-conductors.
 Page 17

 PV Terminology:

PV parameters used by the manufacturers are defined and explained shortly. This terminology is common to
the global PV market, and thus will be used extensively in this project.

 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc):

Open-circuited voltage of the PV module, at rated irradiance and temperature.

 Short Circuit Current (Isc):

Short-circuited maximum current generated by a solar module, at rated irradiance and temperature.

 Peak power Pmax (PV):

Module power generation at rated conditions.

 Maximum Power Point (MPP):

Voltage-current pair (Impp and Vmpp) for which the PV module delivers the maximum power output, at
given irradiance and temperature. The MPP plays actually a crucial role in the PV module and system
performance analysis.

 PV Cell Types:

PV cells are generally optimized to maximize both the amount of light received and absorbed, together with
the power generated. Thus, metal grids are used for conduction, and anti-reflection coatings are applied to the
top of the cell. In much the same way, the efficiency of the PV cell is strongly linked with the fabrication of
the cell, which involved very often high laboratory and fabrication costs with regards to material costs (for
instance with silicon Si). The efficiency of the PV cells is highly impacted by optical losses (reflection or
high-energy photon) and resistive losses (series and shunt resistance), which are independent of given
environmental operating conditions.

The two main PV cell technologies are crystalline silicon (C-Si) and thin film (TF). The solar PV market is
currently strongly dominated by crystalline silicon which represents approximately 90% of the

Page 18

Market, while thin film technology accounts for around 10% of the market share. C-Si cells are composed of
monocrystalline (mC-Si) and polycrystalline (pC-Si) cells. mC-Si cells are made from pure monocrystalline
silicon and are composed of a single crystal with almost no impurities. The main advantages of this single
continuous crystal lattice structure are the high efficiency reached by the cell, which is typically around 17%-
19%. Recent tests of NREL and SunPower have even showed efficiency up to 28%. However, mC-Si cells
fabrication involves critical manufacturing costs. pC-Si cells are produced using numerous grains of
monocrystalline silicon. Instead of using a single crystal, pC-Si cells are manufactured by cutting very thin
wafers of molten polycrystalline silicon. There are less expensive than mC-Si, but have lower efficiencies,
around 14%-16%. Both cells are highly affected by temperature variation. TF cells are separated in
amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS). TF cells
are produced by arranging atoms in a thin homogeneous layer, since they absorb light more effectively than
crystalline silicon. TF cells have lower manufacturing costs and are usually less affected by temperature.
Moreover, a Si and CIGS cells offer flexibility, which can be useful for certain applications. However, they
operate with lower efficiencies, approximately 7%-9% for a-Si, 10%-12% for CdTe and CIGS. For a couple
of decades, multi junctions PV cells have also started to join the market, providing very high efficiency (up
to 50% in 4 junctions) thanks to lower spectral and resistive losses. However, their very high manufacturing
costs are a critical barrier for large-scale applications.

 Design of Mooring System: The mooring systems of the floating structures that are installed at the dam or
reservoir may be classified into gravity type, anchor-tension type, semi-rigid type, tension type, and modified
type. In the mooring systems, the anchor-tension type using an anchor is generally applied. However, the
fluctuation of the water level at the construction site of the 1 MWp class floating PV generation complexes is
less severe than that of a dam or reservoir. The tension type mooring system is not applicable to the present
construction site. Therefore, for the safe and commercial design of the mooring system, the anchor-tension
type, which is fixed with a chemical anchor and cable to the wall of the waterway in the cooling water intake
channel, is adopted. The anchor-tension type mooring system for the 1 MW class floating PV generations.
The level of the chemical anchor is similar to the level of the PFRP member; therefore, cable (wire rope) is
attached to maintain a constant tension force in the cable. The level of the PFRP member is determined by
referring to the observation source, which indicates the average water level of the site.

Page 19

(The figure representing above is a ANCHOR MOORING SYSTEM)

Connection methods between the chemical anchor or the PFRP member and the wire rope are shown in
figure above. All connection devices are made of stainless steel (STS304), which is cut and bent from
stainless steel plate.

(The figure representing above is a connection of mooring system: (a) Between chemical anchor and cable;
(b) Between PFRP member and cable)
 Construction of 1 MW Class Floating PV Generation System: The 1 MW class floating PV generation
complexes consists of 105 unit structures, as mentioned earlier. The construction process of the 1 MW class
floating PV generation complex is classified into the following steps: “Fabrication,” in which each unit
structure is fabricated on the ground, “Lifting and Launching,” in which the fabricated unit structure is lifted
and launched onto the water surface, and “mooring,” in which each unit structure.
Page 20

(The figure above shows the mooring system of 1 MW class floating PV generation system)

And moor is connected using anchors and cables. In the fabrication process, unit structures are fabricated
using FRP members, which are cut at the manufacturing facility. At first, plane frames are fabricated on the
buoys. SMC FRP vertical members, PV modules, footholds, etc., are assembled in sequence. The fabrication
process (A-type).

In this figure, (A) & (B) stands for:

A) Fabricating Plane frame
B) Assembly Buoy
 Page 21

In this figure, (C) & (D) stands for:

C) Assembling foothold
D) Assembling member joint

In this figure, (E) & (F) stands for:

E) Assembling module support frame.

F) Assembling solar module.

In the lifting and launching process, a crane is used to lift and launch the unit structures. To prevent
unexpected accidents during the tilting and lifting operation, lifting points in the structure are selected by
referring to the FE analysis results. The lifting and launching processes are shown in figure below:
By this method, the lifting is done of the solar panels which included mooring systems and it is then loaded
to the specially designed loading structure that holds the solar panels.

Page 22

In this above figure, (A) (B) (C) stands for:

(A): Connecting
(B): Anchoring
 (C): Mooring

Page 23

In this above figure, (A) & (B) stands for:

(A): Side view of floating solar power plant.
(B): Top view of floating solar power plant.

Anchoring Arrangement: The floating solar power station must be held in position, with slight allowance
to move due to changes in water level and the blowing winds. The corners of the buoy are tied to the posts on
the bank using nylon ropes to anchor the station.
Remote Control Module: The floating solar power station is integrated with a remote control switch to
toggle the power supply from inverter to the load. This would eliminate laying the cables, necessary to
operate the module, underwater.

Page 24

The perennial problem with solar power stations is the need for land availability to install the panels. With
increasing cost and scarce availability of land, global attention is focused on using water body surfaces for
lodging PV panels as an alternative to ground-mounted systems. This method efficiently utilizes the nation’s
soil without damaging environment which the pre-existing PV systems cause when they are installed in
farmlands or forests. Studies have shown that if the rear surfaces of solar panels are kept cooler, then their
ability to generate power goes up by 16%. Solar panels installed on land face reduction of yield as the
ground heats up. When such panels are installed floating on lakes, lagoons or ponds, they are naturally
cooled and generate more power than those setup on land. The floating panels shade the water by reducing
the amount of sunlight entering into the water body, and in turn limit algae growth and reduce evaporation
during hot summers. This reduces water contamination and promotes marine life sustainability. If spate of
initiatives announced by all leading nations in the recent past is an indicator, floating solar systems are bound
to change the technology scenario for water bodies and Solar energy applications globally, in near future.

 Power Cables: The purpose of power cables is the transport of electric current. The electric core is a
concentric assembly of inner conductor, electric insulation and protective layers. Modern three-core cables
(e.g. for the connection of floating solar plants) carry Direct Current from the solar panels to the inverter
circuits.
The conductor is made from copper or aluminum wires. Conductor sizes ≤ 1200 are most common, but sizes
≥ 2400 mm2 have been made occasionally. For DC voltages the conductors are round, so that the insulation is
exposed to a uniform electric field gradient. The conductor can be stranded from individual round wires, or
can be a single solid wire. In some designs, profiled wires (keystone wires) are laid up to form a round
conductor with very small interstices between the wires.
 Page 25

The cables have to be rugged, so that in case if any incident of fishing or any aqua life tries to damage the
cable, it is saved.

In this project, this is another way of laying the cable to the water bank or the sea floor if the solar plant is far
away from the land.
This is the type connection to the plant that is done without disturbing another already laid down cable on the
sea floor. This types of connections are done frequently and require less to no maintenance unless in
emergency situations.

Page 26

 Inverter: A power inverter, or inverter, is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and
overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not
produce any power nor is the power provided by the DC source. A power inverter can be entirely electronic
or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static
inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process.

Power inverters are primarily used in electrical power applications where high currents and voltages are
present; circuits that perform the same function for electronic signals, which usually have very low currents
and voltages, are called oscillators. Circuits that perform the opposite function, converting AC to DC, are
called rectifiers.

Input voltage:

A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC power source capable of supplying
enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage depends on the design and
purpose of the inverter.

 24, 36 and 48 V DC, which are common standards for home energy systems.
  200 to 400 V DC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.
A solar inverter or PV inverter, is a type of electrical converter which converts the variable direct
current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that
can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network. It is a
critical balance of system (BOS)–component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of ordinary AC-
powered equipment. Solar power inverters have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays,
including maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.

Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types:

 Stand-alone inverters, Used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC energy from
batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate
integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source, when available. Normally
these do not interface in any way with the utility grid, and as such, are not required to have anti-
islanding protection.

Page 27

 Grid-tie inverters: It is the type which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie
inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for safety reasons.
They do not provide backup power during utility outages.

 Battery backup inverters:They are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from a
battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess energy to the utility
grid. These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected loads during a utility outage,
and are required to have anti-islanding protection.

 Intelligent hybrid inverters:It can manage photovoltaic array, battery storage and utility grid,
which are all coupled directly to the unit. These modern all-in-one systems are usually highly
versatile and can be used for grid-tie, stand-alone or backup applications but their primary
function is self-consumption with the use of storage.
Examples of inverters used according to load output:
 (It is used for small solar power plants.)

(It is used for medium to large size solar power plants. The load factor can be also increased depending upon
increasing the capacities of inverters.)
Page 28

(This is a basic circuit of the inverter used for solar power plants.)
 Page 29

Conclusion: Floating solar concept seems simple enough, but there are major technological hurdles. Floating
solar application with challenges and opportunities has been discussed.

1) The SWOT analysis presented in this paper can be utilized as tool for future development of floating
photovoltaic systems.

2) To revolutionize floating solar, threats identified need to be tracked appropriately. However, the future
seems bright for the floating solar technology.

3) In the near future, the surface of the water bodies associated with hydroelectric dams, pumped storage
installations, and cooling ponds of electric power plant locations that typically have existing power grid
connections will be totally covered with the floating system.

4) Floating Solar system is technically feasible and economically viable.

A brief commercial viability analysis was performed based on the material costs of the structural system
fabricated with different materials. It found that the structural system fabricated with FRP is the most cost
effective due to the light weight of the material. For the commercialization of a large-scale floating PV
generation systems using FRP members, it may be necessary to develop appropriate elemental techniques,
construction skills, mooring systems, etc. Therefore, the design and construction techniques developed in the
1 MW class floating PV generation complexes may be positive examples for the construction of large-scale
floating PV generation complexes in the future.

Page 30

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPH / TABLES / FIGURES:

ADDITIONAL PHOTOGRAPH DEPICTING THE SOLAR PANEL WHICH CAN FLOAT:

Finite element (FE) analysis model;

(A) A type
(B) B type

(C) C type
 INTERNSHIP ALLOCATION REPORT 2019-20
Name of the Department: Mechanical Engineering

(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the
Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself
during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)

Name of the Programme : B.E., Mechanical Engineering

Year of study and Batch/Group : II & B5/G1
Name of the Mentor : V. Gnanasekaran
Title of the assigned internship :

REGENRATION OF ENEGRY IN ELECTRIC VEHILCES

Nature of Internship : Individual

Reg No of Students who are assigned with this internship:

BME18010

Total No. of Hours Required to complete the Internship: 45

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme

Examiner Head
 INTERNSHIP EVALUATION REPORT 2019-20
Name of the Department: Mechanical Engineering
(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the
Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself
during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)
Name of the Student ALAN MARK P
Register No and Roll No BME18010 & MEC274
Programme of study B.E, Mechanical Engineering
Year and Batch/Group II & B5/G1
Semester IV
Title of Internship REGENRATION OF ENEGRY IN ELECTRIC VEHILCES
Duration of Internship 45 Hours
Mentor of the Student V. GNANASEKARAN

Evaluation by the Department

Sl Criterion Max. Marks Marks
No. Allotted
1 Regularity in maintenance of the diary. 10 10
2 Adequacy & quality of information recorded 10 10
3 Drawings, sketches and data recorded 10 9
4 Thought process and recording techniques used 5 4
5 Organization of the information 5 4
6 Originality of the Internship Report 20 17
7 Adequacy and purposeful write-up of the Internship 10 8
Report
8 Organization, format, drawings, sketches, style, language 10 8
etc. of the Internship Report
9 Practical applications, relationships with basic theory and 10 8
concepts
10 Presentation Skills 10 9
Total 100 87

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme

Examiner Head
 135, EAST COAST ROAD, KANATHUR, CHENNAI - 603 112.
TAMILNADU, INDIA

Regenaration of energy in electric

vehicles

A Report on Internship
In
Department of Mechanical Engineering

By

ALLAN MARK. P
BME18010

APRIL 2020

AMET UNIVERSITY KANNATHUR CHENNAI-603112

1
 CONTENTS

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS PAGE NO

1. ABSTRACT 4
2. INTRODUCTION 5
3. METHODOLOGY 7
4. WORKING 8
5. BASIC COMPONENTS 14
6. CONCLUSION 26

2
 Abstract

Imagine the world waiting for charging their cars in the charging station where it takes 12 hours
for a car to charge fully. The major problems in electric vehicles is charging time and lack of
charging infrastructure. This project mainly aims to overcome these problems by using simple
topics from thermodynamics and physics. This project will successfully up bring the difficulties
faced by electric vehicles.

3
 Introduction

Electric motive power started in 1827, when Hungarian

priest Ányos Jedlik built the first crude but viable
electric motor, provided with stator, rotor and
commutator, and the year after he used it to power a
tiny car. A few years later, in 1835, professor
Sibrandus Stratingh of the University of Groningen,
the Netherlands, built a small-scale electric car, and
between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is
uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the
first crude electric carriage, powered by non-
rechargeable primary cells. Around the same period,
early experimental electrical cars were moving on rails,
too. American blacksmith and inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomotive,
powered by a primitive electric motor, in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert
Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of four miles per hour (6 km/h). In
England a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and
similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.

Commonly, the term EV is used to refer to an electric car. In the 21st century, EVs saw a
resurgence due to technological developments, and an increased focus on renewable energy. A
great deal of demand for electric vehicles developed and a small core of do-it-yourself (DIY)
engineers began sharing technical details for doing electric vehicle conversions. Government
incentives to increase adoptions were introduced, including in the United States and the European
Union.

Electric vehicles are expected to increase from 2% of global share in 2016 to 22% in 2030.

4
 Problem statement:
This project is going to be that which will eliminate the problems faced by the electric vehicle
manufacturers with prolonged mileage and performance and bring comfort to consumers with
economic expenses with zero emission of greenhouse gases. It’s totally eco-friendly.

Concept:
In this, I have used three different concepts, one from physics and two from thermodynamics.

 Thermodynamic concepts:

i. Generation of electricity using turbine.

ii.Vapor absorption method.

• Concept from physics:

i. Regenerative braking

Objective:
• To successfully design a concept for a production vehicle for the better future.

• To bring a successful zero pollution and all electric vehicle with high performance and
efficiency.

• To bring the best era of automotive.

5
Methodology:

6
 Working:

i. Regenerative braking:

Moving vehicles have a lot of kinetic energy, and when brakes are applied to slow a vehicle, all of
that kinetic energy has to go somewhere. Regenerative braking uses an electric vehicle’s motor as
a generator to convert much of the kinetic energy lost when decelerating back into stored energy
in the vehicle’s battery. Then, the next time the car accelerates, it uses much of the energy
previously stored from regenerative braking instead of tapping in further to its own energy
reserves. This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic energy is
converted to unwanted and wasted heat due to friction in the brakes, or with dynamic brakes,
where the energy is recovered by using electric motors as generators but is immediately dissipated
as heat in resistors. In addition to improving the overall efficiency of the vehicle, regeneration can
significantly extend the life of the braking system as the mechanical parts will not wear out very
quickly.

7
ii. Regeneration of energy by turbine:

A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid/wind flow and converts
it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating electrical power
when combined with a generator. A
turbine is a turbomachine with at least
one moving part called a rotor
assembly, which is a shaft or drum
with blades attached. Moving fluid acts
on the blades so that they move and
impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels.

Gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the
working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to Anglo-Irish engineer Sir
Charles Parsons (1854–1931) for invention of the reaction turbine, and to Swedish engineer Gustaf
de Laval (1845–1913) for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently
employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and
impulse from the blade root to its periphery.

Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits the
stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at velocity U.
Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance is Vr1. The gas is
turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However, in absolute terms the
rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are constructed using these various velocity
vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through the blading (for example:
hub, tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean performance
for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the Euler equation:

8
Hence:

where:

is the specific enthalpy drop across stage

is the turbine entry total temperature

is the turbine rotor peripheral velocity

is the change in whirl velocity

The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes the
speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The specific
speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow conditions and the desired
shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an appropriate turbine design selected.

The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an existing
design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance. Off-design
performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.

9
 So, in this project the basic design will according the design of the vehicle, where there will be
certain vents accordingly to the size of the vehicle in the front bumper the vent’s path will narrower
in order to increase the velocity of the wind there will be turbines attached inside along the path
of the vents these vents might end at the sides or the rear of the vehicle accordingly to the
aerodynamic design as the wind flow tends rotate the turbines electricity is produced this electricity
is fed back to the battery pack or to the circuit.

iii. Vapour absorption method:

The motor tends to get heated up after running a long distance. This heat will affect the motor to
reduce this and make use of the energy I have used the vapour absorption method from
thermodynamics where the heat exchanger will be placed over the motor in order to transfer heat
to the steam generator this steam generator contains turbine inside it, the steam formed due to the
heat will rotate the turbines and produce electricity and the electricity will be fed back to the circuit
or to the battery pack.

10
Advantages of an Electric Car

An electric car is a great way for you, as a consumer, to save a lot of money on fuel. However,
there are so many different reasons why you should invest in an electric car in the modern day of
technology.

1. No fuel Required: Electric cars are entirely charged by the electricity you provide, meaning
you don’t need to buy any fuel ever again. Driving fuel-based cars can burn a hole in your pocket
as prices of fuel have gone all time high. With electric cars, this cost can be avoided as an average
India spends over 76% of annual income on fuel each year. Though electricity isn’t free, an electric
car is far cheaper to run.

2. Savings: These cars can be fuelled for very cheap prices, and many new cars will offer great
incentives for you to get money back from the government for going green. Electric cars can also
be a great way to save money in your own life.

3. No Emissions: Electric cars are 100 percent eco-friendly as they run on electrically powered
engines. It does not emit toxic gases or smoke in the environment as it runs on clean energy source.
They are even better than hybrid cars as hybrids running on gas produce emissions. You’ll be
contributing to a healthy and green climate.

4. Popularity: EV’s are growing in popularity. With popularity comes all new types of cars being
put on the market that are each unique, providing you with a wealth of choices moving forward.

5. Safe to Drive: Electric cars undergo same fitness and testing procedures test as other fuel
powered cars. In case an accident occurs, one can expect airbags to open up and electricity supply
to cut from battery. This can prevent you and other passengers in the car from serious injuries.

6. Cost Effective: Earlier, owing an electric car would cost a bomb. But with more technological
advancements, both cost and maintenance have gone down. The mass production of batteries and
available tax incentives have further brought down the cost, thus, making it much more cost
effective.

7. Low Maintenance: Electric cars runs on electrically powered engines and hence there is no
need to lubricate the engines. Other expensive engine work is a thing of past. Therefore, the
maintenance cost of these cars has come down. You don’t need to send it to service station often
as you do a normal gasoline powered car.

11
8. Reduced Noise Pollution: Electric cars put curb on noise pollution as they are much quieter.
Electric motors are capable of providing smooth drive with higher acceleration over longer
distances.

Many owners of electric cars have reported positive

savings of up to tens of thousands of dollars a year.
Considering the demand for oil will only be going up
as the supplies run out, an electric car will most likely
be the normal mode of transportation in the coming
future. Companies like Nissan and Tesla offer great
electric models with an outstanding amount of
benefits for people who decide to invest. You’ll be saving not only yourself, but also your family
a huge amount of money. The environmental impact of an electric car is zero, as well – meaning
you’re reducing your carbon footprint and positively affecting the economy.

12
 Basic components:

i. Battery

The battery of an electric car can be charged through the use of ordinary grid electricity at a
specialized power station. But aside from the conventional lithium-ion battery technologies, there
are also other major battery technologies which can be used for electric cars.

a. Lithium-Ion Batteries: This battery technology gives extra performance and range. However, it
also carries the highest price tag. Lithium-ion batteries are lighter than Lead acid and Nickel metal.
These are also the batteries used in digital cameras and smartphones.

b. Lead Acid Batteries: This battery technology is the most popular. It is also the cheapest among
the battery technologies. What’s good about it is it’s 97% recyclable.

c. Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries: This battery technology provides higher output and better
performance but it costs much more than lead-acid batteries.

13
ii. Motor Controller
The motor controller of an electric car administers its complete operation and the distribution of
its power at any given moment. It acts as a floodgate between the motor and batteries. It helps
monitor and regulates all key performance indications such as the vehicle’s operator, motor,
battery, and accelerator pedal. It has a microprocessor which can limit or redirect current. It is used
to either improve the mechanical performance of the car or suit the operator’s driving style. There
are also more refined controllers which are capable of greater accuracy and thus, higher efficiency.

One of the newest MCUs developed for motor control in HEVs and EVs is the Renesas
RH850/C1x Series of 32-bit controllers. Based on the 40 nm process, the RH850/C1x Series
features the RH850/C1H and RH850/C1M MCUs, which integrate large flash memory capacity
achieved through 40 nm metal oxide nitride oxide silicon (MONOS) process technology. MONOS
characteristics include fast readout, low power consumption and large storage capacity. The parts
also offer the necessary motor control peripherals and single/dual motor control options needed to
support fine-grained motor control and functional safety.

14
In particular, there are two product types: the RH850/C1M, which incorporates a single RDC for
single motor control, and the RH850/C1H, which incorporates two RDCs for dual motor control.
The RH850/C1M and RH850/C1H devices offer memory capacities of 2 and 4 MB, respectively.
In addition, 32 KB of data flash memory, with essentially the same functionality as EEPROM, is
included for data storage. Samples of the RH850/C1H and RH850/C1M MCUs are scheduled to
be available in early 2015. Mass production is scheduled to begin in May 2016

15
iii. Electric Engine
Unlike a gasoline engine with lots of moving parts, an electric engine or motor only has one
moving part. This makes it a very reliable source of motive power. Choosing an electric engine
depends on your car’s system voltage. They can be structured to use either AC or DC current. AC
motors are less expensive and lighter compared to DC engines. They are also more common and
they tend to suffer from less mechanical wear and tear. However, AC technology requires a more
refined or sophisticated motor controller.

16
iv. The main inverter
Power inverters and converters are used to invert HV battery pack direct current (DC) to alternating
current (AC) for motors that propel the vehicle down the road; they also convert AC to DC to
charge the HV battery pack. With an electric drivetrain, the inverter controls the electric motor in
a manner somewhat equivalent to how the Engine Control Unit (ECU) of a gas or diesel internal
combustion engine vehicle determines the vehicle’s driving behaviour; it also captures kinetic
energy released through regenerative braking and feeds this back to the battery. As a result, the
range of the vehicle is directly related to the efficiency of the main inverter.

17
 The IGBTs are a high-voltage, high-current switch
connected directly to the traction motor in the HEV
or EV. The more efficient the IGBT, the less power
is lost to wasted heat, resulting in better mileage
(sometimes called miles per watt of energy). As an
example of a power module with IGBTs available to
engineers, Infineon’s Easy 1B and Easy 2B series
provide a platform for different HEV and EV
applications. One such unit is the F4-
75R07W1H3 Easy PACK 1B with the company’s
fast Trench/Fieldstop IGBT H3 and Rapid 1 diode. Electrical features include increased blocking
voltage capability to 650 V, low switching losses and low inductive design. Mechanical features
include 2.5 kV AC 1 min insulation, integrated NTC temperature sensor and the company’s
PressFIT solder-less mounting of power modules. Easy automotive power modules are available
with different configurations like H-bridges (F4 modules) for DC/DC converter applications.

Unlike IGBTs, MOSFETs have no

“tail” current when turned off. SiC
MOSFETs, in particular, combine
several desirable characteristics, such
as high breakdown voltage, low on-
resistance and fast switching speed,
with their inherent advantages of
high-temperature capability, high-
power density and high efficiency.
Moreover, their light weight and
small volume favorably affect the
whole powertrain system in an HEV and, thus, the performance and cost. As a result, it is expected
they will begin replacing IGBTs in HEV/EV applications. Rohm Semiconductor’s SCT2080KEC,
for example, features a breakdown voltage of 1200 V, 80 mΩ on resistance, and turn-on/ urn-off
time of less than 70-90 ns, enabling switching frequency in the hundreds of kHz range.

18
 Usable as a hybrid powertrain driver, International Rectifier’s automotive-
qualified AUIRB24427S high-current, dual low-side driver IC features output current in excess of
6 A per channel across the full temperature range and is designed to drive large IGBT and
MOSFET gates in modules or discrete packages. Due to the device's extremely low output
impedance in turn-on and turn-off mode, power losses are said to be low, allowing operation in
harsh and high-temperature environments such as in HEV power supply stages as a primary- or
secondary-side driver.

v. DC/DC converters
Different voltage levels are required by the various electronic components in a car or truck. The
most basic requirement for DC/DC conversion is to power the traditional 12 V loads. When a
standard combustion engine vehicle is operating, an alternator connected to the engine provides
the power for all electrical loads and also recharges the battery. The internal combustion engine in
HEVs can be off for extended periods of time, so an alternator cannot be relied upon to provide
power to auxiliary loads. A DC/DC converter charges the 12 V battery from the HV bus, thus
eliminating the 14 V alternator.

19
 The system can be realized with an MCU
controlling both the high- and low-voltage side
of the converter such as in TI’s Piccolo Real-
Time 32-Bit Fixed-Point TMS320F2802x/3x
devices. These include 40 to 60 MHz variants,
up to 128 kB of flash memory, a high-speed 12-
bit ADC, high-resolution enhanced Pulse Width Modulators along with a host of other modules
such as high-precision on-chip oscillators, analogue comparators, communication interfaces and
general-purpose I/O. Designers can get started easily with a variety of Piccolo hardware evaluation
tools and application kits from TI.

vi. Battery management

To power the electric motors, large battery packs are made up of hundreds of cells installed in the
vehicle and producing about 400 V of power. The battery packs are managed and monitored by a
battery management system (BMS) and charged via an on-board AC/DC converter module, with
voltages ranging from 110 V single-phase to 380 V three-phase systems.

The battery management system

is a key element in the overall
HEV and EV architecture. It can
not only extend the battery’s
lifetime, but it can also extend
the possible range of the
vehicle. The State of Health
(SoH), State of Charge (SoC)
and Depth of Discharge (DoD)
of the battery are constantly
checked. As battery cells age,
the capacity of individual cells changes and negatively impacts the total battery capacity.
Fortunately, cell supervision circuitry enables cell balancing during charging and discharging.
While the vehicle power system sees the battery pack as a single high-voltage source, the battery
control system must consider each battery’s condition independently. If one battery in a stack has
slightly less capacity than the other batteries, then its SoC will gradually deviate from the rest of

20
the batteries over multiple charge and discharge cycles. The more cells a pack has in a series, the
greater the possible difference in state of charge, impedance and capacity affecting the energy
delivery of the pack.

An onboard battery management and protection system controls battery state during charging and
discharging to enable the longest possible battery life. Battery monitoring devices integrate all
necessary components for voltage and current measurement, signal isolation and safety
monitoring. Since most EV and HEV battery packs are now Li-ion formulations, battery protection
and monitoring are a necessity. At the higher operating voltages experienced in electric vehicles,
overvoltage can be catastrophic.

Components such as Texas Instruments’ BQ76PL536A (Fig. 3) include circuitry for bringing the
Li-ion cells back into balance. The BQ76PL536A is a stackable three to six series cell lithium-ion
battery pack protector and analogue front-end that incorporates a high-accuracy ADC, independent
cell voltage and temperature protection, cell balancing and a precision 5 V regulator. The
BQ76PL536A can be stacked vertically to monitor up to 192 cells without additional isolation
components between ICs. Each BQ76PL536A device protects the battery pack from overcharge,
over discharge and overtemperature for system safety.

21
Because batteries have a finite energy capacity, HEVs and EVs must be recharged on a periodic
basis, typically by connecting to the power grid. With an onboard charger unit, the battery can be
charged from a standard power outlet. For most users, 120 VAC at 15 to 20 A will be the most
readily available power supply that all onboard chargers should be capable of handling. But since
charging time is an important factor for car drivers, some users can take advantage of 240 VAC
that will allow for faster charging times, but will require a more robust power source.
The onboard charger converts electrical power from AC to DC and controls the power flow to the
high voltage battery. The charging system consists of an AC/DC rectifier to generate a DC voltage
from the AC line, followed by a DC/DC converter to generate the DC voltage required by the
battery pack. The long-term trend will be to move towards bi-directionality, where the charger also
feeds power from the car to the smart grid. In this case the incoming power will need to undergo
power factor correction (PFC) to boost the power factor to meet regional regulatory standards.

Optimized for onboard chargers and battery management in electric cars and plug-in HEVs
(PHEV), Vishay Intertechnology’s AY2 capacitors are AEC-Q200-qualified, AC line-rated
ceramic disc safety capacitors designed to provide high reliability for Class X1 (440 VAC) and
Y2 (300 VAC) automotive applications in accordance with IEC 60384-14.3, 3rd edition. Featuring
U2J, Y5S and Y5U ceramic dielectrics, the AY2 series offers a capacitance range from 10 to 4,700

22
pF — with tolerances down to ± 10 percent — over a temperature range of - 55 C to +125 C. The
Vishay AY2 capacitors are said to be able to withstand more than 2,000 temperature cycles without
a single failure, twice the AEC standard.

Energy/NV-coupled Simulator

Along with being sources of electrically generated power, electric powertrain systems are also
mechatronics products that generate torque within the system and contain areas of spinning rotors
and similar components.
Optimizing these systems calls for analysis and verification covering both power performance and
the noise-vibrations (NV) generated when the system is mounted in the vehicle (a mechatronics
issue). Even vehicles with high power performance will not be viable in the market if they generate
high noise levels.
Hitachi Automotive Systems has developed an energy/NV-coupled system simulator that enables
it to verify electric powertrain component performance during development, and to evaluate NV
to make the required design improvements before prototyping.

23
 The old simulation methods that were used often analysed energy and NV separately, and when
these parameters were coupled in a mechatronics product, it was forced to create a prototype to
evaluate the generated vibrations, noise, and heat. Major design revisions were sometimes needed
as a result. The use of a coupled simulator enables vibrations, noise, and heat to be studied in
advance before prototyping, so that improvements can be made at that time. This simulator has
made product-phase verification and performance assurance more reliable.

vii. High Power Density and High-voltage Main Circuit

Most of the volume of inverters for HEVs and EVs with standard 450 Vdc-class batteries come
from the high-voltage main circuit, so improving main circuit component parts is the key to
reducing inverter size. Hitachi Automotive Systems has achieved a major reduction in inverter size
by developing double-sided cooling power module technology that uses cooling water without
thermal grease to enable direct cooling of the high-voltage power module, which generates most
of the inverter heat (. The direct double-sided cooling structure greatly reduces heat resistance,
enabling a higher current and higher power density.

The current output of this double-sided cooling power module can also be scaled to conform to
different vehicle weight classes by changing the mounted chips and some of the packaging
components. The module's two-in-one structure enables a more compact design, the main circuit
inductance can be reduced to reduce power generation loss, and the configuration ensures a degree
of freedom in the layout within the inverter package.

24
Conclusion:
The three mechanisms just work to get one final outcome and that is to improve the
efficiency of vehicle. As I said earlier what if you are in that situation waiting for so long for
your car to get charged. Or would you expect a car getting charged when stand still by the
wind itself. The turbines in the car will also work effectively in flood where instead of wind
water will rotate the turbines. In low temperatures the vapor absorption method will not work
but this will not affect the efficiency of the vehicle. Since due to low temperature the
electrons move faster and this increases the efficiency of vehicle with any loss. The
electricity from all the regenerative modules will start circulating in the circuit and the battery
connection will be cut off and the extra voltage will be fed to the battery for charging this
project will eventually be successful.

25
135, EAST COAST ROAD, KANATHUR, CHENNAI - 603 112.
TAMILNADU, INDIA

DYNAMIC SPEED GOVERNOR

A Report on Internship

In
Department of Mechanical Engineering

By

S. PARTHIBAN (MEC 317)

S. SANJAY GANESH (MEC 330)

APRIL 2020

1
 Abstract

The Dynamic Speed Governor is a system that can be implemented effectively for an
efficient and perfectly controlled traffic system. This system can limit the speed of a moving
vehicle over an area where the speed as to be restricted and retained within a predetermined
value.

The Dynamic Speed Governor consists of mainly two parts, the Transmitter section and the
Receiver section.

The transmitter section is mounted on the signal board, on which the speed limit over that
area is indicated. Receiver section is kept inside the vehicle. The radio frequency signal from
the transmitter is transmitted and the receiver receives it.

If the speed of the vehicle is greater than the speed limit proposed for that particular area,
which in turn is transmitted by the transmitter section, the speed governor comes into action
and restricts the driver from going beyond that rated speed.

If the system detects that the speed of the vehicle has gone beyond the speed limit, a signal is
generated from the dynamic speed governor circuit. This signal in turn is used to drive the
mechanical part of the vehicle, which closes the fuel nozzle of the vehicle thereby restricting
the vehicle from going beyond that speed

2
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE
PAGE NO

1. Abstract 3

2. Introduction 5

3. Objective 6

4. Working 7

5. Components of the System 9

6. RF Transmitter Unit 10

7. Sensor Unit 11

8. RF Receiving Unit 12

9. Digital Tachometer Section 13

10. Seven Segment Display Device 14

11. Comparator Unit 15

12. Alarm Unit 16

13. Power Supply 17

14. Calculation 18

15. Advantages 20

16. Conclusion 21

17. References 22

3
Introduction

The objective of the paper is to present a conceptual model of a microcontroller based

variable electronic speed governor that can be implemented to control the speed of any
vehicle depending on the local speed limit. The circuit is cost effective, efficient and easy to
implement on already existing vehicles. Every city, town or a village, can be marked and
divided into individual zones. The division depends upon the area under which the business,
residential, and industrial regions come under. The central business district being a very busy
traffic zone demands the least speed limit, with the residential and industrial zones having
lesser traffic densities, the speed limits will vary accordingly.

Consider a city or town can be divided into physical zones which are classified according to
different speed ranges. A transmitter is placed at all exit and entry points of the interface of
any two zones that transmits a message signal at carrier frequency, indicating the upper limit
value of the zones speed range into which the vehicle is entering at that moment, to the
receiver which gives the message as an input to a pre-programmed microcontroller embedded
within the automobile which compares the speed of the vehicle measured by a sensor at the
maximum allowable speed and automatically regulates the speed of the vehicle. The speed of
the vehicle can be varied by varying the duty cycle of the pulse input. The entire system is a
low-cost variable electronic speed governor, small in size and easy to assemble onto an
existing vehicle without disturbing its present arrangement.

4
Objective

• Incorporate easily available components.

• Use cheap and easily worked materials platform.

• Minimize the weight of the unit.

• Maintain a level of robustness.

• Bring about solid design and construction features.

• Limit the consumption of energy.

• Modular design.

5
Working

 The dynamic speed governor consists of mainly two parts:- the transmitter and
receiver.
 The system is mainly based on micro controller technology for collecting data related
to speed and transmits the data to the micro controller using RF communication. The
micro controller analyses the transmitted data and takes appropriate decisions related
to speed limit and control requirements.
 The dynamic speed governor will be needed in populated areas such as hospitals,
malls and schools for regulating traffic.
 The RF transmitter of the system is mounted on the signal board and the micro
controller of the transmitter part always sense the speed limit of the area for that the
speed limit will be stored in the micro controller. The speed limit of the vehicle will
be transmitted using RF transmitter to the approaching vehicles.
 An RF receiver is kept inside the vehicle and the receiver accepts the incoming
signals and then feeds the limit of speed as an input to a comparator.
 An RPM meter is used to transform the mechanical rotational movement of the
vehicle into an electrical signal and using this method the speed of the approaching
vehicle can be detected. This calculated speed from the RPM meter is given to the
next input pin of the comparator.At the comparator both speeds given to the both
input pin is compared and if the speed of the vehicle is greater than the speed limit the
controller will reduce the speed of the vehicle to the limit by using PWM
characteristic of the micro controller.

6
7
8
Components of the system

RF transmitter unit (HT 640)

Sensor unit

RF receiving unit(HT 648)

Digital tachometer unit

Seven segment display device

Display drivers

Comparator

Alarm unit

9
RF transmitter unit (HT 640)

 An RF module (short for radio-frequency module) is a (usually) small

electronic device used to transmit and/or receive radio signals between two
devices.
 In an embedded system it is often desirable to communicate with another
device wirelessly. ... RF communications incorporate a transmitter and a
receiver.

10
Sensor Unit

 First section consist of a sensor unit, mono-stable vibrator, astable multi

vibrator.

 Sensor unit consists of a LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) and photo diode.

 Followed by a mono-stable vibrator and astable vibrator.

11
12
RF Receiver Unit (HT 648)

 The RF receiver unit consists of a receiver section and a display section. In the
receiver unit, receiver module receives the transmitted signal. Receiver module
contains crystal oscillator. Frequency of receiver module is 434MHz.Receiver module
does not contain any antenna. But it has dipoles, which can act as antenna leads.
Receiver module receives the serial data. We want to convert the serial data into
parallel form.

 So, the serial data is given to HT 648 IC.IT is a serial to parallel encoder, which
converts serial data into parallel form for proper use. This parallel data is given to
4511 IC.4511 is a Seven segment display encoder, which converts the data into digital
form. The transmitted speed is displayed in the BCD to 7-segment display unit.

13
Digital Tachometer Section

 A Tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a

motor or other machine.

 The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated
analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common

 This section consists of a sensor part, 555Timer circuits counter ICs and display unit.

 There is a motor, which is connected to a shaft and is placed in relation with the
sensor circuit.

 The rotation of the motor can generate pulses, which can be converted into speed in
km/hr.

14
Seven Segment Display Device

 A Seven Segment Display is made ofseven different illuminating segments.

 These are arranged in a way to form numbers and characters by displaying different
combinations of segments.
 The binary information is displayed using these sevensegments. These LED's or
LCD's are used to display the required numeral or alphabet.
 A seven-segment display is a form of electronic display device for displaying decimal
numbers that is an alternative to the more complex dot matrix displays.
 Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, basic
calculators, and other electronic devices that display numerical information.

15
COMPARATOR UNIT

 A comparator unit compares the received set reference speed or the speed set for that
particular zone with the actual speed of the user vehicle.

 If the speed of the user vehicle is greater than that of the reference speed received, the
comparator pin 13 outputs goes high and this high output is used to trigger the alarm
section. The comparator unit is realized by using CD 4585, which is a 4-bit
comparator.

 However, the speed of the vehicle and the received speed limit exceeds 4 bits when
converted into the binary system. Hence two CD 4585 comparator IC’s are cascaded
so as to implement an 8-bit comparator. Comparator IC’s in 2 steps does comparison.

16
 The Ist IC compares the most significant output and the output from the Ist is then fed
to the 2ndIC.The 2nd IC then compares the lower 4 bits and the output from this IC is
used to drive the alarm unit.

17
ALARM UNIT

 The aim of the project is to warn the user when he is exceeding the speed limit of the
zone. Here, we make use of a buzzer that will sound an alarm when the user vehicle is
exceeding the set speed limit. The output from the comparator pin received set speed
limit. This output is then given to a 555 timer IC that is connected in the monostable
mode of operation through a 7404 IC (NOT gate).

 Whenever the output from the comparator is low the input to the 555 will be high and
hence it out operate. However when the output at the comparator IC goes high it will
appear as a zero at the pin2 of the 555 timer IC i.e., less than 1/3Vcc.The zero input to
the IC being less than 1/3Vcc will trigger the monoshot and a square pulse of the pre-
set period 5 seconds will be obtained at the output pin.

 The square pulse will trigger the buzzer which will produce a warning signal for 5
seconds thereby warning the over speeding users. The use of a monoshot in between
the buzzer and the comparator IC prevents the continuous ringing of the buzzer
thereby avoiding distraction and promoting safe warning for the users.

18
Power Supply

These form an important equipment of any Electronics laboratory. Power supplies are
essential for the testing and implementation of any useful electronic circuit. If power supplies
are not available then the only way to provide power to a circuit is the battery. For long-term
use and frequent manipulation these are not feasible. More over these are not as flexible as
modern-day power supplies. They do not provide for overload protection and thermal
protection.

The following units form the backbone of any modern-day power supply

1. Full wave bridge rectifier

2. Filter circuit
3. Voltage regulator

In the case if modern power supplies, the required power is derived from the AC mains. For
this at first the 230V/50 Hz is step down using a step-down transformer. Then the AC voltage
is converted to DC using a rectifier circuit. The bridge rectifier is considered the apt choice
since it avoids the centre-tapped transformer. The ripples from the rectifier output are
removed by filtering.

The filter can be any of the following:

1. L filter

2. C filter

3. LC filter

4. CRC filter

19
CALCULATION

NUMBER OF PULSES TO SPEED (KM/HR) CONVERSION:

 Speed in km/hr. = distance traveled in km in 1 hr.

 Also, speed in km/hr. = distance traveled in km in (1/a) hr. × a

 Where ‘a’ is the scaling factor and (1/a) hr. is the measuring time.

 Now, distance travelled in (1/a) hr. = number of rotations in (1/a) hr. × 2π × radius of
wheel.

 Counter value = D1hr = D (1/a) hr. × a

o = 2Nr × π ×r × a
 Counter value = number of pulses counted = Np

 Hence Np = 2Nr × π × r × a.

 Np/Nr= 2 π × r × a.

 We take Np/Nr = 1 i.e. no scaling which means that sensor output is directly coupled
to counter.

 Therefore, 1 = 2 π ×r × a

a = 1/(2 π ×r).

20
21
Advantages
 Increased Road Safety.
 The driver doesn’t have to be looking on the speedometer often while driving.
 Reduced strain on engines, thereby increasing the life of engines.
 Reduced fuel consumption.
 Reduced maintenance cost for the vehicle owner.

22
CONCLUSION
The project was really a novel experience for us. It will not be without some pride when we
think that we have accomplished the programmingall within a short span of time.

The experience that we got during this tenure will help us to handle similar projects with ease
in future.

The new speed limiting system presented in this project combines several pioneering
techniques that integrate wireless technologies in order to implement a reliable speed control
system. This proposed system can be easily implemented near different populated areas.

The power of the proposed system lies in its flexibility and capability of development with
little hardware changes such as changing the speed limits and speed control methods using
the software of the base station in negligible amount of time.

The proposed system is based on microcontroller technology for collecting data related to
speed and transmitting it through a transceiver to a base station that analyses the transmitted
data and takes appropriate decisions related to speed limit and control requirements.

This experience has encouraged us to learn more about upcoming trends and technologies
and thereby adding our bumble knowledge and experience about the vast ocean of
electronics.

23
24
REFERENCES:

1) Development of Electronic Governor and Simulator for the Generating Diesel Engine by
Sung Hoon Ko, Hyeong Soon Moon, Jong Cheol Kim, ByeongYeol Lee, Si Eun Cho,
Seung Hyup Ryu, ICROS – SICE International Joint Conference 2009, Japan

2) Comparison and Conversion of Dynamic Models of Speed Governor for Transient

Stability Analysis by Li Lin, Kun Zhang, Feng Sun, Qunju Li

3) US Patent 6,167,979, Jan. 2, 2001: Dynamic Speed Governing of a Vehicle by Dennis O.

Taylor and G. George Zhu

25
 INTERNSHIP ALLOCATION REPORT 2019-20
Name of the Department: Mechanical Engineering

(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the
Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself
during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)

Name of the Programme : B.E., Mechanical Engineering

Year of study and Batch/Group : II & B5/G2
Name of the Mentor : M. Bala Kumaran
Title of the assigned internship :

Automatic Waste Segregation System

Nature of Internship : Group

Reg No of Students who are assigned with this internship:

BME18070, BME18089

Total No. of Hours Required to complete the Internship: 45

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme

Examiner Head
 INTERNSHIP EVALUATION REPORT 2019-20
Name of the Department: Mechanical Engineering
(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the
Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself
during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)
Name of the Student SHARAN KUMAR A
Register No and Roll No BME18070 & MEC334
Programme of study B.E, Mechanical Engineering
Year and Batch/Group II & B5/G2
Semester IV
Title of Internship Automatic Waste Segregation System
Duration of Internship 45 Hours
Mentor of the Student M. Bala Kumaran
Evaluation by the Department
Sl Criterion Max. Marks Marks
No. Allotted
1 Regularity in maintenance of the diary. 10 10
2 Adequacy & quality of information recorded 10 10
3 Drawings, sketches and data recorded 10 10
4 Thought process and recording techniques used 5 5
5 Organization of the information 5 5
6 Originality of the Internship Report 20 18
7 Adequacy and purposeful write-up of the Internship 10 10
Report
8 Organization, format, drawings, sketches, style, language 10 10
etc. of the Internship Report
9 Practical applications, relationships with basic theory and 10 9
concepts
10 Presentation Skills 10 8
Total 100 95

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme

Examiner Head
 INTERNSHIP EVALUATION REPORT 2019-20
Name of the Department: Mechanical Engineering
(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the
Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself
during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)
Name of the Student VISHAL N
Register No and Roll No BME18089 & MEC354
Programme of study B.E, Mechanical Engineering
Year and Batch/Group II & B5/G2
Semester IV
Title of Internship Automatic Waste Segregation System
Duration of Internship 45 Hours
Mentor of the Student M. Bala Kumaran
Evaluation by the Department
Sl Criterion Max. Marks Marks
No. Allotted
1 Regularity in maintenance of the diary. 10 10
2 Adequacy & quality of information recorded 10 10
3 Drawings, sketches and data recorded 10 10
4 Thought process and recording techniques used 5 4
5 Organization of the information 5 5
6 Originality of the Internship Report 20 18
7 Adequacy and purposeful write-up of the Internship 10 10
Report
8 Organization, format, drawings, sketches, style, language 10 10
etc. of the Internship Report
9 Practical applications, relationships with basic theory and 10 10
concepts
10 Presentation Skills 10 9
Total 100 96

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme

Examiner Head
135 , EAST COAST ROAD , KANATHUR , CHENNAI - 603112 .

TAMILNADU , INDIA

Automatic Waste Segregation System

A Report on Self-engaged Internship

In
Department of Mechanical Engineering

By

Student Name : VISHAL. N

A. SHARAN KUMAR

Month & Year

( April 2020 )

1
 CERTIFICATE FOR THE INTERNSHIP
(If done in Industry. Certificate from Industry to be included.
If done in Home, certificate from the HoD and mentor to be included)

2
CONTENTS

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONSPAGE NO

1. ABSTRACT 4

2. INTRODUCTION 6

3. METHODOLOGY 10

4. CONCLUSION 31

5. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPH / TABLES / FIGURES 32

3
AUTOMATIC WASTE SEGREGATION SYSTEM

ABSTRACT :-

Rapid increase in population has led to improper waste management in metro cities and urban areas
which has resulted in spreading of diseases. It is estimated that Urban India (about 377 million people)
generates 62 million tonnes of municipal solid waste each year, of this about 43 million tonnes (70%) is
collected and 11.9 million tonnes (20%) is treated. About 31 million tonnes (50%) is dumped in landfill
sites. The segregation, transport, handling and disposal of waste must be managed properly to minimize
the risks to the public, and the environment.

An efficient method to dispose the waste has been designed in our project, “automatic waste
segregator and monitoring system”. This paper proposes an automatic waste segregator (AWS) which
is a cheap, easy to use solution for a segregation system at households, so that the wastes can be sent
directly for processing.

Automatic waste segregator is designed to sort the waste into three main categories namely; metallic,
organic and plastic, thereby making the waste management more effective. Ultrasonic sensors are added
for monitoring waste collection process.

The sensors would be placed in all the garbage bins. When the garbage reaches the level of the sensor,
then the indication will be given to a microcontroller. The microcontroller will give indication to the
driver of garbage collection truck by sending SMS using GSM technology.

Waste segregation and recycling are simple yet effective ways of reducing the amount of waste dumped
into our landfills. But there are people who are unaware or even choose to ignore the fact that waste
segregation and recycling are environment friendly solutions to the problem of wastes management and
disposal.

In India alone there are recycling center but the process is tedious and done manually. There are
guidelines implemented by the government with regards to recycling but these efforts have yet to touch
the mindset of the people. Escalating amounts of recyclables that are not maximized and indifference in
proper waste segregation has led to the group in developing a solution to this.

The Automated Waste Sorter and Organic waste separator are intended to automate the sorting process of
organic matter (eg:- Biodegradable waste),steel cans, aluminium cans, glass bottles and plastic bottles.
The biodegradable waste can be used for making “biogas”.

This paper describes the approach to implementing a sensor array, for each corresponding material to be
sorted, along with a conveyor belt as the Automated Waste Sorter. When waste is conveyed, IR sensor
will sense the waste.

4
Waste is divided into three categories namely Wet, Dry and Metallic. Another sensor will sense the other
category.

As per the algorithm used, if the waste is metallic then the mechanism will bring the metal collecting bin
below the pipe and with the help of servo motor the waste will fall into the metal bin. Similarly, the
process will repeat if wet waste is sensed.

If the sensor doesn’t activate both the sensor category then the waste will be considered to be a dry
waste.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), or household waste, consists of discarded everyday consumable items.
This general waste is normally put into a black bag or bin and contains a mixture of wet and dry
recyclables, organic, inorganic and biodegradable materials, including food waste, containers, cans,
cartons, product packaging, newspapers and card.

At all events, they are usually made by a heterogeneous set of materials, a percentage of which is made up
by non-fermentable (inorganic) material, recyclable most of them.

The remaining material is organic waste which can be treated through stabilization, compost or anaerobic
digestion.The profile survey of the input waste, allows us to optically dimension the facility and offer a
treatment plant from which the client can obtain the maximum profitability. Peaks-eco Recycling
supplies high-tech mechanical treatments with several degrees of automation, depending on client’s
needs and requirements.

What it takes to separate MSW into valuable recyclables on the one hand and high-quality RDF (Refuse
Derived Fuel) on the other. With increasing regulatory pressure on landfilling untreated MSW and the
active search for alternative energy sources, energy-from-waste has become an important solution.

The purpose of the installation is to separate, sort and process valuable commodities, such as RDF, plastic
containers, PET, Tetra Pak and glass, along with minimising the waste fraction that is sent to landfills.

5
INTRODUCTION :-
The hazards caused by the common method of waste disposal is inefficient and more harmful to the
environment .The automatic waste segregate is designed to overcome this.

Fig no:- 1.01

Here waste is pushed through a series offramework for the recognition of waste, an IR sensor is utilized.
As the IR sensor recognized waste, microcontroller turn the DC motor to ON state and the waste
processed through the inductance coil and capacitive sensing module, and then the waste is classified to
wet and dry based on relative permittivity of waste kept in a circular base driven by DC geared motors .

Introducing a solution for the segregation and collection of solid waste. Six types of waste, such as metal,
glass ,rubber, plastic, paper and organic waste are separated with the help of arduino microcontroller.
When the waste is dropped onto the conveyor belt by means of a metal plate controlled by servo motors.
Metallic wastes are separated by the electromagnet attached to the servo motor controlled arm and the dry
waste is blown off using a DC air blower directed by a flap.

The non -ferrous metals are separated by using eddy current separator. Ultrasonic sensor HC-SR-04 is
used for power conservation when the conveyor is empty.

This method involves the usage of three sensors namely IR sensor, moisture sensor and gas sensor which
are attached to bins kept in public places. The IR sensor detects the waste and sends information to
PIC16F877A microcontroller.

6
Similarly moisture sensor senses moisture in the bin when the wet waste is deposited and the gas sensor
senses some unpleasant or toxic smell from the bin and sends information to the controller. The
information is accepted using radio frequency (RF) receiver and the data is decoded by the decoder, and

in the transmission side controller receives the information and transmits the data using the encoder and
an RF transceiver, the data is displayed on LCD . The 8051 microcontroller is used, the model consists of
a stationary unit the waste is collected into a funnel shaped collector. Sensors are placed on this funnel.

Fig no :- 2.01
This paper proposes an advanced trash collection system with smart bins having sensors and that alerts
the authorized collector by sending messages for efficient trash collection in cities.

The system will receive the input through the dust collecting people through switches and sends back a
signal to the microcontroller unit using RF technology and makes the H-bridge to rotate conveyor belt.

When the belt starts rotating clockwise the dust bin’s lid is automatically closed, simultaneously the waste
is dumped into the underground garbage container.

7
 Fig no :- 2.02

A waste segregation system using a programmable logic controller is designed to separate the metal
particles from the municipal waste. It contains a rotating conveyor belt, which starts rotating when the
metal particle is detected.

These services cover the waste collection planning and implementation, transport of waste to specific
locations and recycling and preparation for reuse with the help of RFID, sensors and actuators.

This work presented here gives a novel approach in handling and disposing of the daily solid wastes in an
efficient method.

These services cover the waste collection planning and implementation, transport of waste to specific
locations and recycling and preparation for reuse.

8
 Fig no:- 1.02
This work presented here gives a novel approach in handling and disposing of the daily solid wastes in an
efficient method.

The proposed system would be able to automate the solid waste monitoring and collection process. It
employs both collection and segregation of waste where collection part consists of specially designed
baskets placed at the roadside in a fixed gap having air sensors, when your sensor senses basket fills and
put down the waste to the sub conveyor. The segregation part contains sensors to separate into wet, dry
and metallic

9
METHODOLOGY:-
Flowchart

SOLID WASTE/GARBAGE

CRUSHER

WET WASTE DRY WASTE

ORGANIC WASTE INORGANIC WASTE

BIO GAS/COMPOSTSEPARATOR

 METAL DETECTOR
 PLASTIC SEPARATOR
 GLASS SEPARATOR
 RUBBER SEPARATOR
 RUBBISH WASTE

Chart no :-2.03

10
EXISTING SYSTEM
Intelligent solid waste bin is essential to develop an efficient and dynamic waste management system.
This research presents the implementation and execution of an integrated sensing system and algorithm
for solid waste bin to automate the solid waste management process.

Several sensing methods have been integrated and have combined their verdicts that offer the detection
of bin condition and its parameter measurement. A number of test runs have been conducted to assess the
functioning of the prototype system .

The outcome showed that the sensing system with the algorithm is efficient and intelligent and can be
simply used to automate any solid waste bin management process.

 METHODS ADOPTED FOR SOLID WASTE

SEPERATION
Eddy current separators,Metal detector, Inductor sorting, Near infrared sensors, X-ray technology.

Proposed system
The whole system is controlled by an Arduino Uno board. All other parts like ultrasonic sensors,
inductive proximity sensor, DC motors, blower and electromagnet are interfaced to the Arduino board.

The system comprises of different parts and mechanism such as Open-Close Mechanism, Conveyor Belt,
Inductive Proximity Sensor, Geared DC Motor, Blower, Robotic Arm, Electromagnet, Ultrasonic Sensor,
Monitoring System, and working softwares.

Usually all the waste are separated at the zones itself each zones have their own waste separating
warehouse with it. Each zones have sanitary officers. Sanitary officers take responsibility of the whole
work that takes place in his respective zones, Each zones have 120 municipal workers within it.

Where that they have 80 sweepers and 10 vehicle drivers and some members to screen the vehicle
whether their is loaded properly in the truck or lorry, All the zones waste are finally collected to the area,
Here the waste are finally crushed in this area with crusher almost 100 tons crusher,

Initially all the waste are separated at the respective zones itself. Hence there is no need of separating
waste in this area, In each zones, all the waste are separated at the zones itself and placed in the large
container.

11
THE WASTE ARE SEPARATED INTO SEVEN DIFFERENT FORM OF WASTE.

They are

 Plastic waste
 Paper waste
 Metallic waste
 Organic waste
 Rubber waste
 Glass waste
 Rubbish waste

The waste ratio is in the formofPlastic:metallic:organic:medical:37:21:27:15 Finally all the waste are
placed on to the area at waste warehouse.

This is the place where all the waste are collected from 4 different zones of municipality. All the waste
are crushed into a cubicstructures with the help of large crushers.The crushed waste are then send to the
respective places where there is the need of the cubic raw materials.

These cubic structures are send to recycling process. Sweepers are used to sweep the waste from the road
and road side. The need of sweepers arise due to indifference of people. Due to the only reason of
indifference. Here comes the need of sweepers.

If there is maintained a proper rules and regulations strictly. There won’t be no need of sweeping work by
the municipality.

However municipality is doing there best to keep our city clean. Peoples are not showing their full
support for keeping the city clean. So the city can be maintained clean and tidy.

12
  The below tabular column (2.01) shows a survey on different waste recovered in recycling.

Sl no. Waste medium Percentage of weght Gross weight

(%) (kg)

1 Metal waste 21.3% 2100

2 Plastic waste 29.7% 2970

3 Paper waste 11.6% 1160

4 Organic waste 14.9% 1490

5 Rubber waste 13.3% 1330

6 Glass waste 9.20% 9200

Table no:- 2.04

The municipal solid waste will be sent to the uniform distributing machine by plate feeder. The uniform
distributing machine can spread the adhesive MSW evenly on the belt conveyor for subsequent operation.

13
The bulk waste is picked up manually in the first manual sorting platform, such as quilt, wine bottle,
cotton clothes, big wood branch, etc. In the first manual sorting platform. Bag breaker can break open the
refuse bag for subsequent operation.

The broken bag waste is fed into the rotate screen by belt conveyor. The rotate screen was designed in
50*50mm hole, which can separate the waste into different size, the oversize material >50mm(mostly are
plastic, stone, textile, rubber boot, etc.) and undersize material <50mm(mostly are organic).

Undersize material is collected by the undersize collecting belt conveyor and transferred by the undersize
transfer belt conveyor to the truck for further processing or landfill. Meanwhile, the magnetic separator
can separate the iron matter in the undersize material.

After separating the iron by the magnetic separator, the oversize matters bigger than 50mm is sent to the
eddy separator to pick out the non ferrous matters.

After the metal matters is sorted out, the remaining waste will be transferred into the air separator by the
belt conveyor.

The wind separator was designed by combined of positive & negative pressure, which can efficiently
separate the waste into three matters, the light matters(plastic), heavy matters(Brick stone, ceramic chip,
glass, etc.) and combustible matters(hard plastic, textile, rubber matters, wet paper matters, etc.).

The heavy matters and combustible matters are transferred by belt conveyor, and then the useful things
will be picked up manually in the manual sorting platform, then loading to ship out. Afer the useful things
was separated, the light matters will be transferred to the baler.

The baler can pack the light plastic matters to mass, which is easy for storage and transportation.

14
WASTE COMPOSITIONS

COMPOSITION OF PLASTIC WASTE

The mixed plastic wastes were selected to cover a wide spectrum in the relative proportions of high- and
low density polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET).

It was also found that these thermoplastics increase the pressure exerted against the wall in the course of
the coking process and that coke quality is maintained or even improved. However, when the level of
aromatic polymers such PS and PET are increased at the expense of polyolefin, the coking pressure
decreases. Thus, the amount of aromatic polymers such as PS and PET in the waste is critical, not only
for controlling Gieseler fluidity and coking pressure, but also for avoiding deterioration in coke quality
(reactivity towards CO2CRIand mechanical strength of the partially-gasified coke CSR). An amount of
polyolefin in the waste lower than 65 wt.% for a secure coking pressure is established.

Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects (e.g.: plastic bottles and much more) in the Earth's
environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, and humans. Plastics that act as pollutants are
categorized into micro-, or macro debris, based on size. Plastics are inexpensive and durable, and as a
result levels of plastic production by humans are high. However, the chemical structure of most plastics
renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as a result they are slow to degrade.

Together, these two factors have led to a high prominence of plastic pollution in the environment. Plastic
pollution can afflict land, waterways and oceans. It is estimated that 1.1 to 8.8 million metric tons (MT)
of plastic waste enters the ocean from costal communities each year.

Living organisms, particularly marine animals, can be harmed either by mechanical effects, such as
entanglement in plastic objects or problems related to ingestion of plastic waste, or through exposure to
chemicals within plastics that interfere with their physiology. Humans are also affected by plastic
pollution, such as through disruption of various hormonal mechanism. Plastics themselves contribute to
approximately 10% of discarded waste. Many kinds of plastics exist depending on their precursors and
the method for their polymerization.

Depending on their chemical composition, plastics and resins have varying properties related to
contaminant absorption and adsorption. Polymer degradation takes much longer as a result of saline
environments and the cooling effect of the sea. These factors contribute to the persistence of plastic debris
in certain environments. Recent studies have shown that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than was
once thought, due to exposure to sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of
toxic chemicals such as bi sphenol A.

However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down. The
Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products. It is estimated that
a foam plasticcup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400years, a disposable nappy will
take 450 years, and fishing linewill take 600 years to degrade.

15
 COMPOSITION METALLIC WASTE
If the magnet sticks, you have a ferrous metal. Common metals like steel and iron fall under this category.
The non ferrous can be separated by Eddy current separator. And since they‘re easily available, ferrous
metals won’t amount to much. Nevertheless, scrap yards still accept them for recycling and will pay you
for them.

If the magnet does not stick, you have a nonferrous metal. Copper and aluminum are nonferrous, and
they’re worth more than the ferrous variety for a number of reasons. They have greater resistance against
corrosion, have higher conductivity, and weigh less. one ton of recycled paper saves approximately 17
trees, 2.5 barrels of oil, 4100 kWh of electricity, 4 cum of landfill and 31,780 liters of water over
production of virgin paper from wood. Recycling of one ton of steel scrap saves 1.2 tons of iron ore, 0.7
tons of coal, 0.5 tons of limestone, 287 liters of fuel oil, 2.3 cubic meters of landfill, and is achieved
through 40 per cent less water and with 58 per cent avoided CO2 emissions.

According to a study ,recycled steel reduces 97 per cent mining waste produced through manufacture of
virgin resources, saves 75 per cent of energy, cuts back 86 per cent of air pollution and 76 per cent on
water pollution. Similarly, recycling of an aluminium can or producing a glass container saves 95 per cent
and 70 per cent, respectively, of the energy required for producing a similar container from virgin
material.

Scrap consists of recyclable materials left over from product manufacturing and consumption, such as
parts of vehicles, building supplies, and surplus materials. Unlike waste, scrap has monetary value,
especially recovered metals, and nonmetallic materials are also recovered for recycling.

Metals which contain iron in them are known as ferrous where metals without iron are non-ferrous.

•Common non-ferrous metals are copper, brass, aluminum, zinc, magnesium, tin, nickel, and lead.
Non-ferrous metals also include precious and exotic metals.

•Precious metals are metals with a high market value in any form, such as gold, silver, and platinum
group metals.

•Exotic metals contain rare elements such as cobalt, mercury, titanium, tungsten, arsenic, beryllium,
bismuth, cerium, cadmium, niobium, indium, gallium, germanium, lithium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium,
vanadium, and zirconium.

Some types of metals are radioactive. These may be“naturally occurring” or may be formed as by-
products of nuclear reactions. Metals that have been exposed to radioactive sources may also become
radioactive in settings such as medical environments, research laboratories, or nuclear power plants

16
 COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC WASTE
Biodegradable waste includes any organic matter in waste which can be broken down into carbon
dioxide, water, methane or simple organic molecules by micro-organisms and other living things by
composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes.

In waste management, it also includes some inorganic materials which can be decomposed by bacteria.
Such materials include gypsum and its products such as plasterboard and other simple organic sulfates
which can decompose to yield hydrogen in anaerobic land-fill conditions. In domestic waste collection,
the scope of biodegradable waste may be narrowed to include only those degradable wastes capable of
being handled in the local waste handling facilities.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS WASTE

Scrap glass is a solid waste from daily recycling. Most of the waste glass is sodium-lime-silicate glass
which has, more or less, similar chemical compositions to clay, a raw material in cement manufacturing.

Therefore, we utilize the solid waste in cement raw mix by replacing part of the clayey component. In this
study, the effects of the glass in cement raw mix on clinker burning were investigated.

The experimental results show that the addition of the glass into cement raw mix results in the
formation of more liquid phase between 950°C to 1250°C compared with conventional raw meals,
decreases C3S content in the clinker; and (3) increases NC8A3 content, which leads to flash setting and
poor strength development of the cement. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the SG value of the clinker
when the glass is present in the raw mix.

COMPOSITION OF PLASTIC WASTE

Today, 40% of paper pulp is created from wood (in most modern mills only 9-16% of pulp is made from
pulp logs; the rest comes from waste wood that was traditionally burnt). Paper production accounts for
about 35% of felled trees, and represents 1.2% of the world's total economic output. Recycling one ton of
newsprint saves about 1 ton of wood while recycling 1 ton of printing or copier paper saves slightly more
than 2 tons of wood. This is because kraft pulping requires twice as much wood since it removes lignin to
produce higher quality fibres than mechanical pulping processes.

Relating tons of paper recycled to the number of trees not cut is meaningless, since tree size varies
tremendously and is the major factor in how much paper can be made from how many trees.

In addition, trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 16% of world pulp production, old
growth forests 9% and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the balance. Most pulp
mill operators practice reforestation to ensure a continuing supply of trees.

17
 COMPOSITION OF RUBBER WASTE
Rubber is related to thermo-plastic-elastic materials and is turned to thermosetting on vulcanization
during manufacturing of rubber products or tires.

This occurs as a result of the formation of three-dimensional structure due to the presence of the so-called
vulcanizing system in rubber mixes. In this case, it is difficult to recycle rubber waste or refuse using the
general methods used for thermoplastic materials.

Thus, recycling of rubber waste is very important problem as such waste is not biodegradable and has its
negative impact on environment.

Besides, the recycled rubber should be considered as a source of new material with economic impact.
The main producers of rubber tires are the Transportation and Engineering Company . They have
different types of rubber.

The amount of rubber waste in these companies is about 1500 t per year, beside the worn-out (old tires). It
is established that the rubber waste in the companies is coming from different processing stages and
through different operation units. Consequently, the waste may be green, scorched and vulcanized rubber.
Also the waste may contain rayon or nylon fibers.

This waste would be subjected to different methods of treatment such as hydrolysis, mechano-chemical
reactions, or reclamation.

The vulcanized waste must be grounded before any treatment. The present work aims at the recycling of
rubber scrap via grinding, and identifying utilization methods that may be effective in solving the rubber
scrap problem.

These methods were reclamation, surface modification, use of rubber powder in asphalt paving, or as
extender, or to produce filler to reduce the cost.

18
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Design of the garbage sorting out machine: Heaps ofgarbage from typical dumps at various locations in
thecountry were divided into four equal parts and twoopposite quadrants of each of the so divided
heapsmanually sorted out.

The garbage sorting machine is designed to perform the functions of the manual sorting process,
taking into account the approximate percentage compositions of the various components of the heapedup
garbage, Functions of the components and the general operation of the garbage sorting machine: Rubbish
or garbage is collected from the environment and deposited in a skip.

This garbage is fed from the slip into a container that can be vibrated by a vibratory mechanism, the
equation of motion which is analyzed.

The bottom of the container is also made up of perforated plate through which loose soil (composite)
from the garbage can be sieved and collected in another container placed below the first one. When the
first container is full of the garbage, a rubbish prickling mechanism, the equation of motion of which is
also outlined from pages 6-9, is actuated to turn at a definite angle thereby aligning itself with the top of
the heaped-up container.

The mechanism consists of long and pointed strong metallic thorns. These are pressed into the heaped-up
garbage to pick and compress together polythene materials, husks, leaves, pieces of paper and cloth from
the heap.

The mechanism moves up, turns through another large angle anticlockwise and dumps the picked
up rubbish into another container by means of another mechanism .Water is poured into the container of
the picked-up polythene materials, husks, leaves, pieces of paper and cloth.

The polythene materials will float on top of the water and will be decanted, washed, dried and sent to a
plant that converts the polythene materials into plastic goods as that of city waste. The husks, leaves,
pieces of paper and cloth are strained of the water, dried and sent to a biogas plant.

19
MODULE
HOPPER

Fig no:-1.03
The main concept behind hopper is to ease out the flow of solid waste and house the waste into enter into
magnetic chamber.

CONVEYOR BELT

Fig no:- 1.04

20
A conveyor belt is the carrying medium of a belt conveyor system. There are conveyor belts used which
is placed parallel. It is placed one over the other with a small clearance. The belt clearance can be
adjusted according to the materials to be collected.

The conveyor belt also helps in crushing the solid waste like bottles, paper bolls, or any type of air filled
or compressible ones. This helps in the increase collecting the particles. Nylon is the major content of this
conveyor belt along with PVC coating. The main reason behind selecting this belt was due to its long
lasting nature, adjustability, availability etc.

MAGNETIC WASTE SEPARATOR

Fig no:-1.05
The magnetic waste separator operates on the principle of magnetic attraction of Ferro-metal pieces
towards permanent magnets. There are two platforms behind the metal collection door. The first platform
is made up Electro-magnet and the second platform permanent magnet. Both these platforms are
separated by a distance of 12cm. Electro magnet is energized when electricity is supply to by 24V Dc
current, it so magnetize and attract the Ferro-magnetic waste scraps. And for non- magnetizing action is
achieved by disconnecting the power supply and makes the metal pieces to fall into the collection
chamber from where the pieces can be retrieved.

21
BLOWER

Fig no:-1.06

The blower chamber consists of one blower inserted in corresponding slots. The fans rotate at speeds as
high as 1200RPM driven by three separate 12 V dc motors.

Blower stage uses the simple principle of blowing away the lighter particles from an incoming charge of
waste material falling vertically downwards.

The main aim behind using blower fans is to sort the waste in as less time as possible and without using
handpicking or hand sorting or any kind of physical tangible operations. The charge of light weight waste
that is blown away is collected in a chamber provided in the next stage.

The vertical height of this collection chamber is lesser than that of the blower height from ground level.

22
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR

Fig no:-1.07
The centrifugal separator works or operates on the principle of outward pseudo forces or in other words,
centrifugal forces.

The centrifuge is a conical device connected to a 12 V dc motor. As the centrifuge rotates the light
particles stay in the centre of the cone whereas the heavy particles are thrown out of the conical surface
due to centrifugal action.

The movement of waste material inside the cone is always along the radius. Therefore, only a slight gap is
provided along the circumference so as to prevent waste from coming out in all directions.

This also uses a spiral air flow action, or acceleration within a chamber to separate or classify solid
particles, have been updated and modified for MSW sorting.

As seen in the air classifier / density separator for garbage in the picture below. This MSW air classifier
uses an upward air current to lift paper and plastics out, while heavier material like stones fall into a skip
below.

These are ideal for separating light material such as paper and plastic from heavier / dense material like
aluminium and plastic bottles

23
SENSOR DETECTION

Fig no:-1.08

The proposed system makes use of sensors to identify incoming objects. Inductive sensors are used to
detect metallic objects.

Capacitive sensors are used to detect plastics and glass and disposable objects. They are adjusted to sense
only disposable objects. Ultrasonic sensors are used to detect the presence of non-transparent objects
within the system. Arduino MEGA microcontroller is used to process the outputs from the sensors.

Based on sensor outputs, the microcontroller provides control signals in the form of steps to a stepper
motor. Depending on the number of steps the motor rotates by a specific angle and aligns itself below the
sensing plate.

After that the object is dropped into its correspondingbin. Hence plastics and metals will be separated
from disposable objects.

24
AUTOMATED SORTING PROCESS

1. The municipal waste is put into loading platform in the waste separation plant. At first, manual labour
will select the large pieces out, such as closestool, furniture, stump, large building waste, etc. Then the
waste is delivered to adjustable uniform garbage distributing machine. The waste is distributed evenly on
this waste segregation machine. So when the waste is sent to feeder, the waste can be greatly handled and
the next work will be more smooth and efficient.

2. The belt conveyor in the waste separation system sends the distributed waste to manual sorting
platform. Workers pick out the large materials, such as quilt, cotton dress, big branches, long stick, bricks,
stones, bottles, hazardous waste, etc.

3. The waste is screened by rotating screening machine. The aperture of sieve tray is 50 mm. So, through
the separation of solid waste, the waste can be preliminarily classified into two types by automatic trash

Fig no:- 1.09

25
The first one is organic compound. After selected by magnetic separator, the waste can be directly put
into composting workshop. The second one is large pieces which need several processes to screen by
solid waste separator.

Firstly, magnetic separator select out the iron materials, including iron beverage cans and iron package
cans. Then the conveyor sends the rest of the waste to bag breaker. The bag breaker will smash all waste
into pieces.

And these pieces are delivered to comprehensive winnowing machine. Comprehensive winnowing
machine can separate three material: light plastic, heavy materials (bricks, stones, silica gel, porcelain and
glass etc.) and mixtures (hard plastic, fabric, rubber products, wet paper, etc.).

4. The impurities in the light plastic are selected out by manual labor on the manual sorting platform. The
plastic is packed by packing machine.

The used things like rubber overshoes in the heavy material is selected out by manual labour. The rest of
heavy material in the garbage recycling plant can be dealt with by landfill or recycling to make bricks.

The used material in the mixtures can be selected out, including hard plastic, fabric, rubber products,
large organic material, etc.

We can pack these selected material by packing machine, and then sell them to other plant.Actually,
through automatic waste sorting, all kinds of materials can be differently dealt with in the light of your
demands, such as packing, landfill or burning.

26
RESULTS
The proposed system “automatic waste segregator and monitoring system” sorts wastes into three
different categories, namely metal, plastic and the wet (organic) waste. Wet waste refers to organic waste
such as vegetable peels, left-over food etc. Separating our waste is essential as the amount of waste
being generated today causes immense problem.

Here, household wastes which are generated in every home today and we have come up with the
following result the tested results of the waste when exposed to our automatic waste segregator and
monitoring system. The proposed system would be able to monitor the solid waste collection process
and management of the overall collection process. It would provide in time solid waste collection.

The technologies which are used in the proposed system are good enough to ensure the practical and
perfect for solid waste collection process monitoring and management for green environment.

FUTURE SCOPE
Automatic Sorter Machine for Smart Waste Management System can be deployed to solve our existing
problem as well as can bring about a change in our daily life meeting our own demand. A Sorting More

Types of Materials The developed Automatic Sorter Machine for Smart Waste Management System can
sort only four types of waste materials.

If more sensors are used then it will be possible to sort more types of materials (Such as:
Transparent and nontransparent plastics, Thick and thin papers, Semi-conductor and Conductors,
Rubber materials, Organic etc.). Reduction of Cost Companies those are manufacturing and distributing
trash bin throughout the world, currently producing manual trash bins.

27
CONCLUSION
Waste management is all those activities, actions and works required to manage waste from its production
to its final disposal. This project is designed such a way that a system which collects from different
positions and segregates the wastes.

As the bin fills IR sensor senses the level and bin rotates into conveyor waste is collected from different
locations and reached to the segregation part through the main conveyor belt. The timing and movement
of the conveyor belt are controlled by the peripheral interface controller (PIC microcontroller).

As the name suggests automatic waste segregation segregates the waste into three major classes: dry,
wet, metallic by using different types of sensors.

The automated waste sorter was able to sort out the different materials specified in the objectives. The
steel cans were sorted out via a magnet motor, consisting of neodymium magnets installed on to the shaft
of a motor. When these sensors are triggered the servomotor-powered door is actuated and the materials
are dispensed onto its proper bins.

By process of elimination only the plastic bottles are left to be sorted out so they proceed to the end of the
conveyor belt where they dropped onto the corresponding bin for plastic bottles.

This study concludes that with the sensor array methodology of sorting, the spacing and position of the
items in the conveyor belt play an important part in determining its accuracy. It was determined in the
done that a distance of 8 inches between the two consecutive items to be sorter is advisable for proper
sorting. In relation to this singulation of the item plays an important part in controlling the flow of the
wastes to the sensor array.

28
LIST OF PHOTOS & TABLES:-

PHOTOS:-
Introduction: Fig no 1.01-1.02

Methodology: Fig no 1.03– 1.09

TABLES& CHARTS:-

Introduction: Chart no 2.01-2.02

Methodology: table no 2.03

29
THANKYOU

30
135, EAST COAST ROAD, KANATHUR, CHENNAI - 603 112.
TAMILNADU, INDIA

3D SCANNER USING LASER BEAM

A Report on Internship

In
Department of Mechanical Engineering

By

SOURAV PRAMANIK
BME18072

VARSHANTH PRIENCE
BME18079

07/05/2020
 Abstract

In this project a complete 3D laser scanning system which uses a laser beam and a single
camera is presented. The system is build from scratch and is aimed at small matchbox size
object. The geometry of the scanner is adapted to fit an existing system which produces
multispectral images of varies object and surface samples. The system as a whole can
however easily be scaled to accommodate larger object and can therefore also be used for
other applications.

The physical movement of the laser and camera is limited by certain constraints imposed
by the existing system and this motivates the use of the multibeam laser. The introduction
of multiple laser lines within the same image creates some challenges for the analysis
software. Two different approached to deal with there issues are presented and compared.

The multibeam laser is incapable of drawing straight lines, save for the center line, and
therefore a more advanced model describing the “laser surfaces” is applied and optimized.

Keywords:
Image enhancement, image segmentation, line detection, camera calibration,
3D reconstruction, data optimization.
Introduction
Everyday we humans interact with all sorts of objects without the need to pay special attention
to it. This is possible due to our ability to perceive the geometry of the world around us. Getting
a computer to perceive the geometry of an object is however a more complicated matter.
Nevertheless there exist several systems where computers via a digital camera can obtain
geometrical information about an object. The perhaps most accurate of these is a 3D laser
scanner. While being around for some years now 3D laser scanners are still a relatively young
technology in rapid progress. As 3D laser scanners continue to evolve and the cost of
components decrease this popular technology finds it way into a still increasing number of new
applications. The ability to create a digital 3D model of an object in a few minutes, which
hereafter can be transferred worldwide via internet almost instantly, makes it an attractive tool
for a lot of applications.

In this thesis a complete 3D laser scanner system is presented. The scanner is build using a laser
and a single camera and is different from conventional scanner because it uses a multibeam laser
that generates a fan of lines.

1 Introduction to Laser Scanner Systems

In general, the purpose of a laser scanner system is to create a digital 3D model of some surface
or object. Normally a laser that emits a single flat sheet-of-light is used meaning that if you point
the laser at a wall it draws a straight line. The sheet or plane itself is not visible, only the
intersection between the sheet and whatever is put in front of the laser is visible. The intersection
between a plane and some object is always some sort of line or curve in space. Given that the
object in question is solid this curve will lie on its surface and thus obtaining this curve we
obtain some 3D information about the surface. Consequently a laser scanner system extracts 3D
information about a surface by performing a 3D reconstruction of the intersection between
surface and the shet-of-light emitted by the laser. Performing this 3D reconstruction involves the
following few steps. First an image of the intersection is acquired by a digital camera. Figure 3.1
shows an image of such an intersection. Next the intersection is extracted from the image by the
use of digital image analysis techniques. The intersection curve would typically be represented
by a number of discrete points in 2D image coordinates.
 Figure 3.1: Picture of an object and the laser plane projected onto this object
yielding the red intersection curve seen on the object.

The final step is to convert these points from 2D to 3D. This is achieved by calculating a line of
sight from the camera and into the physical world corresponding to each of the points. Hereafter
the intersection between this line of sight and the laser plane is calculated. This constitutes the
3D reconstruction the object and laser intersection. However one single intersection only gives
us a thin slice of the objects surface, so consequently the intersection must be moved and the
process repeated until there are enough slices to compose a good representation of the object.
The following section will give a more thorough outline of the steps involved including setting
up and calibrating the system.
Objectives
The objective of this project is twofold. Firstly is the construction of a laser scanner
system including every thing from assembling the hardware to writhing the necessary
algorithms to analyze and process the acquired data. Secondly is the use of the laser beam.
While solving a crucial issue related to the physical setup, namely reducing the required
motion of the laser and camera relative to the object, the introduction of multiple laser lines
within the same image creates some very hard challenges for the software part. The aim is to
construct an algorithm capable of handling these challenges and to examine the advantages
and limitations of this technique.
Methodology
In this section two methods for solving the line segment correspondence problem have been
proposed. Both algorithms are able to solve the correspondence problem for a large amount of
objects with simple geometry. The single image based algorithm works best on low objects with
simple geometry while it becomes unstable for objects with steep vertical inclinations. The
sequence based algorithm is robust and can handle object with more complex geometry. It does
however need a long sequence of frames to solve the correspondence problem.

The line identification method presented gives a way of linking the observed lines to the
physical lines emitted by the laser.
Analysis of the acquired image
The acquired digital image contains the intersection curve projected onto the 2D image
plane of the camera. Assuming that the laser is the only significant light source the intersection
curve will consist of pixels which are brighter than background. The purpose of the image
analysis is to produce a mathematical representation of the curve based on the pixel values in the
digital image. This mathematical representation may just be a series of discrete point coordinates
but the curve could also be represented by a spline curve or something similar. If the signal to
noise ratio of the curve is strong, deciding which pixels belong to the curve can be done simply
by setting a threshold value. Otherwise some sort of enhancement technique must be performed
in order to increase the pixel values on the curve. Ideally the intersection curve is infinitely thin
but in reality it may be as wide as a millimeter or so. This raises another aspect of the image
analysis part – namely not only finding the curve within the image but also finding the middle of
the curve. How to approach this will be described later.

Converting 2D points to 3D points

The final objective of a laser scanning system is to obtain 3D information or in other

words simply spatial positions in the physical world. Therefore a coordinate system in which
these coordinates can be represented is needed. A natural choice is to use the camera as a
reference for this coordinate system. Here it’s assumed that the camera is modeled by the
pinhole camera model, that the camera’s center of projection is the center of the coordinate
system and that the z-axis coincide with the optical axis of the camera. Having defined this
coordinate system and assuming that the camera’s focal length is known we can now convert
any point in the image to a direction or line of sight that goes from the image plane through the
projection center and out into the physical world.
 Image
coordinate
Image
plane Cameracoordinate
y
system/centerof
projection
x
z
Imagecoordinate
system
Focal
length
Principle
point
Line of sight

Figure 3.2 shows an illustration of this.

Figure 3.2: Illustration of the relationship between the image coordinate

system within the image plane and the camera coordinate system. Also
notice how an image coordinate corresponds to at line of sight into the
physical world.

Once we have the line of sight corresponding to an image coordinate, this coordinate can be
converted into a 3D point by intersecting the line of sight with the sheet-of-light emitted by the
laser. This does however require that we have a mathematical description of this surface given in
the camera coordinate system.

Calibrating the camera

In order to obtain the focal length a camera calibration must be performed. However a camera
calibration provides much more information than the focal length alone. It also gives an estimate
of the principal point, which is the image coordinates of the point where the optical axis
intersects the image plane. Finally the camera calibration provides information about the radial
and possibly (depending on the calibration) the tangential distortion of the lens. This information
essentially describes how the camera and lens differs from the pinhole model. Utilizing this
information to correct for distortions introduced by lens yields a much more precise
reconstruction of the 3D point than else would have been possible.

Obtaining a mathematical description of the laser plane

In order to calculate the intersection point between the line of sight and the laser plane a
mathematical description of this plane is required. One way to go about this is to acquire a series
of images where a flat object is placed orthogonal to the optical axis and at a series of knows
distances to the camera.

Figure 3.3: Obtaining intersection curves at a known distance to the

camera in order to get at mathematical description of the laser plane.

At each distance we obtain the intersection curve in 2D, but since we know at which distance
each intersection occurred the 2D intersection curves can be converted to 3D curves directly.
Using these curves the angle and position of the laser plane can be estimated, thus yielding the
mathematical representation we sought.

Moving the intersection between object and light

A single intersection between the object and the laser plane only gives us 3D information
about a thin slice of the object’s surface. If we want more information, the intersection must be
moved
around on the surface. This requires moving either the laser or the object. Figure 3.4 show four
examples of this. Either one can be preferable depending on the given application. In a
production line where the objects moves on a conveyer belt then setup A is an obvious choice. If
the object in question is big or heavy and therefore impractical to move then setup B or C will be
preferable. Setup D is ideal for small portable scanners. It is also possible to combine two or
more movements in the same setup. The motivation for doing this is to increase the coverage
(this phenomenon is described in the following section).

Figure 3.4: Four different scanning setups – the camera is stationary in

all cases. (a) The laser is stationary and the objects moves to the left
 making the object and laser intersection move across the object to the
right. (b) The object is stationary and the laser moves to the right again
making the object and laser intersection move across the object to the
right. (c) The object is stationary and the laser rotates making the object
and laser intersection sweep across the object. This has a similar effect as
in the two previous examples but the angle between the optical axis of
the camera and the laser varies as the laser rotates. (d) The object rotates
while the laser is stationary. This makes the intersection curve rotate on
the objects surface.

Shadowing

In order for the laser triangulation to work the camera and laser must be reasonably spaced and
these therefore see the object from each there point of view. For objects with some vertical
variations some points on the object that are visible from the cameras point of view might not
from the lasers point of view or vice versa.

Laser Camera

Lineofsightfrom
camera
Laserline
Object
Intersection
point

Partoftheobjectishidden
fromthecamera

Figure 3.5: Illustration of a situation where a part of the object is hidden

from the laser. While the laser actually sweeps across this area no data is
obtained as the object a laser intersection is not visible from the cameras
point of view.
Figure 3.5 shows an illustration of a situation where a part of the object is hidden from the
camera. Even though the laser sweeps over this part of the object the camera never sees this and
thus no data from this area is recorded.

Laser Camera

Camerasfieldof
view
Laserline

Object
Intersectionpoint

Partoftheobjectisinshadow

Figure 3.6: Illustration of a situation where part of the object lie in

shadow relative to the lasers point of view. While this part of the object
is fully visible from the cameras point of view no data is obtained as the
intersection curve skips this part as the object is scanned.

Figure 3.6 shows an illustration of another situation where a part of the object lies in shadow
relative to the lasers point of view. Both situations result in the same thing: a part of object is not
scanned. Different objects cause different amount of shadowing and consequently the coverage
of the acquired data may differ from object to object. Some laser scanner systems move the
intersection curve on the object by both rotating and translating the object. Using a combination
of rotation and translation it is possible increase the coverage and possibly to get 100%
coverage. However it always possible to find objects that can cause problem ever using this
technique. Other systems simply use two or more cameras in an arrangement where the laser is
pointing orthogonal to the object. This approach also eliminates the problem for a great number
of objects but very concave shaped objects can still cause problems.
 The setup used in this project uses a single camera only and there is no possibility to rotate
the object. Therefore it’s not possible to obtain data from parts of the object that lie in
shadow. As a consequence this system is best suited for objects without large vertical
variations

Modelling of Scanner

The overall goal of this project is to create a system capable of scanning an object or small
landscape using a camera and a laser. This problem is basically a classical triangulation problem
– the camera sees a line drawn by the laser. The physical position of a point on the line can be
found by intersecting the laser line and the cameras line of sight to that particular point.

However the aim here is to investigate this problem with a special setup in mind, in order to
integrate the scanning part with an existing system that produces multispectral images of varies
objects and surfaces. Therefore this system is bound to the geometry of the existing system. The
laser and camera are both mounted on a horizontal bar, the camera pointing directly downwards
and the laser pointing on the area seen by the camera. The type of laser used produces 15
individual lines a few degrees apart.

As the bar is moved downwards the laser lines sweeps across the object.
 Bar
Laser Camera

Object/
Laser
Landscape
lines

Laser Bar
Camera

Object/
Laser
Landscape
lines

Figure 4.1: Illustration of the basic setup. Both the laser and the camera
are mounted on a horizontal bar. The camera points directly down while
the laser is mounted at an angle pointing on the area seen by the camera.
As the bar is moved vertically the intersection curves moves sideways
across the object.

In this way the intersection curves between the object and the laser planes covers the entire
object, which is therefore scanned by the laser.
 Choosing the setup parameters

The above illustration gives a general idea of the setup but there are a lot of specific details to
consider which put different constraints on the setup. For the intended purpose the camera and
laser will be hanging approximately half a meter above the ground. This is therefore one
constraint. At this height the lens is adjusted to focus on the ground. For this purpose a text
document was laid beneath the camera. Hereafter experiments with the camera was carried out
to see how much it could be moved from its initial height and still keep the text in focus. It
turned out that turning the aperture of the lens to the smallest possible setting, meaning allowing
the smallest possible amount of light which maximizes the focus range, yield a working range of
10 centimeters centered on the initial height. Hence this is another constraint – namely the
vertical working range of the bar. Fortunately this is consistent with the geometry of the existing
system. This leaves us with choosing a position for the laser. Again the setup dictates that the
laser is placed at approximately the same height as the camera. However the horizontal distance
to the camera as well as the angle of the laser can be more freely chosen. The starting point for
choosing these settings is the camera and its vertical working range. Recalling that the laser is
mounted on the same bar as the camera we know that the laser is bound to the same vertical
movement. The angle that we chose for the laser will govern how much intersection curves will
move as the bar is moved from the lowest position to the highest or vice versa. Actually each
intersection curve will travel at slightly different speeds as bar moves since they all have slightly
different angles of incident. So to ensure total coverage we must arrange the laser such that the
slowest traveling intersection curve will reach the starting position of the second slowest
intersection within the limitations of the working range. The slowest traveling intersection curve
is the one with the steepest incident angle, hence the left most line in the above illustration. A
certain amount of overlap is however desirable and therefore it has been chosen that the lines
should overlap three times – meaning that e.g. line one end at the position where line four starts.
 Highestpos ition Distancebetween
cameraandlaser

Verticalworkingrange

Lowestposition
Heightaboveground

Camera’sfieldofview.
Angleof incidentof the laserplane

Figure 4.2: The specific camera, lens and laser set a number of constrains
on the setup. These include the vertical working range, the height above
ground, the distance between the camera and laser and the incident angle
of the laser planes.

Figure 4.2 illustrates the parameters of the setup which must be carefully chosen in order to
ensure that the system works properly. Given this setup it’s not possible to utilize all the 15 laser
planes emitted by the laser. At its highest position the camera is only able to see six of the
intersection curves. As the bar is moved some of the lines move out of the camera’s field of
view and other move in. Within its working range the camera see a total of eight intersection
lines. Table 4.1 shows the chosen values of the setup parameters.
 Setup parameter Chosen value

Height above ground (lowest position) 350 mm

Vertical working range 100 mm

Distance between laser and camera 200 mm

Incident angle of the centre laser plane 85 degrees

Table 4.1: The chosen value of the setup parameters (approximate
values).

Assembling the setup

Figure 4.3 shows four photographs of the assembled setup. The laser and camera are mounted on
the horizontal bar which in turn is mounted on a reprostand. The elevation of the horizontal bar
is controlled by the long vertical threaded pipe section (the thin white metal rod next to the black
tower of the reprostand) which also supports the weight of the bar. In order to move the bar
vertically the threaded rod must be turned manually. Thus recording a sequence of a hundred
frames can be a long tedious process. The award for this hard work is that the distance traveled
by the bar between consecutive frames is very uniform.
 Figure 4.3: (top row) The assembled setup seen from two different
angles. A shell is placed on a cd-cover beneath the camera. (bottom row)
Close view of the mounted laser and camera respectively.

The entire setup has been build from material at hand from the image lab at IMM, DTU. Finding
and assembling the proper fittings and attachments was a bit of a challenge. Initially the there
were no rod controlling the elevation of the bar and data were recorded by lowering the bar by
hand while the camera were continuously shooting frames. However it showed impossible to
control the motion of the bar steadily enough and therefore this approach was abandoned. For
the threaded rod approach to work a nut had to be mounted on the sliding part of the reprostand.
The first attempt to attach it with two-part adhesive only held for a few days and then the nut fell
of. Finally the nut was attached by point welding and this solution has lasted so far.
3D SCANNED AND PRINTED.
 Conclusion
In this project a complete laser scanner system have been build from scratch. The
detection of lines and line segments is based on a combination of standard image analysis and
segmentation techniques or slight modifications of such. Two techniques for handling multiple
lines have been developed and tested. The single image based correspondence technique work
best for objects with a “simple” geometry and becomes unstable for objects with “complex”
geometry. The force of this technique is that it can work on very short image sequences. The
sequence based analysis is more robust and can handle more complex objects. It does however
require a long image sequence in order to solve the correspondence issues.

The mathematical model applied to describe the sheets-of-light generated by the laser provides a
much more precise reconstruction of 3D points than the one based on approximating the surfaces
by flat planes. This along with the system calibration as a whole makes it possible to assemble
the reconstructed points from different lines into a combined surface. Naturally there is still
room for improvements. Modifying the model for the laser surfaces in order to obtain a better
alignment between 3D points originating from different lines would improve the overall
performance of the system.

In conclusion the main objectives of this project, namely building a laser scanner and make it
utilize a multibeam laser, have been achieved. The generated digital model looks very
convincing and resembles the scanned objects in great detail.