Ans.

Se111i-conducior :
< i .
n sent -condul.1or is a solid suhsla m:c whose C'lcctnc<1 I nm d U('hv1h
..
tics hl·1"'ccn the very high conduc·tivity of ml'fals and vc ry. low <:onduc1ivit ~,
of in$ulators . The o utennost electrons an: neither ~igbtly bound to the atom
as in the insulator nor loo~cly 1x·,und to the atom .as in the conductor 1n
thi~ subs.ta n<--e., J'he se,m-conduc tors are of two types :
' <
(i) lntrin.~k Senti-{·onduc tor and -
(ii) Extrinsic Senti-conduc tor.
lnlrin.uc Semi-conductors : A sr mi ,·ondut·tor which · is a purr
~ e lcn1eot (pure gcnncniun1 or silkon) is <:ailed inJrinsic semi-cond11 1- : tnr;,,.. ·

Electron Voterce bond

II

/ 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0

0
Atom

0
0

fl g (2. l)
The re a re four vak nce d e<:tro n, in the outcnnost o rhit of"" ato m
of (ic nnanium (or sil kon). · The four V'i lcnc-c-e k ctron of each atom of
gc ru12niu n, a rc sha red wi th nearest fo ur vak ncc c kt:tro n~ of a no the r atom
 itnd fo nn s a co va le nt bo
nd . Th e fre e eJ ec tro m are
ze ro fo r co nd uc tio n du not av ail ab le at ahso lu tt
e to th is co nf ig ur ati on
be ha ve s as an · in su lat . He nc e the se m i-co nd u
or at th is tem pe ra tu re cto r
eJ et tro n · in cr ea se s wi th . Th e ki ne tic energy of the
ris e in tem pe ra tu re . W
to it, so m e va le nc e -b on he n be at en ergy is sup pli
ds br ea k up an d ele ctr ed
ra nd om ly . W he n an el on s be co m e free to mo ve
ec tro n lea ve s th e va le
nc e bo nd , an empty sp
cr ea te d. Th is em pt y is ri ce is
ca lle d hole. The ho le is
ho le an d el ec tro n take . pa po sit iv ely ch arg ed. & th
tbe
rt in co nd uc tio n.
V Extrinsic semi-condu
ctor : When a few am ou
ar se ni c or in di um ) is m nt of impur1t y (c .g~
ixed with pure germanium
co nd uc tiv ity of re su (or sil ico n) the electr ical
lti ng material appreciab
n1a ter ia I is ca lle d extrins
ly increases and thi s ne
w '
ic semi-conductor.
~
0
o Ge o

0
Doner atom Excess E\ ectrcn Ho\o

0
0
0
/ .. 0 0 0 1
.._,___ _ _--r:,r,.
0 C, @ 0 0 0 0 (,e 0 o Ge J-_:o:,___0_
4
___--..___,,,
O G~ O
0 0 0 C
0 0

0 0

0 Ge 0 o' 1e O
.0 0

Fi ,. (2.2)
W he n the i!p ur ity at om Fig. (2-~) ·
is pe nt av al en t, th e fo ur
it a n~ ~h ar ed wi th fo ur va le nc e e~ cr tro ns o~
ne ar es t valence el ec tro
ns of th e gem1emum ato
n~
a nd fo rm ed a <.:o va le nt
bond and t her e 1s · e remaining dcctron. Th is~
on
rcma inj ng cl eC'tro n is loos •
ely bo un d to t he 1mpun·ty atom Wbrn heal rn ngy
is s up phc·d to it, thi s . · . .
Jc m ai ru ng ..
el ec tro n is t enh fre e to move ms1dc the
.
t·rys ta l and se rve s as .
co nd uc tio n. el ec tro n. Th' . urity ato m is ca lk.d
.
do nu r at om bct:a use on e 1s i_m~ _ . _ - - --
el ec . d' b . im
tro n 1s do na te b pu
Y ~ c _ _ _ ,t ato n!
. . . -m.-- Th e
sc nu -c ondu cto r_w 11h _do 110r..J-.~ - -.-- . -- - - - d
nl PUrJty 1s kn ow n as on ty'ne se,m-conduc-
-
-
tor. A.;, the c ha rg e ca"rri c rs - -- or _ r_ - - --
arc ele ctr on s, wh ·. -- · Jy ch ar ged, hen<'t'
ic h ar e ne ga uv e
-the sem i -co nduc to r is also na me d
as n-type semi-condutor.
 Whe n the impu rily alom is 1rivaknt. tht· thrct' v<1krwe ele-et
fo m-, 0 1
it arc share d with three ncan:st valen ce clcc lron" o f germ
aniu m al onL~ ~nd
fom1ed a covalent bond and there is btl'k of one c kctro n
to com plete tf1e
cova lent bond . Whr n llw impu rit y atom ha s al·ce ptc_d
0!1~ c Jcct ron fro ~~
neig bour ing gl·rtna nium ahHn , a _t~ ,lc_ is l·rca ll'd_i.!:! thit~
atom . Whe n hea t
ener gy is supplit~d to it. hok s move t rom on•· atom to anot
he r atom insid e
the cryst al. fh..!_sJn~purity atom is raile d acce ptor atom _he(·a
usc one_elec_1ro~_
- - - - -
is arcc ptcd by l',H:h impu rit y iltom . The semi -cond
uctor wilb accept<,r
impu rity is calle d acce ptor type semi-conductor. A c, the
cha rge carri ers are
bole s, whic h arc posi tivdy <.' hargc d, bcn(· c the se mi -con
duct or is al~o name d
as p-type semi-cond11ctor.

p-n-Junctaon diod e : ~
.
. .
.~ Whe n n-typ e and p-typ c scmi .:.cond ucto rs arc joine d , a
spec ial devic e
is obta ind whic h has the chara cteri stics of therm ionic diod e.
This devi ce is
calle d semi -con dicto r diode. Whe n (p - n) junc tion is
made , the e!ect rons

--- + + + ++
+ + ·+ + +
-n- - + + +p+
+
-+ + + ++
--- --+ - + + -t +
Fig. (2.4 )

diffu se from n-typ c t.o p-type and boles diffuse from

p-type to n-t ypc over
the junc tion. Whe n electrons from n-typ e diffusc over the
_junct ion into
p-type) a +ve rba rgc is fornwd on the n-sid c of the junc tion and
- ve c harges
is built on the p-si( k of lhc junc tion. The - ve t'hargt'S on
the p-sid e repe l,
the dectrons to c ross from n-typc to p-typ c. and +vr c har~
rs o n the n -s idr
repel s tbc ho ks to c ro~s from p--ty pe ton -ty pe . Hcrw e
a pot(' lltial ditTerenc- r
is c reate d across the junc tion . This pnll' ntial difk rcnc
e is know n a~
harrier-potenJial. J hc pottn l ia l whic h is used tn rem ovt' the
ha rrfrr -pott·n-
tial is know n as /orw urd- hius and the pott'ntinl w hich
hl'lps the barrier
pote ntial is known as reverse-bi,is.
.,.;'
--.) Ekc.·I rt HIil '~

1- 7-±
1-.
r·-++
-r t
I I
1 I -i -
-i. -
,, I
I
I •
_:r_
.L
I I f I
I 1~ + ++ +
P+ ++ p + +- +
+ ++ ++ +

·t
./
I
'7

' _~ Fig. (1.7)

r(lft
~
{fl~ctified
V01tage) ·
R3 ; V . . .
.~~l-. .
~'l:

r_:JI-) C Supplying
. voltaoo
H..- . ( .! -1 )
 .'),_mi -( :.c111ducto r and Tran~:iqor ""l 1

hg ( 2.4:i )

V 1 ·-~ ..
l __ \
__ - --
'...__ .,_'
. \
\__

Fig. (~ .%)
Forw ard him, : If 1hc · +vc h..•.rminal of lhl· halkr v is co1111 cch'd
lu
µ -type and -ve tnmi1rnl to n-type, •.this · co1trw <. ·1i11•1 1, ~.aid lo
he..· undrr
fol'\Vard-hias. 1f this connc <·tion is fonnn l , thl' h<1rr icr:-poll·111i I

al acro~ s the
:iunct ion is decre ased and the curren t is flowi ng from p-lyp
l' _ro 11-typc.
Reve rse hias : Whl'n +vc t_t·nuinal of tltt· hi1t1cry is l'onncctt·d to n-typt
.·
and - vc lcnni nal to p -typc, this l·onnt-ction is said lo he under
revers e bias. ht
this ,:onnc ction h_o ks arc <tllnu-ll~d lowards -vt· 11oll'nlial and electr ons
Iowa $
+ve 1£'nni nal. Hae holh dcl'lr ons and hol,·s an· displa n·d. from
the junction.
Henc e torwa rd <.·u rrcnl llowing across till' .ium:lion is ·zno.

Henc e if altcm atin~ vo ltagl~ is applied on rhis sys1t·111. wt· gl'l nTlifi
l:d
voltag l·. Thus (p - 11) ju11<"lion diP(k is u,nl as rrclil irr.

Q. 2. Oht,ain au ~x1u"l",, io11 for tlJl• (h•nsit)' of' t°lt"ctruns in the ...-•m
conduction- bund in int.-insic: Sl' nti•t·o ndut·tcws and \ how that )•t"nu
i-lt"vel
lie.-~ in the midd ll· of th t.• t> 1tt.·rJzy ~ap. . [Mith. 91(11))
' "'· u ~nsi! v ,r ,,, ,,l tr:,n , in llw \'C, O(lt a ttll(I h :m ci in iAtrin
sic
s~mi •(.·u p l uctur s; ·1lit· 1wr:: Y h., nJ d, ;11~r ;i111 nt: i111ri1 1\i,· '-,1·111i -l·ont
1
htdor al
U°K i-.. ·,t,nw11 in ll w li; •. ( : Hi ). fh 11 · \\ 1' r, ·p 11 ~.,·nt 1hr n1ng y oflht · VHlcn
cc
ha nd hy f:v 11nd tb :1 1 ,) 1 ~·onJu c l mn !),,,, , 1 ,·.
T hv ;-; , p:11ation ht·twt·cn
1 , .

the t\vo ha nds is n- 1 ·v nlcd hy for h1dd1·11 ~•:1p ,..,·~ At O"K. no

1 1
[
condu l·tion
22 Electronics

is possible but whc n the Energy in ·the condu-

tempcntture is inrrcasn i. ·the ction band

electrons arc thrrmall ~ ex · - - -- - - - -Ee

cill'd from vnlcnn.· to cnndu c-
tion hand . . . -
r
Eg
Let Z he thr poss ihk
t:.nergy gap__ _ ----- ---E F
stat<.·s pn unit \'Olllllll' of t·arb Fermi level
hJt nd . The dcm, ii y of rlc r t n.ms
in cundurli on band and vak ncr 'Ti E
I V
Energy in the Vale-
rurnd al h.'mpcraturc Jilkrcnt
nce band
t n,m 1cn I arc gin·n by
z
... ( 1)
'

and
z
.. .(2)
"" :-::
,y :·\ - ·f , l " T·+ l
[ ' \ I.

It is ckar lbat for g~p widths of the order of sevcrnl electron volts,
~1..ic11c-ally all electrons 1n conduction band originate from the valence band
tHld we may ignore the presence of other bands below that of valence
};>and. ~
Henn~ we may write
nc + llv = l ... (3)
Using equatiuus (1) a11d (2) in equation l3), we get
- z z
/ 'c - t·t-1~1' + l
+ - -- ~--
eEv - Erl kT + l
=z

= et ·(· + F·\' - -)£~,.-l k1' f.., - c· l kT

+ l'c:,c·( . _ r.,_ , ~,.7· + I
..-
+e V F
eF-r . + F, v ~ -,,·..,,,'k·1· ;: I
Taking log of both -.: idl" .,, we gC" l

l .· logt' l' -= Oj
 Ep • Ec +E v
2 ... (4)
Hc nct· the Fermi lcvfl is loc ~tcd exllc tl y h11
lf way betw ee n the val ence
and nrn duc tion h~nds. Al so the pos
itio n of Ferm i leve l is ind epe ndent of
tcm pl'ra I u n·.

It W C' ass um e (Er - EF) > a fe w kT then we

ca n neg le ct ' J' in the
denom i nat o r of equ atio n ( 1) and w
e m11 y wri t <;

nc- = .
z
e(l~c - F.,,-)l kl" .. .(5)

Usi ng equation (4) in equation (5), we get

l
nc• = - -- - ---
/Ee - (Er + Ev) /2} / kT

n C -_ ·z e- (l~·c. - Ev)l 2kT

nc -_ l022 e -E/ 2kT . [ ·: n
Z = 1o-- per cm 3 ) .. .(6)

...,...wh e re Ee - Ev = Eg = width of the forbidden gap. This

gives the den s i. tv
of ele ctrons in the conduction band. Tak
ing log of bot·h. sides of equatinn
(6 ), we get

0 log nc,
-
= log 10
22 Eg 1
- - --
2K T
If.w e plot a grnph between
... t
{ng nr • and -1 , we get strnag
. h
t
-· T
lognc

li ne hav ing '-l lopc -

£~
K · Hence
2
the de1L~ it y of dcc t ro ns in lht
--1-- - - -·
co ndu ct io11 ha nd 1nc rl't1 Sl'S with - -➔
T
rist: in tcrnpc·ra.turc.
fi~ ( . )
t.Q.y ·,.j )htai n un exp ress ion for th~ cur ren t "'.h 2 11
en p-11 jun ctio n ls
f'or w,~ ~ s and rl!ve rs~d hlu,-.
. .
An-.. Flow of c urre nt a<: roH p-n jun ctio
n : Wli r n the p-n junction
is i n equ ilib riu m the intc,rutl po~ntin
l h.i 1rier V0 exi sts bet ~ee n the n and
 Ekctronil's

• .. (2 12a) Thl' ('Urrcnt / 1, rl'sulling from the cl<·(·tron

p-typc.s 11s-sbow n m 11µ · · . .
. . . f h .·,,l. ., Cl}Ual lo tll<' rum:nt / J whKh an ~l'S from the
thOus,nn n1 m I l' /H-lu 1,, -

ch.-c-tron~ leaving /J-sidr .

IP In
Conducfion CB C3
~ Jv~ r, - ----,.1~ e(Vo- v) ~ e(v0 .. v ;
i ~ 1, I I
Fermi
\
l FL '
II
/
J-r-.----
1
.1..eV FL
I I
: -1 I I
---~--7---
levelI I FL
-------~I I
.~- I
----,,......._
I .
F~
I I I '1B ~ ---
'/~:c:_:d~c: :1 ~
l VB ~......! ___ 1
ban I I t VS
p I n
VB p I
P , H
i '
n
I
~
I
n ~
BW
Barf'lier BW
width
Fig. (2 .12) (a) No bias (b) Forward bias (r) lh·vcrsc hi.is
In lig. (2.12h) p-type is connected to tht· positive terminal of the
h.1 ttery ano ,n-typc is connected to#the negative tami11al. The energy of the
:. kcuons inn-type region increases by an amount eV, where Vis the voltage r
applied by the battery. The Fermi level risrs hy c Vas shown in lig (2.12h).
The potential barrier is reduced to c(V0 - V) dm: to tlu· increase ·in energy
Ill n-typc.

•rtic h,trricr width is

als.o rl'duccd. Now the
(
dt;(·trons nossing the '>
t junction fmm n-sidc wilr"
now fan- low polrnlial
harrier. I knn- thrv can
l'asily cross thr junl'lion.
BtTause the dedrons i11
voltage -+Foflwar,d
voltage {V) n-sidc arl' in 111ajoritv, thl·
~
Cl)~
('UH\'nt anos.\ 1hr j um·11,,11
II) r:::.:
c.. ~
im:rtases . T he variatit1n pf
~t
QJ ~
~ l.) furwd n.J rurrrnl (/) with
forn,ar<l vollabl' ( \I) i:;
Fi g. (2. 13)
shown III t ig. t~ - U ).'
 ~r n~i-( ·111tthH tor c:t 11<..I Tr;1n-.,,,or

In rig . (2. t2q . n-typl' 1-. ron ncr t~d '"

1hr JHis if1v,· tcm1inal of tbr
battery and p-type is connc< ·tnJ tn
nrg itt iw tnm ina l. The enn gy of lbl·
electrons in ~-s ide Ul'<. 'fl•asr~ hy an
itrununt eV. The F,·m1, kv d lo\\-crs
an am oun t eV as sho wn in Ii !! (2. bv
I 2r) . No w th,· harrier h1.· ight bt-, om
e(Vo + V). Tht· oor rin wid th is also c-~
im·rl'tt \
r<.I . H<.· m-c the rlcctrons crossing
toc jun clio n from n-si<lr will nnw fan~ gn-,1tcr pot
ential barrirr. Hcn<.-c they
can ~t easily cro ss the junt·tion. Tirn
s the rur rrn t is very mu ch rrduccd
variation of fCVl'f'S(' (.'Urrcnt (f) with . The
reverse voltage is shown in fig.
(2.13).
The l:Urrent fro m p-n ·gio n to n-rcgio
n is proportional to the electron
t·onr(·ntrnti0n np in th<.· p-r q;io n sn
that
,.;
, /-, = - CI n
- /J .. .( 1)
wb t·n· C 1 is con sta nt dcpl'nding upo
n the junction area and propcrtir-s of
scm i -co ndu nor . the minus sign
indic~tc.s the negative charge on
ekc trn n. The current 1 is imk prn dcn the
2 t of applied potenlial V.
The current / , from n-side to p-side
1 is proportional to the number
of ckr tro ns in the n-rcgion. Hence

/1 =- C l n(, e - e (\'0 - V) / kT ... (2)

wh ere no = con t·en trdt ion
of ckc tro ns in the n-region. Wh
en the app lied
polrntial is zer o, tht·n /i = 12 and
from equation"' (1) and (2), we get

= n0 e \ '.-> ·1,;r
-<'
n ... (3)
r
Th1.· rl's ulta nt cu rrr nt is fiw n by
/,~ = I 2 - I I
. \' ·u-
= - C 1 n() (.-, l}' - l, -C 1 not,-~ (Vu - ~')/1.:T}

:c CI "11 <, -, · \'o- ff + Cl nn t , - c•\ "of l,;f £:,e\ " l,;T

= C nu' ;•· \ .c: 'H (e c \' 1T
-
l)
I

I II :: C \ ,,f> ( l '
.-~-u -
I)

Si mil ar l' , pn· ,-.. uHI '- •·rn 1-..· ,.k rived fnr I hr pt1sit l\ c n Hfl 'lll ra rric r,
\ !/ l)
I11 = C ~ I',, k - . .. (5)
_ _ .
. t ht· hn It:· "-'tl 11ce
\, tw n.: />,, ,, - nt ,
r,1,·
io
,1 ,· n thl' n-rtl•ion anJ C' ,~ ror ili.lil nt. Add
o ing
-
cq ui4ti ,\n, (~) an<l ,1 _" '). \ H' \!
_•cl thl' tn 1., I <.'Urrcn t
 Ektlronk~

,. , , ..,,,,
,.\'/ U 1)1
I • fC 1 ffp (, ,r v, 41 I) t , ~.? /1n (,'

I • (C1 "r ➔ C'i ,,,.) (,~,· \'•kl ~ t )

r' , , H' . . .(7)
I • In ( r• • 1)
whn,· I (I - t ' 1 n/' +- c \• llff "" s,-1urnlio11 r urrt·nl. '
·'f'tr ·t1u111ion lkr,· V is 1os,-
1
llw <'q1u1tt,,n ( 7) is knc,wn "~ 1Iw rt'l' 1 1' 1 ·
'
tivr fnr fol'\\ IH\ f hill!'- i.nd nr!tntiw for n•w rsc- hi1t 'i .
( 'a.w• (I ) l\ 'hcn rl,c fonnml hias ,., apf)li<·d,
~

. i·T . ,, V
th<.· n \ 1 >> - - t,c . - >> I
C kT
e \ ·'ff
H<:' nr t" f >>
TlHJ$ cquaaion ( 7) lll:conu.·s
I • 1n eC l'l kt ... (8)

whic h shows 1ba1 in forward hia~. cur~l·nt inncnscs l'Xpom·ntially as shown

in fi!!, . l~- 11 )
Case (2) Wh en tJ f'f.!verse lJias is applied,
- kT
-V << -
e
-eV
kT <<
- t' \ '/ kr I
l' <<
Tlt l' t <JUil 1ion (7) hero mes
I = - 1,,
whjd1 -,, hnv. ~ th al currl'11l in n·wrsc hias n·111ai11s l'1111s1;1111 at / , lh r
11
,a 1uri11 iu n c: um.·111 , until ll~t' ju11i·tio11 hn·11k" d11\Vll a~ ,hown in li g. (J . 11 ).

~~ . Ohtain m1 ~xpr~ssion for tlw l'On<iut"tivity of un intrin~k

mi-«.: onductot1t and t'Xlrinsic srmi-t·on,hu:tors.
Ans. ( ~ondut:tivily of ~~mi-tom!u,·tors :
(a) /ntrim;ic Semi-,.:ondud,,r1· : 'Nllt'n an ·l'lr{·tro, · . · ·
I IS l'Xntn1 trom
\di hand lo" " t: mpt y hand , lhc kvcJ O<TUl>l\' 0 hy ttu: el· .1 · . _.
. t < roR IS 1tttl V ti C it llf
o 1lw1 Pthcr elcl·trott, -1u1 y 1uovt~ 11110 it. In 1111 ,,,1 · ., . ..
111 ICu C1C<' l,FJ(' Itl' lt.J jt
 - · ·" • "11\. I I I ii II S I SI Of
27
in Ilic op po sih: dir cclio11 lo 1ha
111 0\' l'S
1
in whid1 a1~ ele ctr on wo uld mo
vl' nnd
so appcttrs lo havt· a positiv r dia CO NDUCTION
rgr . BAND
II hd ,a vrs likt· a po siti vl· ly drn
r~c <.J
1rnrtit:k ctnd ntl h._·d ho le.
FORB IDDEN
Le I n ,, = l·on d ul'l ivi1 y GA P
<luc t, 1
l'lc ctr ons in the nm du cti on b<tn<l
.
n = nu mb er of clct·trons pe r
unit vo lume .
Th e <:urrl'nt de nsity Fig . (2. 14)

1 = nev = a,, E
(
wh ere E = Electric intc nsit y
of applied field.
or. ne v
l JII =
E
or,
: .. (1)
V
wh ere ~t,, =E = mohilily of ctn ele ctr on =
velocity per unit elect ric
field
Si milarly 111 the valence h;i nd let
p = nu mh er of hol es per unit .vo
lum e.
u,., = <.ondul'li vilv due lo ho ks

Then
. ' .( 2)
\vh ne ~ti' = rno hili t y or holes
l\d d in ~ .cq uat ion (I) and (2 ). \ Vl ' ~ct the total l·o ndu r ti vi lv

Fo r inlri 11c.; ic :--c rni -co n< lul' lor

n = 1> -= n I· ( :-ia .v)

Then
(h ) 1~·xtr ins ic .w:m i-c om luc
tors : T ht· c·xp n:ssion for cur rc
in n1 c.k nsi t,
fl it· l a~\. of an extrinsic se, ni-con du
cto r is
 2X

1 = (n c µ, , +JJ '-'~ 41,)t

whcrr· 1:.· = Applit·d C'kl'lrit· fil'ld .

. ·o11 d U( 1 ', "' ) lh ' l"(l ftll · :,.
If i1 i~ n -1)pc s , · 111H ' nr,
th l . , ·,11111111
... •
n

, ,k dcn-, iti, ·, 111 thf n 1~ Jl('

wbt"rc n 11 anJ l'n lknoh.' lhl'. t·krlro11 a nd 11
scm1 -(·ondul·to r.
II ii i" p -typc se1ilinrnd uctor, lht·n

whnt' "r and ,,,, rqncscnr the dn'lrnn • ~,,,,t t,c,I•, · lti- 11 ,itirs . in the p - 1\' JH'

sem , C- 1111lhu:lor. The con<lm·1ivi1 v , , i i , 1·•1 bv

'J =
L

or • 1 ',, -= dn,, µ t: + Pn ~,,,) I or n-typt·.

3nd I l/ ' :..:: ~

1
(np µt' T ~)(> µ~ for p-typ~ :
,it i~ tran~i~tor '! l>i~t:u~s its workin~.

[Aw-a MI. 7M; l(aj~than . KOl

An,. Tnan,ht or: Transistor is scmi-con dunor .d~vin~ whil-h hac;. 1he-
ch21 rach'ri stic, ol ttwnnioni c triode . .It is prq1arn.t in tv-o forms :
(i) p-n-p lrar~istor.
(ii) n -p ·ll transist~,r.
(i) p-n-p-tra nsistor :

Base C

0- n p C B

B
Emirter Collecfo r
(a)
(b)
 ,,, 11 11 -'- _,,11uuv1o r and T ransi-.tnr
29
Ttit•n· is R thin layl 'r of n-tyf>l' st·mi -l·o1 1du
dor hctw rt· n two f' · Jypt·
sl·mi -condU<:tors in this tran sisto r. The mid
dle la yn is call ed ht1 .1il! i4rtd the·
!l'fl and righ t nf it 1s l'alle<l emi lfrr and coll
ector rcspc'<'li \·rl\
. '

,,.'
P· n p ..... .

+-~ - ..
- -~ -
!+
_J
Fi~ (.~ I :,,
l'l tl' pus iti\l ' 1111(t·111ial 1s ..tppljcd 111 the
. 1·111ittrr '. \ lii k llw 11 «• 1• 1• 1v1·
l'"lc 11i1.t l : , .appli,.:d 1,1 ! hl' l ·nlk dor
with r L':-. jhTI 111 h;isc . TI H ,. i1 1, · r 1, .. , l.
!U:H 11 ,1 11 ,, <·r~ , t111dcr t,,rw ard hi;1s and
has c-n ilkc t or _j11 ~H·lio n \ \ 1 :ri.. ,. ond1 r .
rn c r, t· '1: .1,. Thl' ~,·n1h(ll of lhl' lr.tll'.
'>i:-.IPr i:-. sho,,11 in lig. (2 15b) 111 ,,h wh
1!11: di rc .·t iou or currl'nt is rrpn -scn trd h~· th,· dirc ctin n ,if .arr ow.
(ii ) 11-p-11 t.-an~i~tor· :

C
'Ba se .
l
E' C
-
V n p n -0 B

t :,''"•If e,
~
· B '
...,. I t ,..
Co//e cfo r
,
(a)
• 1 ·,'..· \: I ,
T li•.· t1. i-. ,1 tlir il l.t)i. :r u l 11 - l~l'l ' , l · 111 1 l' , 1 11d 11 v1 11r hl'!W t' l 'tl 1w ,, n lvp\ :
, v 11 11 1,.P 1tdu1 111 r, i11 (111-.; tra1 t-.; 1s l or. T hr 111 idd k l.tn· r is l·all nl "'"' ' ' ;.in d It ft

_
_ ;7
;i nd m . .•ht · ,:· it is call ed t111i tlt.'r :111d l.·ollt
:t.:fo r .

ll_~ - p n

I-L
L __ _i_ l
I
I

- L
I -I
+ I
I
_ ___L_ -____!
 Electrnnirs
30
. .. . I , ·11, and positive potential
The nc~a1iw pntenl 1a I 1s apphcd to I 1c t Ill I l r . . .
~ . . . h· . , Tl1c r111i1tcr-ha~c 1unct1on
is applit·d to thl' rnlkrtor with respect tn ast: • · •
. d . I ·1 1 II, ·t lr 1·l111• ·11·011 works under reverse
works undt'r torwar h1as w 11 r lasr -nl n < . ~ • .
bias. The svmhol pf transisf(lf is shown in fig. (2.17h) in wliirh !hf direction
. .
0f r'urrent is rrprl'srntrcJ hy tlw dircdion of ctrrow.
\\forking of' p-n-p transistor :
Tht' ~mttll fm,.vllrd bias is applied 10 1hc .c111ittrr-hasr jurn:tion while:
largt' rt'Vl'~l' hias is applird thr hasc -rolkctor .iunrl ion. Thl' c 111 irtc r-h<1 se
junction otkrs lnw rt·sistance, hl'CallSl' ii is forward hiasrd . HcmT ii s111all
\'a lut' of \ ·£ is rt·qu i rrd. Siner lhl' hasc-rolkrtor ju net ion 1s rcvr ~r biJsrd.
sn a large ,·ahw nt' \'c is requirt·d.
Undrr forward bias the holes <;f emitter move towards hasc amJ thr
rknrnns in tht.· hast· mow towards the l'lllittn. Bccausr the base is vnv
thin S(l most of thl' holl's coming from emitter pass onto the colkcl<;r
without rnmhining the dcrtrons in thr base. The kw of the hoks co111hi11cd
the t' krtrons in thl' hase and formed the base-current l1i.

p n p
E ~ o-+0-+ +4 ~ ~ ~ C Ic
o-+0--. 0.--. +-4 ~ ~
o-+~0-+.~ ~ ~ 0--.
+ Ie
VE-1Forward bias
B ·./
(

Revef'se j
- -
Ibi bias
o - Hole \
...,,,._
• -Elect,,on
Fi~. t2 .19)
Tiu: smtt II current leaving the hasc-lnminal 'B. is .. .
1,. and the large rnrrent kaving' thr . II" : ttlll u hase-currn,t
<..

.,. Lo t t tor tr rn) ma I C 1s . ca Iled rhc

c-,,,
-
1cc1or-,·u,-n:nt / l . Aftn combining / . . d /
. , h an ~- l.'.ntn tht.· rmilln tn111inal
E and co nst1tull' the l' tllitlt' r-t·um·nt / Cll ..,t f Iy
1' '

IC = Ii,+(..
Working of n-p•n transistor :
The sma II forward hias· is• ainl'
I- 1t•.u, to the t·mitll' 1 . . . .
large re.verse bias is applied lo has , . . II . . . r- MM' JUlll' l1on whik
· · · l: ( . O r<.tor JlllH'IIO , ~, ·
Jllnctton ofkrs low rL·sistanec ' hccau . ~ .1 . . t· · '.'- le l'lllllln-hasc
( sc • is orwud •~ulllSl'
1 . d · Thus the s mall
 __ .... '- " 11u u~ ttJr a no I rans1s tor
31
va lue of VE is required. Sin ce
lht· bas e -co lle cto r jun cti
on is reverse biased ,
hence a ·Jargc value of Ve is
rcquirr·d .
n p n
le E

B
VE+ For ward Revef1se
-=- Ve
bias ·-
bias
Fi ~. ( 2.2( I )
/ l ;nd n l«1n,artl hiii~ the ck ctr
ow , or rm illr r mo w to ward."
tkc lw k ~ in the hii sr mo vr tow h<1 sc an<l
ard s em ittr r. As 1hr ha \c i~
llw cllT lru ns nu nin g from thin lii ytr, he nce
l'm ,. ttcr pa~s on to the col
vu m hinin~ tht· ho les in the lcr t o r wi tho ut
hiiSl'. Th r frw of the ck rtr
t he hn h-~ of tht· has c and ·co on s co mh ine wi th
nst itu te the httS l' cur ren t lb.
The sm all cu rre nt
ka \ in~ the has.t· tcn nin al B
i~ ral kd hase-current, and the
k a \i11g the t·o)lc(.'tor ter mi nal lar ge cu rre nt
C is cal led collector current
' le
Th c~c t_\\·o current~ aft er llll
'l'ling k:-tvt· thr em itte r-t erm
nin ~t itu tr till' rm itt n-c urr cnt ina l £ and
/ .. Ck<1rlv·
( .
• - /<-. = lh + ( ~
•
~ w the cir cu it diai.:ram
and explain the me th od of
o htai ni n~ tht' chanu·tt:'rislk
s of" p-11-p transi~tor in co mm
t:o mm on hast:' urnan~t."mt:'n on em itt er an d
t.
E>.pl 4ain <t an d f, of transistor. Find out tht:' l"l'hltion hetwt>t-n
tbt'm .
An ~. p-n •p tra ns ist or in t"omm lKanpur. MI]
on t'll lit kr co nti ~u na tio n
ef mA
C
I
_r - Ib
I

, \ -. /
7£ t

tI
[
l·i,_ · I • _, I l
 32 E kctro nks

~ . . . ,. /J trtt nsist or. in

Th c c1n·u1 1 for ohtai ning the t·har1 1ctl·n stKS o a p-n- ·
tcrn11nt1 I
co mmo n cnutl · l'r confi gura tion is show n in fi g. ( 2.2 1). Th.c neg 'ittivc

I
I
I of tile· h attcry B 1·s t·on11
1
· lT1t.· d ro the b.1sc an<J pos11 · h.:fll
· 1vc . 1111' '·1I is· c nnnc. Tl l' O

to th c emiH er. Thl' h:-tM' -l<H' mittc r vnlta gc v,) is rr;1<l

I hy voltn wt<"r, :il1<l fhc
irrnl of 1h (' t,;iltn v
hasc curn· nt 11, hy mino •rtmm etl·r ~tA . Thr nl·gar ivc ter111
1
tt•d lo tbc colle ctor wi1ik po~ir i ve tn111 inal i~ (·onm·c tt· J (1
8 2 lS C? ntH:c
d
ii 1111l hn v n it Jill' In ""
nn irtn. Th~ l'Olll T lor- l(H.~111j lier volta ge V, is rca<l h:V
ltw ('Olll' c tor n1rn' tll ( . h~· rt 111illi -it11111wrrr mA .

Tht•r e llre .four l'i1rit 1hfr,· : Br1sr v,dla gc Vh and ha . ., t·- n trrl' lll 11, 1<, r

thl' input c irr uit , an<l ,·olltT lnr voltit gt· \/, ~11d colkd
11r c urren t '1 l 11 r ! tw )

o utp u t ci rn1ti
it"- th<' !iii , t ·
Inpu t c lwruc ll"ri.,·tic~ :The t~asc curre nt /h is 111ca~un-<l
\ nlt,ti.:: c \ 'h i:-- \ '<lfil·tl for it (.'011-..t<tnl value
or colle ctor v<. Thu- ..'" i~ plnll l·<l

J".-i -t luncli1111 ol \/;, . Th is g1v-t·~ the

input charn l'lNi~ tic curve . Two curve:-.

I ctrt' dri:iW ll Ill rig. (2.22) for \'c = 0

itnd Ve = ·20 volt.

It is seen thctt the ht1sc curn· nt innc ascs non-l im·<1 rly
with 111crl'a sc

1 JI IM-..c ·\ ·ollitg l'.

lHl'<l as the
Outp ut clwra clt.:r istics : The col lc<..·tor cu ITl'lll ( is llll'.tS
\/(. is v<1ricd. for a const ant value ' nf tht.· bast.· curn.· nt
lh.
n •Jlect or voltt1ge
ln thi s 111 ,u111cr, <1 famity ol curve s is ·ohta innJ as sh1,\\1t ,n tis. (2.23 ).

Ve =O
j Ve= 20 Vol t

l 1h'. ( 2.~.!. ) lnpur 1. h:.1 .1 1. I\ r1 , 11, ·-..

111\ · , 11lkl.'lo r
It is s<:l'n lrom the c urve s thal for vn y , ,11all vah,l · (II\ . (

i1bout ti.:, voll l '- ;I\ !

~urrc nl (. vari1..: ·, rt1pi<..IJ y wilh \I( . But tor va hH ·~ of'\<
/c is decid ed afmo st entirl 'I~ hy 11,, and is al1110 :--.1 i11<..h-pt·11d c 111 of VL.
 ~
-E

i
- - - . • Ve (Volt)
t,'i 1! I 2.23)
OutJ>Ul-illJ,ul characteri.,·tic:s : Thl' n,lkl'lor ( i, mt·.1s ured as thr
hasc current f 1, is varied for a conslttnt va}Ul' ol" colkctor vollttgr Vl . Thu~
(. is plollcd as a function of 11,. This gives thr <~utput-input charac-teristit·
curve.

The slope,
~,·h i .
t' .
.

ol any sud, curvl' <1t anv 11, ~ives thl' current gain.
h

(-', ol' the transistor for the g.ivt·n 11, and \.'( .

Fig. (2 .24)
 34 Electronics
. .. - . he currrnt amplifkation
Thus Im l ·onunon cm111t·r fonft gurnlinn 1
till' . the
- . . 1t , ·o llc•,·Inr cu rrc nt to .
lador 11 i~ ddinnl as lht' rnli,, of dutngc 111 IC < . d
. . - . - II ,e V and is denote
ch,rngl' rn lht· lm sc rnm.· 111 tor ronsla111 rolkt tor vo ag <

hy ft For a typin tl transislor 1-\ is ~bout .90.

p•n-p transi~lo1· in common huse confib,uration :

+
+
Ve

L'" ( '') 15.)

11g. -·-
The circuit diagrctm is shown in figure (2.25) The positive terminal
o f battery Bi, is com1cctcd to emitter and negative termina I is connerted "l f
to base. The emitter-to-base voltage Ve is read hy a voltnwtcr, and cmittr r
current le by a milliammctcr. The ncg(ltivc terminal of the hanery B is
1
connected to the collector and positive terminal is t·onnt·t·h.'d to hast·. Tht·
collector-to-base voltage Ve is read hy another voltmctn, "nd tht· t·ollt.Ttnr
current ( . hy another milliammctcr.
\

Input characleri.\lics : Tht· cmillcr rurtt·nt ( . is notl'd as till' rmittn

voJta .....!!C \I.t i'.'I vtt ricd for a
Vc = 40 Volt
ro n~lant vttlu c of collector
vo ltagl' V(. Thu ~( . i~ plotted

tt ~ a fu Jl(.' tion of Vi: ( 2.2:)) le

It is ~l.'C ll from thl~r t

curves that ,~miller· L·um·nt
/t' innl'tt sr s rapidly .. with
I·

small in<:R·1ncnt in the emit -

ter voltag<.' V"-'. ~ Ve
hg { 2.! h)
 .D
Ollt put <.·l,m·u ctt-r i...1ic.~ : Tiu· <'olk ,·tor
,·urrenl le i~
measured Rs the
l·oll ccto r volla ~r \1 i, vnrird for II l'Oh!\IRl
1
.
t value of the emitter rurrc nt
/__.. In this mann~·r a fa mil~ C\I' r urvl'S c~n he
c~htain..-d as sbow11 i~ fig (2. 27).
h is Sl'l'l l from thes e ,·urv rs that 1hc rnii rc
vari atio n in the. coll n :tor
c·urrrnl take s place at very low · value!I of
rollector valtage.

Ie= 4m A

~-- __ __ Ie = 3 .mA

_ __ __ _ __ Ie= 2m A

Ie==1mA

0
.
I~'. t.! ~--;' )
1· · Wh en the ,·olle.(·tor voltngl' is abo ut l
volt ~ it ,·olkl·l~ iill the 4..·barg,·

l
· ,·arr icr.i that diff use into the .bas e-co llec
tor _junc tion . 'Bence furt her incn ·asc
in l·ol kct or V<~ltagc doc s not prod uce
app rcl·i ablc i_nnc asc in t:oll el·to r
curr cnl : In oth n wor ds, the <·~lk,·tor ,·urr
ent bcl· onu ·s prnl'lically indc-
pem.knt of th,· ,·ol krto r volta gl' .
Out put -inp ut c:l1t1rt1cl<'ri...1ic.,· : Thl ' ,·ol
kdo r l·urr cnt /t. is mea sure d
-< as the ,·m ittn n1r rl'nl /, . is vari,·d for a
nm~ lanl vah ll' of t·ol kt·tor volt age
Ve A gr~ph l_.,l'lwrrn ( . and ( is plul h:d . a~
~hown in fig. (2 .28).

V c=5 Volt
le V c= 1 Volt

i
bl

Fig. (2 28)
 36 El<.·ctronics

~ of any sur b ( ' Urv c wl an~ f._. ai:ivcs the cur ren t &aiu,
TIie slQpc,
• le
a of the tran sis tor for gi:vr,u. le a
nll Ve.

I Thu s for l ·o 111111011 h-tS l' ronfigurn1io11 ·1hc current am plif ica
in the col kl'l or <·urrcnt to the cha
nge
tion factor,

<t is def ine d as 1hr r..tlio of ch.ingc

the cm i ncr l' Urrl·nt for a co11 sla111 n•ll
ccl or V(llla gr and is den ote d hy V,
'"
pl· mk 111 of V( .ii ml I, .. and ii will have
n . u will he found lo Ix· a lmosl i ndc
·1 va lut' slig hU y k ss than
one.

Rt"lation IM:"tween n und f1 :

\\-e kno w that

a = ... (I)
di~

) '
... ( -.l

<:t1rru11 ( '" t·qt1a I lo I hl· nn illn

Wl· ,tl so 1<110\v tt1a1 lhl' <:olleclor
c urre ri 1 I,. 111 11i US I tic hc1s
t· ( urre111 th , i.e. ·

I (.
= I (.' - /1)

U1l k rn1lit11i11g l'quation (JJ. we ~l 1

di( = di t:' - d(b

. .. (-I )

L' . di .
rw m cqu tttw n (2) di,, = ,/
.. .(5)

Usi ng eq uati on (5) in equ '•uion ( 4 ), we gcL

·'/c:
u. :a: _ .;,..
di - di
e f1
di .
di + - f3 c. = di<:
C
 Srn1i-C...ondur1or a. nd Trans,~lor

or.

= "'~
-
,II (

Fro1n ~uation ( 1). - '- "'

die
l
(t

Con,paring rquations (6) and (7), wr get

1 1
(l
- 1·+ -
f{
l ~ +_,~
.. ·- - -·
{t
~

a - ~ (~\
1+ p
1 1
Ab". =:- ·- - t
~ Cl

1 1-n
... - =
~ (l

(l
... ~ - ...(9)
I-a

1111" is the relation between a ttn4 ~- As n 1s yrry nt'arly unity.

( 1 - n) is very sn1all, and hence ~ is very large.