41

SEMESTER I

BED C 102: CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION

Hours of Instructions: 80 hours

Maximum Marks 100 (80 External+20 Internal)

Objectives of the course:

The course will enable the student teachers to study the unique and diversified
nature of Indian Society and Education.

► To enable student-teachers to engage w it h studies on Indian society and education

► To acquires conceptual tools of sociological analysis and hands on experience of
engaging with diverse communities, children and schools.
► To develop insight among the student teachers by analyzing t he diversity, inequality and
marginalization in the society and its implication for education.
► To construct and develop a comprehensive and critical understanding among the
student teachers about the policy frame work for public education in India.
MODE OF TRANSACTION
Lecture cum discussion, demonstration, group presentations, seminars, debates, assignments,

brai n storming sessions, peer group discussion, interaction with community, case study, survey

and dialogue, ICT based teaching and learning

Unit-I: Social Diversity: Diversities in t radit ional society -Vedic and epic Period, Medieval

society -Musl im period and modern Society - Advent of the Europeans to the present society -

Different levels of diversities - Individual -Regional -Religious - caste and linguistic diversities -

Diverse Knowledge and experience base - diversified demands from education-Sensitizing India

as a land of diversity -Strategies to attain harmonious living in a diversified Society- Culturally

responsive pedagogy - Its significance and relevance in the present Indian context.
 42

Unit II: Indian constitution and Education:- Preamble - Fundamental rights - Directive
Principles of State Policies- Thei r implications i n the current context -Article 45 and 30 (1) -
Constitutional values and aims of the education.

Issues related to inequality, discrimination and marginalization- Its impact on the fulfillment of
the Constitutional promise of freedom, justice, equality and fraternity.

Unit Ill: Universalization of Education and Constitutional provisions- (Article 30(1)) ,Right to
Education India Act of 2010. Inequalities- caste-colour-backwardness -cultural, Social and
economic backwardness. Discrimination and marginalization- Its Impacts on achieving
constitutional values. Positive Discrimination- Constitutional amendments. Child right and Child
Labour -Recent amendments.

Unit IV : Policy frame work for public education in India- Comprehensive understanding of
different education commissions and reports in pre independent and post independent India -
Kothari Commission - Recommendation, National policy of education, NPE of 1986 and after-
Reports and policies. Significance of recommendations these reports in contest of
Liberalization, Privatization and globalization. Different schemes for Education in lndia-
Naithalim, Wardha Scheme, SSA, RMSA, RUSA, Knowledge Commission reports

Unit V: Educational Development in India- Planned educational Development in India -

Financing of Education in India- National level and state level financing- Pressure exerted by
different stake holders on education- Community, religion, political, governmental and non
governmental agencies.

Unit VI : Education of the marginalized:- Dalits, Women, Socially and culturally margina lized.
Alternative education movements in India, KANFED, Mahila Samakhya , De-Schooling
movements and literary movements in India and Kerala

Unit VII: Language Policy for education :- Basic education and mother tongue - the
constitutional provisions of Medium of Instruction- three language formula. Debates on colonial
language policies. Multi- lingual education .

Unit VIII : Modern Paradigms in Pedagogy and curriculum , Pedagogical shifts across the
world- constructivism and issue based Pedagogy- Four pillars of Ed ucation - issues in education
ih the context of urbanization, plebinisation, Privatization and stratification of education in
India and World.

Unit IX: Education for Building a New Nation- Different program for eradicating inequalities-
gender, Caste and class. M id day meal programme- Its social and ideological implications-
significance of the Supreme Court order, Right to food campaign. Education for Nation Building.
 43

Suggested Tasks/Assignments
► Group work : Prepare a short film/presentation of five minutes duration for combating
any of the social evi ls in our society
► Conduct a study on issues of socially and culturally marginalized people of the locality.

References:

Apple, M.W., Au, W., & Gandin, L.A. (2011). The Routledge international handbook of critical
education. Taylor & Francis.
Carini, P.F. (2001 ). Valuing the immeasurable. In Starting strong: A different look at children,
schools, and standards (pp. 165- 181). New York: Teachers College Press.
Carr, D. (2005). Making sense of education: An introduction to the philosophy and the01y of
education and teaching. Routledge.
Castells, M. (2011). The rise of the network society: The information age: Economy,society, and
culture (Vol. L II & III). John Wiley & Sons.
Dewey, J. (2004). Democracy and educcition. Courier Dover Publications.
Freire, P. (1998). Pedagogy offreedom: Ethics, democracy, and civic courage. Rowman &
Littlefield.
Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed.
Ghosh, S.C. (2007). History of education in India . Rawat Publications.
GOI. (1 966). Report of the education commission: Education and national development. New
Delhi: Ministry of Education.
001. (1986). Nat.ional policy of education. GOI.
001. (1 992, J998). National policy on education, 1986 (As modified in 1992).
001. (2009). The right of children to free and compulsory education act, 2009.
Govinda, R. (2011). Who goes to school?: Exploring exclusion in Indian education. Oxford
University Press.
Hall, C., & Hall, E. (2003). Human relations in education. Routledge.
Kumar, K. (2013). Politics of education in colonial India. India: Routledge.
Naik, J.P. (1982). The education commission and after. APH Publishing.
NCERT. (2005). National curriculum.framework. NCERT.
NCERT. (2006a). Position paper-National focus group on education with special needs (NCF
2005). New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT. (2006b). Position paper-National focus group on gender issues in the curriculum (NCF
2005). NCERT.
Parekh, B.C. (2000). Rethinking multiculturalism: Cultural diversity and political theory (pp.
213-230). Palgrave.
Pathak, A. (20 L3). Social implications of schooling: Knowledge, pedagogy and consciousness.
Aakar Books.
The PROBE Team. (1999). Public report on basic education in India. Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
UNESCO;1989 UN convention on the rights of the child.

UNESCO 2006; UN convention on the rights of person with the disabilities.

UNIT 1 - SOCIAL DIVERSITY

DIVERSITY

Diversity means differences. It means collective differences. that is, differences which mark off
one group of people from another and it is also the understanding that each individual is unique,
and recognizing our individual differences.The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and
respect. It means understanding that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual
differences. These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-
economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies.
Diversity also means collective differences which mark off one group of people from another.
It is the land of many languages it is only in India people professes all the major religions of the
world. In short, India is "the epitome of the world".

Different levels of diversities in India

► Religious diversity
► Linguistic diversity
► Racial or ethnic diversity
► Regional diversity
► Caste diversity

Thus, diversity means variety. For all practical pm-poses it means variety of groups and cultures.
We have such a variety in abundance in India. We have here a variety of races, of religions, of
languages, of castes and of cultures. For the same reason India is known for its socio-cultural
diversity.

RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN INDIA

Religion can be ex lained as a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature and purpose of the
universe, especially when considered as the creation of a super human agency or agencies usually
involving devotion and ritual observances and often containing a moral code governing the conduct
of human affairs. It is a pursuit or interest followed with great devotion.

India has no state religion. it is a secular state. It is the land where almost all the major religions of
the world are practiced by their respective followers. The major religions in India are Hinduism.
Islam. Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism. Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Baha ' ism are
HINDUISM

Hinduism is the religion which is followed by the majority of Indian population. It comprises of
Inda-Aryan, Dravidian and Pre-Dravidian religious elements. The followers of Hinduism believe in
the doctrine of Karma, Dharma, and rebirth, immortality of the soul, renunciation and salvation.

The term Hinduism is of recent origin, mainly by the western scholars based on some references in
the Vedas and the Upanishads. Early European travelers called the inhabitants on the banks of river
Sindh as Hind- and the region as Hindustan.

Basic Concepts in Hinduism

► Hinduism embraces many religious ideas.

► Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation)
and karma (the universal Jaw of cause and effect).
► One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is "atman," or the belief in soul. This philosophy holds that
living creatures have a soul, and they're all part of the supreme soul. The goal is to achieve
"moksha; ' or salvation, which ends the cycle ofrebirths to become part of the absolute soul .
► One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people's actions and thoughts directly
determine their current life and future lives.
► Hindus strive to achieve dharma. which is a code of living that emphasizes good conduct and
morality.
► Fourfold objectives of life-Purusharthas:
1. Righteousness-dharma
2. Wealth- artha
3. Pleasures of life- kama
4. Liberation-moksa
► Four stages of 1-ife-Ashramadharma
1. Student life-brahmacarya
2. Householder's life- grhasthasrama
3. Forest life- vanaprastha
4. Life of renunciation- sannyasa
Doctrine of Karma and Rebirth

► Karma: Action, into two

1. Sanchita Karma - Accumulated result of actions
2. Prarabdha Karma-result of actions being enjoyed in the present life
 ► Rebirth
• After numerous births a human birth
• After thousands of births liberation

Hinduism allows a number of possible conceptions of God. It also prescribes various alternative
paths of attaining God. According to the census of 2011 , Hinduism consists the 79 .8% of the total
po ulation of the country and provides a solid base for national unity through common beliefs,
festivals, customs and traditions. Hinduism also is known in different names like Sanatana dharma,
V aidika Dharma, Arya Dharma and Vedanta Dharma. The four largest denominations of Hinduism
are the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Sbaktism and Smartism. Because the religion has no specific
founder, it's difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it 's not a single
religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies.

ISLAM

[slam orig inated in Arabia as a m onolithic religion. It came to India towards the last quarter of the
12th century A.D., with the Muslim invasions. The Muslim rulers in India patronized it. They
established long dynasties over large chunks of the country and encouraged conversions from
Hinduism and Buddhisn . As a result the number of Muslims gradually increased in India.

Islam does not believe in idol worship. It professes the fatalistic acce~tance of Allah's will and
considers Prophet Mohammed as the greatest rophet. The • uran', sacred book of Islam, ordains
five primary duties of a true and devout Muslim, such as, belief in God (Allah), prayers five times a
day, the giving of alms, a month's fast every year, and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in the
life time of a Muslim.

A large number of Muslims in India are converts. But these large scale conversions to Islam in
reality did not actually bring about an acceptance of their higher status either by the caste Hindus,
to whom every Muslim was an untouchable or by the Ashrafs, the uppermost section of the
Muslims, who maintained a social distance from the lower caste converts in matters of marriage
and social intercom se.

According to the census of 2011 Muslims account 14.2% of the population. They constitute the
biggest religious minority group in India.
CHRISTIANITY

Christianity came to India through the work of St. Thomas, a follower of Jesus. He converted some
Narnbuthiri Brahmins to Christianity. It is believed that St. Thomas bas landed in the ancient port
of Muziris in 52 A.D. However in the 16th century the Portuguese arrived in India for trade and
established Christian church.

In 1542, Francis Xavier arrived m Goa and began his work among the fisher-folk in the
Coromondal coast. The Dutch followed the Portuguese in the process of colonization. But they
were not interested in spreading the Christian faith. The Britishers followed the Dutch. They bad to
spread Christianity through missionaries.

All Christians believe in Jesus Christ as their Saviour. Jesus was born to Virgin Mary. They also
believe that Jesus is the son of God. The Bible is the sacred book of the Christians. The Christians
believe that the universe has been divinely created and that man is sinful. They also believe that
Jesus was sent to earth to reconcile men and God. All Christians have faith in the D ay of Judgment
which must come after the closure of human history. On the Day of Judgment people will either be
rewarded or punished according to the type of life they have led.

Christians in India are scattered all over the country, but they are mostly found in Kerala where
they constitute nearly one- fourth of the state's population. At present. 20.5 million eoQ_le or 2.43
per cent of the total opulation practice Christianity in India.

SlKHISM

Sikhism had its origins in the wider religious revolt called Bbakti movement which was directed
against the bigotry and caste based narrowism practiced in Hinduism. Guru Nanak founded
Sikhism in the 16th century A.D.He held that God is formless, timeless, all powerful master-creator
who is not influenced by feeling of jealousy and discrimination.

Sikhism is strongly a monistic reli ·on. Therefore the Sikh Gurus, in spite of being held in utmost
reverence, are not equated with God. The Gurus pl ay an inevitable and instrumental role of
realizing God. The ' Gurudwara' is the place of worship for the Sikhs. It literally means the Guru 's
abode. No act of Sikh worship is complete without the ' SadhSangat' or holy gathering.

The Sikhs as a collectivity can be identified by their (i) Kesh, (ii) Kanga, (iii) Kacch, (iv) Kara and
(v) Kirpan. meaning trn-cut long bah· and beard, wooden comb, shorts, iron bangle in the band and
short sword respectively. he Sikhs are mainly concentrated in Punjab and Haryana and constitute
I .96 per cent of the country' s_population.

BUDDIDSM

Buddhism is a non-theistic religion (no belief in a creator god), also considered a philosophy and a
moral discipline, originating in India in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. It was founde.d by the sage
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha I. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) who, according to legend, had been a
Hindu prince before abandoning his position and wealth to become a spiritual ascetic and, finally,
an enlightened being who taught others the means by which they could escape samsara, the cycle
of suffering, rebirth, and death.

The Buddha developed the belief system at a time when India was in the midst of significant
religious and philosophical reform. Buddhism was, initially, only one of many schools of thought
which developed in response to what was perceived as the failure of orthodox Hinduism to address
the needs of the people.

Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths, which Buddha taught, are:

• The truth of suffering (dukkha)

• The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)

• The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodba)

• The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)

Collectively, these principles explain why humans hurt and how to overcome suffering.

Eightfold Path

The Buddha taught his followers that the end of suffering. as described in the fourth Noble
~ ruths, could be achieved by following an Eightfold Path.

In no particular order, the Eightfold Path of Buddhism teaches the following ideals for ethical
conduct, mental disciple and achieving wisdom:

• Right understanding (Sammaditthi)

 • Right speech (Sammavaca)

• Right action (Sammak:ammanta)

• Right livelihood (Sammaajiva)

• Right effort (Sam.mavayama)

• Right mindfulness (SaD11na sati)

• Right concentration (Sammasamadhi)

JAINISM

Jainism is an ancient religion from lndia that teaches that the way to liberation and bliss is lo live
lives of harmlessness and renunciation. The essence of Jainism is concern for the welfare of every
being in the universe and for the health of the universe itself.

• Jains believe that animals and plants, as well as human beings, contain living souls. Each of these
souls is considered of equal value and should be treated with respect and compassion.

• Jains are strict vegetarians and live in a way that minimizes their use of the world's resources.

• fains believe in reincarnation and seek to attain ultimate liberation - which means escaping the
continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth so that the immortal soul lives forever in a state of
bliss.

• Liberation is achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul

• Jainism is a religion of self-help.

• There are no gods or s piritual beings that will help human beings.

• The three guiding principles of Jainism. the 'three jewels', are right belief, right knowledge and
right conduct.

• The supreme principle of Jain living is non-violence (ahimsa).

• This is one of the 5 mahavratas (the 5 great vows). The other mahavratas are non-attachment to
possessions, not lying, not stealing, and sexual restraint.

• fains are divided into two major sects: the Digarnbara (meaning "sky clad") sect and the
Svetambara (meaning "white clad") sect.
• Jainism has no priests. Its professional religious people are monks and nuns, who lead strict and
ascetic lives.

Most Jains live in India, and according to the 2001 Census of India there are around 4.2 million
living there

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

India is rightly described as a P.Olyglot country, a country of many languages. Linguistic research
suggests that when means of trans-portion were Jess developed, there was little mobility of people.
Therefore, communities confined to small areas spoke their own dialects. And these were spoken in
a radius of 7-8 kilometers. That is why even today there are 1572 languages and dialects that are
spoken by less than 100000 speakers, besides the 18 Scheduled languages. Grierson, the famous
linguist identified 179 languages and 544 dialects.

ilndian languaoes belong to four main speech fa milies: Inda -Aryan, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and
Austric. About 70% of the people speak Inda-Aryan languages like Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Gujarati
and Marathi. About 20% of the people, mainly in Sourh India, speak Dravidian Languages. Sino-
Tibetan speakers are found in North-east India. A few smaller groups speak Kbol-Munda
languages of the Austric family. In addition to the Indian languages, there are some peoples like the
Anglo-Indians who use English as their mother tongues.

The census of 1961 listed as many as 1652 languages and dialects.Since most of these languages
are spoken by very few people, the subsequent census regarded them as spurious but the 8 th
Schedule of the Constitution India recognizes 22 languages. These are Assamese, Bengali,
Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kasbmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya,
Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Bodo, Santbali, Maithili and Dogri. In addition, the
Government of India bas awarded the distinction of classical language to Kannada, Malayalam,
Odia, Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. Classical language status is given to languages which have a 1ich
heritage and independent nature. Hindi in Devanagri script is considers as the official language of
the Indian Union by the Constitution. The second largest language, Telugu, is spoken by about 60
million people, mostly an Andbra Pradesh. Most of the languages spoken in North India belong to
the Indo-Aryan family, while the languages of the South namely Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam and
Kannada belong to the Dravidian family.

RACIAL DIVERSITY
A race is a group of people with a set of distinctive physical features such as skin colour, tyQe of
nose, form of hair. etc.AW. Green says, "A race is a large biological human grouping with a
number of distinctive, inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range."

The Indian sub-continent received a large number of migratory races mostly from the Western and
the Eastern directions. Majority of the people of India are descendants of immigrants from across
the Himalayas. Their dispersal into sub-continent has resulted in the consequent regional
concentration of a variety of ethnic elements. Dr B.S Guha identifies the po ulation of India into
six main ethnic groups, namely I) the Negrito ' (2) the Proto-Australoids, (3) the Mongoloids (4)
the Mediterranean or Dravidian (5) the Western BrachyceP.hals and (6) the Nordic.This
classification is based on anthropometric surveys conducted as part of 1931 census. People
belonging to these different racial stocks have little in common either in physical appearance or
food habits. The racial diversity is very perplexing.

1. Negrito
Negritos are the people who belong to the black racial stock as found in Africa. They have black
skin colour, frizzle hair, thick lips, etc. In India some of the tribes in South India, such as the
Kadar, the Imla and the Paniyan have distinct Negrito strain.

2. The Proto-Australoid
The Proto-Australoid races consist of an ethnic group, which includes the Australian abmigines
and other people of southern Asia and Pacific Islands. In India the tribes of Middle India belong to
this st.rain. Some of these tribes are the Ho of Singhbhumi, Bihar, and the Bhil of the Vindhya
ranges.

3. The Mongoloids
The Mongoloids are a major racial stock native to Asia, including the peoples of northern and
eastern Asia. For example, Chinese, Japanese, Burmese, Eskimos, and often American Indians also
belong to this race. In India, the North Eastern regions have tribes of brachycephalic Mongoloid
strain.

4. The Mediterranean
The Mediterranean races relate to the Caucasian physical type, i.e., the white Unity and Diversity
race. It is characterized by medium or short stature, slender build, long bead with cephalic index
(the ratio multiplied by 100 of the maximum breadth of the head to its maximum length) of less
than 75 and dark (continental) complexion.
 5. The Western Brachycephals
The Western Brachycephals are divided into the following three sub-groups: (1) The Alpenoid are
characterized by broad head, medium stature and light skin, found amongst Bania castes of Gujarat,
the Kayasthas of Bengal, etc. (ii) The Dinaric- They are characterized by broad head, long nose,
tall stature and dark skin colour, found amongst the Brahmin of Bengal, the non-Brahmin of
Karnataka, (iii) The Annenoid- They are characterized by features similar to Dinaric.

6. The Nordic
The Nordic races belong to the physical type characterized by tall stature, long head, light skin and
hair, and blue eyes. They are found in Scandinavian countries, Europe. In India, they are found in
different pai1s of north of the country, especially in Punjab and Rajputana. The Kho of Chitral, the
Red Kaffirs, and theKhatash are some of the representatives of this type. Research suggests that the
Nordics came from the north, probably from south east Russia and south west Siberia, through
central Asia to India.

Herbert Risley had classified the people of India into seven racial types. These are (i) Turko-
Iranian, (ii) Indo-Aryan, (iii) Scytho-Dravidian, (iv) Aryo- Dravidian, (v) Mongolo-D ravidian, (vi)
Mongoloid, and (vii) Dravidian. These seven racial types can be reduced to three basic types-the
Inda-Aryan, the Mongolian and the Dravidian. In bis opinion the last two types would account for
the racial composition of tribal India. He was the supervisor of the census operations held in India
in 1891 and it was data from this census, which founded the basis of this classification. As, it was
based mainly on language-types rather than physical characteristics~ Risley's classification was
criticized for its shortcomings.

The characteristics that help identify different racial groups include colour and texture of hair,
uantity and distribution of hair on the body. colour of the eyes, sha e of the eyelids, sha e of the
nose, the Ii s, and the skull, skin colour and body height. It is wrong to regard any race as superior
or inferior to others. Therefore we can say that India as a multi-racial country.

KEY POINTS

► The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It means understanding that each
individual is unique, and recognizing our individual differences.
► Different levels of diversities in India are Religious diversity, Linguistic diversity, Racial or ethnic
diversity, Geographical diversity and Caste diversity.
► The major religions in India are Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism.
► Hinduism is the world's oldest religion. lt is the religion which is foUowed by the majority of
Indian population.
• Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and
reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).
• According to the census of 2011, Hinduism consists the 79.8% of the total population of the
country.
► Islam originated in Arabia as a monolithic religion.
• It professes the fatalistic acceptance of Allah' s will and considers Prophet Mohanuned as
the greatest prophet.
• The 'Quran', sacred book oflslam, ordains five primary duties of a true and devout Muslim,
such as, belief in God (Allah), prayers five times a day, the giving of alms, a month's fast
every year, and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in the life time of a Muslim.
► Cbristianitv came to India through the work of St. Thomas. All Christians believe in Jesus Christ
as their Savior. The Bible is the sacred book of the Christians.
► Sikhism - Guru Nanak founded Sikhism in the 16th century A.D. Sikhism is strongly a monistic
religion. 'Gurudwara' is the place of worship for the Sikhs. The Sikhs can be identified by their (i)
Kesh, (ii) Kanga, (iii) Kacch, (iv) Kara and (v) Kirpan. The Sikhs are mainly concentrated in Punjab
and Haryana and constitute 1.96 per cent of the cow1try' s population.
► Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, originating in India in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. It was
founded by the sage Siddhartha Gautama.
• Buddha 's teaching of four noble truths and eight fold path.
► .Jainism is an ancient religion from India that teaches that the way to liberation and bliss is to live
lives of hannlessness and renunciation.
► LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY - India is rightly described as a polyglot country, a country of many
languages.Indian languages belong to four main speech families: Inda-Aryan, Dravidian, Sino-
Tibetan and Austric. The 8th Schedule of the Constitution India recognizes 22 languages.
► RACIAL DIVERSITY - A race is a group of people with a set of distinctive physical features such
as skin color, type of nose, form of hair, etc.
• There are mainly six racial groups m India, namely (1) the Negrito' (2) the Proto-
Australoids, (3) the Mongoloids (4) the Mediterranean or Dravidian (5) the Western
Brachycephals and (6) the Nordic.
 CASTE DIVERSITY

India is known as the land of castes and tribes. The word ' caste' is taken from the
Portuguese word Casta.There are over 3,000 castes or .Tatis in India. The term caste is generally
used in two senses: sometimes in the sense of Varna and sometimes in the sense of Jati.

(i) Varna refers to a segment of the four-fold division of Hindu society based on functional
criterion. The four Varna are Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras with their speciaUzed
functions as learning, defense, trade and manual service. The Varna hierarchy is accepted all over
India.

(ii) Jati refers to a hereditary endogamous status group practicing a specific traditional
occupation. You may be surprised lo know that there are more than 3,000 jali in India. These are
hierarchically graded in different ways in different regions.

It may also be noted that the practice of caste system is not confined to Hindus alone. We
find castes among the Muslim, Christian, Sikh as well as other communities. You may have heard
of the hierarchy of Shaikh, Saiyed, Mughal, Pathan among the Muslim. Furthermore, there are
castes like teli (oil pressure), dhobi (washerman), darjee (tailor), etc. among the Muslim.
Similarly, caste consciousness among the Christian in India is not unknown. Since a vast majority
of Christians in India are converted from Hindu fold, the converts have carried the caste system
into Christianity. Among the Sikh again you have so many castes including Jal Sikh and
Majahabi Sikh (lower castes)

REGIONAL DIVERSITY

It is one of the key characteristics of diversity: regional diversity is an indication of each

person's uniqueness from a certain area. 1t refers to the differentiation of various communities,
gender, ethnicity and more. For instance, India has great regional diversity. The country has
mountains, sea coasts. deserts, plain areas and more. This is why it makes India a very regionally
diverse country.

In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions in India

• Madhyadesa - Indo Gangetic plain stretching from the valley of the river Saraswat to the
Rajamahal Hill. This devision has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.

• Uttaraparthaor Udichya- North-West India

• Pratichyaor Aparanta -Western India

• Dakshinapatha- the area south of Madhyadesa

• Prachyaor Purvadesa - the region east o1Madbyadesa

 Vedic Period

•
. The word Veda is derived from the root 'vid', which means to
know. The term Veda signifies superior knowledge. The Vedas existed in oral form and were
passed down from master to student for generations until they were committed to writing.The
Vedas are therefore regarded as Shrut i in Hinduism meaning "what is heard" as contrasted
with other texts designated Smritis ("what is remembered"). The texts which make up the
Four Vedas ar . Each of these i s
further divided into types of text included within them: Aranyak:as (1ituals, observances),
Brahmanas (commentaries on said rituals) and Samhitas (benedictions, prayers, mantras) and
Upanishads (philosophical narratives and dialogues). are considered the "end
of the Vedas" as in the last word on the texts. Tbe term Upanishads means to " sit down
closely" as a student would with a master to receive some information not intended for the
rest of the class. The Upanishads in each of the Vedas comment on the text or illustrate it
through dialogue and narrative thereby clarifying difficult or obscure passages or
concepts.Vedangas are the prerequisites for understanding Vedas.
• During the early part of Vedic period, the Indo Aryans settled in the northern India. Vedic
civilization was .initially a tribal, pastoral society.
. Rig Vedic age is also referred to as Early Vedic period.
Rig Veda refers to the land of seven rivers andthe early Vedic society was patriarchal. Their
main occupation was agriculture and cattle rearing. The trade was conducted on barter
system. They worshipped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. There
was no caste system. In the later Vedic period the society was transformed from semi
nomadic life to settled agriculture. The society was divided into our social groups:
. Brabmana is associated with purity of
parentage, good conduct, glory and so on. Kshatriyas are associated with fame, strength and
warfare. Vaishyas are associated with production related activities while Shudras with
service of higher varnas.
• In ancient India teaching was considered as a holy duty. Brahmans were the teachers.
Teachers were expected to devote their lives to the cause of teaching.
. Education aimed at the infusion of piety and
religiousness in the minds of pupils. It was considered as a means for inculcating values and
formation of character. It stressed the all round develo
 e student's initiation ceremony into
education is known as - After Upanayana child enters into a state of
. A gurukula or
gurukulam is a type of education system in ancient India with shishya ('students' or
'disciples') living near or with the guru, in the same house.[!] The guru-shishya tradition is a
sacred one in Hinduism and appears in other religious groups in India, such as Jainism,
Buddhism and Sikhism. The word gurukula is a combination of the Sanskrit words guru
('teacher' or 'master') and kula ('family' or 'home'). Before the arrival of British rule, they
served as South Asia's primary educational system. The term is also used today to refer to
residential monasteries or schools operated by modern gurus. The students learn from the
guru and help the guru in his everyday life, including carrying out of mundane daily
household chores. However, some scholars suggest that the activities are not mundane and
very essential part of the education to inculcate self-discipline among students. Typically, a
guru does not receive or accept any fees from the shishya studying with him as the
relationship between a guru and the shisbya is considered very sacred.At the end of one's
education, a shishya offers the guru dakshina before leaving the gumk ula. The gurudakshina
is a traditional gesture of acknowledgment, respect and thanks to the gum, which may be
monetary, but may also be a special task the teacher wants the student to accomplish.While
living in a gurukula, the students would be away from their home from a period of months to
years at a stretch.
• During the Vedic period learning was transmitted orally from one generation to another. The
subject of instruction varied according to the vocational needs of different groups. For
instance, art of warfare for Kshatriyas. Different disciplines such as anthropology, maths,
epistemology, and so on were included into the curriculum. In the
The educational system followed highly structured
classroom or teacher centered classroom. The method of teaching consisted of recitation by
the teachers, repetition by the pupils, followed by an explanation by the teacher and a
discussion between the teacher and pupil. The three steps involved in teaching are
. The students were
given three grades: MahaPrasan Grade, MadhyamaPrasan Grade and AlpaPrasan Grade.
 Epic period (600BC - 200AD}

The Epic age .in India is named so because some of the greatest epics came into being
during this time. The epic period is estimated to be roughly from 1000 to 600 B.C. The famous
Indian epics that were created during this time were the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Bhagwad
Gita, which is a part of the Mahabharata, is wholly concerned with religion and righteous duty. Not
only are these a part of the religious and mythological scriptures, but are also an important part of
the historical roots of India. R is/zi Valmiki wrote Ramayana and is considered to the oldest and the
most-admired epic. VedVyas wrote Mahabharata. There is a great difference in the opinions of the
scholars with regard to the exact date of composition of these two epics.(Still there are
controversies with respect to the authorshipof these epics). But the epics are inevitable part of
Indian thoughts and culture.

f""The Ramayana
Ramayana explores human values and the concept of dharma. It presents the teachings of
ancient Sanatana Dharma in narrative parable, combining both philosophical and devotional
elements. The Ramayana has beena continuing source of spiritual, cultural and artistic inspiration.
Valmiki arranged Ramayana into Seven Kaandas or Books.

Puma Purusha Qualities: (qualities of a complete man)According to Ramayana, qualities of

complete man are;

I. Gunavan (principled one)

2. Veeryavan (potential one)

3. Dharmajnaha (conscious one)

4. Kruthajnaha (liberator)

5. Satyavakyaha (truth-teller)

6. Dhrudhavrataha (self-determined), Samarthaha (ablest-one)

 7. Atmavan (courageous-one)

8. Charithravan (one having good conduct)

9. SarvabhuthaHithaha (one who is the well-wisher of all beings)

10. Vidwan (scholar of all scriptures)

11 . SadaikaPriyadarsanaha (one who is always lovable and good to look)

12. Dyuthiman (brilliant-one)

13. Jithakrodhaha(one who controlled his anger)

14. Anasuyakaha (one who is not having jealousy)

15. Kasyabibhyatidevaschajatharoshasyasarnyuge (For whom even devathas also will afraid to

stand before him in war).

Concept of Purusharthas in Ramayana

Purusharthas refers to a goa.L end or aim of human existence, in Sanskrit it means "that
which isrequired by man; human purpose, aim, or end". The concept of Pususharthas is ancient
inSanatana Dharma. There are four Purusharthas:

(i) Dharma- religious, social and/or moral righteousness, both spiritual and ritual

(ii) Artha- material and/or financial prosperity as well as pursuit of meaning

(iii)Kaama- material pleasure

(iv) Moksha - spiiitual liberation; or renunciation as well as detachment

As per Rama, Artha should not interfere with Dharma and vice versa. Similarly
Kaama should not interfere with either Dharrna or with Artha. Dharmahere means the duties and
welfare one does for the society. Arth means earnings. One is allowed to have Karuna (pleasure)
but without affecting the duties and earnings.

. Mahabharat

Mahabharata is considered as an encyclopedia of reference for human life. It is said to

contain all that a man should know towards achieving the four human goals, i .e.purusharthas,
The Mahabharata is called the fifth Veda as it contains the essence of the four Vedas. Two of 18
the chapters of this epic, Santi and Ausaasa11ikaParw.1s, deal with useful aspects for human life,
code of conduct, values, morals, philosophy and many more. The Mahabharata revolves around
the legendaryBharata war, a war between two sides of royal family. These two sides are
commonly called the Paandamas and the Kaural'as. Mahabharata teaches us life lessons; what
one should and one shouldn't emulate, In the Mahabharata we see examples oftolerance not only
regarding the other waysof spiritual pursuit, but even in actual war situation where violence is
supposed to be practised. There are definite rules to follow in the battle, like not killing or
injuring the women or children.

The Gita is set inanarrative framework of a dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and
his guide and charioteer Krishna. Facing the duty as a warrior to fight the Dharma Yudhha or
righteous war between Paandavaas and Kauravas, Arjuna is counselled by Krishna to fulfill his
Kshatriya (warrior) duty as a warrior and establishing Dharma. The Bhagavadgita combines many
different elements from Samkhya and Vedanta philosophy. In matters of religion, its important
contribution was the new emphasis placed on devotion, which has since remained a central path
in Hinduism. ln addition, the popular theism expressed elsewhere in the Mahabharata and the
transcendentalism of the Upanishads converge, and a God of personal characteristics isidentified
with the Brahman of the Vedic tradition.

The Bhagavad Gita thus gives atypology of the three dominant trends of Indian religion:
l ) dharma-based householder life

2) enlightenment-based renunciation, and

 Society and Polity during Epic Period

• Society was rural and people lived in fortified camps.

• There were no big cities, which may be the reason why practically nothing of this
civilization bas remained.

• Kingship was no longer tribal, but hereditary.

• The prominent political set up of the epic age was the expansion of kingdoms, which
happened in substitution of a number of small kingdoms which existed at the time of the
Vedic period.

• The social condition of the epic age includes the caste system as prevailed during vedic
period.

• Agriculture became the prominent source of living for the people of the epic age and
remarkable development in agriculture is seen in this period.

System of Education

• There existed an extremely urbanized system of education during the epic age.

• Education was given for free.

• Teachers did not receive any customary salary but accepted presents.

• Great pains were taken for the maturation of character and mind along with the physical
growth of the student.

Besides, schools in villages and towns, there were Parishads in remote forests, comprising
three or four teachers, who conveyed education in religion and philosophy. Typically a
Parishadwas a group of learned Brahm.ins attached to a learning cenlre.(University). A parishad
seems usually to have consisted of ten men; four 'walking encyclopedias' each of whom bad learnt
all the four Vedas by heart. three who bad specialized in one of the Sutras. and representative of the
three orders of brahmachari,grihastha and vanaprastha- student, householder and hermit.

Curriculum:

Logic (nyaya), social code (smriti). Sanskrit grammar and the science of spiri- tuality were
included in the curriculum. In the epicage education was given through the medium of Sansktit.

Hermitages- Institutions for Learning

The Mahabharata tells of numerous hermitages where pupils from distant parts gathered for
instruction round some far-famed teachers. A full-fledged Asrama is described as consisting of
several Departments which are enumerated as following:

l )Agnisthana, the place for fire-worship and prayers

2)Brahma-sthana, the Department of Veda

3) Vishnusthana, the Department for teaching Raja-Niti, Arthaniti, and Vartta

4) Mahendrasthana, Military Section

5)Vivasvata-sthana, Department of Astronomy

6)Somasthana, Department of Botany

7) Garuda-sthana, Section dealing with Transport and Conveyances

8)Kartikeya-sthana, Section teaching military organization, how to form patrols, battalions, and
army.

The most important of such hermitage was that of the Naimisha, a forest which was like a
university.
The hermitage of Kanvas another famous center of learning, which is situated on the banks of the
Malini, atributary of the Sarayu River. It was an assemblage of numerous hermitages round the
central hermitage of Risbi Kanva, the presiding spirit of the settlement. There were specialists in
every branch of learning cultivated in that age; specialists in each of the four Vedas; in sacrificial
literature and art; Kalpa-Suu·as: in the Chhanda (Metrics), Sbabda (Vyaka:rana), and Nirukta. There
were also Logicians, knowing the principles of Nyaya, and of Dialectics (the art of establishing
propositions, solving doubts, and ascertaining conclusions).

There were also specialists in the physical sciences and art. There were, for example, experts in the
art of constructing sacrificial altars of various dimensions and shapes (on the basis of a knowledge
of Solid Geometry); those who bad knowledge of the properties of matter (dravyaguna), of physical
processes and their results of causes and their effect; and zoologists having a special knowledge of
monkeys and birds. It was thus a forest University where the study of every available branch of
learning was cultivated.

The hermitage of vyasa was another seat of learning. There Vyasa taug ht the Vedas to his
disciples. Those disciples were highly blessed Sumantra, vaisampayana, Jamini of great
wisdom, and Paila of great ascetic merit. They were afterwards joined by Suka, the famous son of
Vyasa. Among the other hermitages noticed by the Mahabharata were Vasishtha and Visvamitra
and that in the forest of Kamyakaon the banks of the Saraswati.

Students approached the learned souls for the acquisition of knowledge, Parents, too encouraged it
and sent their boys to the institutions. When their number began to increase the institutions formed
with these students began to grow gradually. With the lapse of time these institutions turned into
Universities and were maintained with the munificent gift of the public and the state. In this way
many institutions were formed of which Taxila, Ujjain, Nalanda, Benares, Ballavi. Ajanta, Madura
and Vik:ramsila were very famous. Taxila was famou s for medicine and Ujjain for Astronomy .

Jibakathe well known medical expert and the state physician of the King of Magadha of the 6th
century B.C. and Paninithe famous grammarian of the 7th century B.C. and Kautilya, the
authority on Arthasastra, of the 4th century B.C, were students of Taxila.

The academic year has several terms. Each tennis inaugurated by a ceremony called Upakarnmana
and ends by the Utsarga ceremony. Holidays (Anadhyayas) are regularly ob- served on two
Purnima and on the last day of each of the four seasons, called Chaturmasi. Besides these Nitya
(regular) holidays there are Naimittika (occasional) holidays due to accidental circumstances, eg.
Storms, thunder, rain, fog, fire, eclipses etc.

Universities of Ancient India

(i) Takshasila (Taxila) - The Most Ancient University:

Takshasila was the most famous seat of learning of ancient India. Tashasila was also the capital
of Gandhara. It was founded by Bharata and named after his son Taksha, who was established
there as its ruler. As a center for learning the fame of the city was unrivalled in the 6th century
B.C. It attracted scholars from different and distant parts of India. Takshila was famous for
medicine, military training, wrestling, archery and mountain- climbing.

(ii) Benares: Next, to Takshasila ranks Benares as a seat of learning, which was, however.
Largely the creation of the ex-students of Takshasila.

(iii)Mithila :

Mithila, was a stronghold of Brahminical culture at its best in the time of the Upanishads,
under its famous Philosopher-king Janak.a. Mithila made conspicuous contributions in the
realm of severe and scientific subjects. It developed a famous School of Nyaya which
flourished from the twelnh to the fifteenth century A.D. under the great masters of Logic,
Gangesa, Vardhamana, Paksbadhara, and others. This School of New Logic (NavyaNyaya)
was founded by GangesaUpadhyava and his epoch-making work named
"RativaChinatmani", a work of about 300 pages whose commentaries make up over
1.000,000 pages in three centuries of its study.

(iv) Nalanda:

Nalanda was the name of the ancient village identified with modern Baragaon, 7 miles
north of Rajgir in Bihar. Nalanda, when Fa-hien visited it, was called Nala und was known
as the place "where Sariputta was born. Nalanda was not a sectarian or a religious university
in the narrow sense of the term, imparting only Buddhist thought. Almost all sciences,
includino- the science of medicine were tau ht. So were the U anishads and the Vedas,
 Panini's grammar, the science of pronunciation (Phonetics), etymo1ogy, Indology and Yoga
wvere all included in the curriculam. Surprisingly, even archery was taught at Nalanda.

Hiuen Tsang himself learnt Yogasastra from Jayasena. The authority of the Guru
(teacher) over the shishya (student) was absolute, and yet, dissent was permitted in
academic matters.

(v) Vikramasila:

Vikramasila, found by king Dhannapala in the 8th century, was a famous center of
international learning for more than four centuries. King Dhamapala was its founder; he built
temples and monasteries at the place and liberally endowed them. He had the Vihara
constructed after a good design. He also erected several halls for the lecturing work. The
teaching was controlled by a Board of eminent teachers and it is stated that this Board of
Vikramsila also administered the affairs at Nalanda, The University had six colleges, each
with a staff of the standard strength of I 08 teachers, and a Central Hall called the House of
Science with its six gates opening on to the six Colleges. Grammar, logic, metaphysics,
ritualism were the main subjects specialized at the institution
 MEDIEVAL SOCIETY

Muslim period and Modern society

❖ The medieval period of Indian history comprises a long period, beginning from 6 th century

that is after the fall of Gupta Empire to 18 th century that is beginning of colonial
domination.
❖ The early medieval period that is between 5 th and 13 th century has been mainly dominated

by elements of feudalism.

Now we will discuss about the drastic changes that happened in the society during the Muslim
period.

► In 1526 Mogul Empire was founded by Bahar. But Islam had already spread in India long
before the conquest.
► Many people bad accepted the Islam even before the arrival of Moguls.
► Islamic values of equity, justice, truthfulness and honesty attracted many people to it.
► The people believed that they were suffering because they belonged to an inferior caste.
Their basic human rights were also denied because of the caste system that prevailed in
India.

The death of Awrangazed marked the end of Muslim rule in India and afterwards the Muslim India
was colonized by the British in the 18th century. Now let's have a look on what changes did
Muslim rule brought in India.

1.0 Knowledge System

• The medieval period marks the corning of Muslims in India.

• By the advent of Muslims the traditional indigenous learning bad a setback.
• The education pattern which was prevalent in Arab countries was gradually brought to India
during this period. As a result of this Maktabs(elementary school) and Madrasas came into
existence which received a royal support.
• Madrasas were opened in several places following a set curriculum.
• The Muslim rulers also tried to reform the curriculum of primary school. As a result of that
some important subjects like Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Public
1.1Maktab

♦,- The Maktab was the medium through which primary education was served.

* Maktabs were attached with the mosques or it stood as an independent institution.

Education was also provided in Kbanquahs at some places. (khanquahs means a building
designed specially for the gathering of Sufi brotherhood).
~ Most of the Maktabs were patronized by rulers.

~ The Maktabs received charity from the philanthropists.

:... It was under the guidance of learned Maulavis that the Maktabs ran.
-i- The curriculnm was different in each place, but it was mandatory to learn Alphabets and
recitation of Quran.
_ The students had to by heart some portions of Quran because that was considered important
to perform religious functions. Everybody had to learn Arabic and Persian language
compulsorily, because to get a government job these languages were necessary.
:... Maktab ceremony or Bismilla was performed when the students enter at the age of 4 years,
4 months, and 4 days and this function considered as a pride moment for starting education.
This ceremony marks the start for a child in learning to recite the Quran .in its Arabic script.
:.., In every village at least one Maktab was there.

1.2The Madrasahs

,.,_ The Madrasahs provided secondary and higher education.

* Madrasahs were attached to mosques.
._ The word Madrasah came from the Araic word ' Dars' which means a place where lecture is
given .
...._ The subjects were handled by eminent scholars. They followed lecture method.
* Cuniculum content was both religious and secular and it covered a period of 10 to 12 years.
:.., Religious education included deep study of Quran, Islamic law and Sufism.
* Secnlar subjects were- Literature, logic, history, geography, astronomy, astrology,
arithmetic, agriculture and medicine.

Chief Characteristics of Muslim Education

 a) Developing love for Muslim culture and religion.
b) Enabling the individual for Islamic life.
c) Preparing the students for the next world.
d) Equipping the students for a vocation.
e) Preparing individual for n mning administration.
2. Patronage of the rulers
a) The rulers helped in the spread of education.
b) Institutions and universities were built by them.
c) Financial help was given by big landlords for the spread of education.
d) The rulers did not claim any authority over the institutions.
3. Religion dominated education

a) The whole educational system was endowed with religious ideals.

4. Provision of various discipline
a) Even though the education was primarily religion oriented, it also included study of
intellectual activities like mathematics, grammar, and politics.
b) They also encouraged art and literature
5. Norms of conduct
a) Importance was given for building up personality, character, good behavior, and
pattern of thought of the students.
6. Teacher- pupil relationship
a) The teachers were respected highly in the time of Muslim period same as in the
period of Brahmanic or Buddhist period.
b) The relationship between teacher and student was so good.
7. Individualized instruction
a) Individual attention was given to each student by the teacher, because the number
of students was limited.
8. Monitorial system
a) The teacher would take the help of senior students to teach the younger students.
9. Discipline
a) Punishments were given to students and they were severe.
10. Types of Institution
a) Primary education in Maktabs and secondary and higher education in Madrasahs.
11. Vocational education
 a) Vocational, professional and technical education was also given.

2.0 Hindu System of Education during the medieval Period

By the arrival of Muslims, the state support for Hindu system of education almost ended. So the
Hindu education was depended upon the rich people, scholars and village communities.

Now let 's see the different system of education.

1. The Pathshalas
• Provided elementary education.
• Both in villages and in towns.
• Usually Pathshalas were held m the verandah of some house or under a tree.
Premises of Temples were also used.
• No regular fees from the students. Parents gave presents to teachers.
• Students had to do personal service to teachers.
2. Instructional methods at the elementary stage
► 4 stages of instruction
• 1s t stage- Learning alphabet by writing them on sand.
• 2nd stage- Teacher wrote on palm leaves and the students traced over them
with red pen and charcoal ink.
• 3rd stage- Students wrote and pronounced compound components. Rules of
arithmetic and multiplication tables were taught to students.
• 4th stage- Students were taught to write on papers.
3. Curriculum at the elementary stage
• Knowledge of weights and measures.
• Arithmetic was a compulsory subject. Literature was included.
• Moral and religious instructions also taught to the students.
• In some schools, the students learned the salutation to Goddess Saraswati by heart.
• Instruction in mythology was also given.
KSYPO:IN11

• The medieval period- 6th century to 18th century.

• In 1526 Mogul empire was founded by Babar. But Islam had spread in India long before.
• Islamic values of equity, justice, truthfulness, and honesty attracted people.
• The death of Awrangazed marked the end of Muslim rule in India.

The changes that Muslim rule brought in India:

1. Knowledge system- Establishment of Maktab and Madrasahs.

Important subject like arithmetic, mensuration, Geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public
administration and agriculture were included in the cuniculum.
2. Maktab---- for serving primary education. Attached with Mosques. Maktabs ran by
learned Maulavis. Mandatory to learn Alphabets, recitation of Quran, and Arabic and
Persian language. Maktab ceremony celebrated at the age of 4 years, 4 months and 4 days
of a student. This ceremony marks the start for a child in learning to recite Quran in its
Arabic script.
3. Madrasahs- Provided secondary and higher education. Attached to the Mosques.
Madrasah means a place where lecture is given. Curriculum included religious and secular
subjects.

Chief characteristics of Muslim Education

I. Aims of education
2. Patronage of the rulers
3. Religion dominated education
4. Provision of various discipline
5. Norms of conduct
6. Teacher-pupil relationship
7. Individualized Instruction
8. Monitorial system
9. Discipline
10. Types of institution
11. Vocational education

Hindu system of Education during Medieval Period

1. The Pathshalas- Provided elementary education. Held in the verandah of some houses or
under trees. No fees from students, instead parents gave gifts to teachers.
2. Instructional method at the elementary stage:
4 stages of instruction
• 1s t stage- Learning alphabets by writing them on sand.
• 2nd stage- Teacher wrote on palm leaves and students traced over them
• 3rd stage- Students wrote and pronounced compound components .
• 4th stage- Students were taught to write on papers.
3. Curriculum at the elementary stage- knowledge of weights and measures. Arithmetic was
compulsory. Instruction in mythology was given.
 Colonial Era - Advent of Europeans

European Advent

India has been a major trading destination for many European countries in the Ancient and Medieval
Era. Stories of India' s wealth tempted the EUiopean country to find a sea route to India for trade. The
Portuguese were the initiators of this effort. In 1498. Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to
India and reached Calicut and it made the Portuguese to be the first Eu..!Qp.E!J1 country to trade with
India and find settlements along the coast. The Dutch, English, Dane and French followed.
Gradually the English and the French were left in the field to fight for the Indian trade. Their
ambitions took a tum to achieve political power, and the conditions that followed the collapse of the
Mughal Empire offered them golden opportunity to fish in troubled waters.

During the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the European trading companies in India
competed with each other ferociously. By the last uarter of the eighteenth century, the English
surpassed all others and became the dominant ower in India. The British administered India for a
span of about two centuries and revolutionized the social, political and economic life of the country.

Social and Political Reforms

India's contact with the West made educated Indians realise that socio- religious reform was a
necessity for the overall development of the country. The period of Governor-General Lord William
Bentink (1828-35) marked the beginning of an era of social reform in India, he received help from
Rammohan Roy. Jo 1829, Sati or the ractice of burning a widow with her dead husband was made
illegal or punishable by law. Slavery was declared illegal. With the help of Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar. Lord Dalhousie passed the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856. Vidyasagar also
campaigned against child marriage and polygamy. Governor General Hardinge forbade the cruel
practice of sacrificing young children to please God.

Railways, Postal and Telegraph etc were introduced. It helped to enhance the sense unity among the
people. Lord Cornwallis introduce a new system of revenue collection in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa,
known as the ermanent Settlement in which, the zamindar or revenue collector of an estate became
the permanent owner of the land. The ahalwari system was introduced in Punjab, part of Madhya
Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh, in which a settlement with the village community because
common ownership of land prevailed in these areas. In the Madras Presidency, the Ryotwari system
the ryots. The word "Mahalwari" is derived from the Hindi word Mahal, which means house, district,
neighbourhood or quarter. This system consisted of landlords or lambardars claiming to represent
entire villages or even groups of villages. Along with the village communities, the landlords were
jointly responsible for the payment of the revenues. But, there was individual responsibility. The land
included under this system consisted of all land of the villages, even the forestland, pastmes etc.

Education during Colonial Period

The company wanted some educated Indians who could assist them in the administration of the
land. Also, they wanted to understand the local customs and laws well. For this purpose, Warren
Hastings established the Calcutta Madrassa in 1781 for the teaching of Muslim law. In 1791, a
Sanskrit College was started in Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan for the study of Hindu philosophy
and laws. he missionaries supported the spread of Western education in India primarily for their
conversion activities. They established many schools with education only being a means to an end
which was Christianising and 'civilising' the natives. he Ba tist missionary William Carey had
come to India in 1793 and by I 800 there was a Baptist Mission in Serampore, Bengal, and also a
number of primary schools there and in nearby areas.

The Indian reformers believed that to keep up with times, a modern educational system was needed
to spread rational thinking and scientific principles. The Charter Act of 1813was the first step
towards education being made an objective of the government. he act sanctioned a sum of Rs. I
lakh towards the education of Indians in British ruled India. This act also gave an impetus to the
missionaries who were given official permission to come to India. But there was a split in the
government over what kind of education was to be offered to the Indians.

Orientalist- Anglicist Controversy

• The orientalists preferred Indians to be given traditional Indian education.

• Angilicists, however, wanted Indians to be educated in the western style of education and
be taught western subjects.

• There was also another difficulty regarding the language of instruction. Some wanted the
use of Indian languages (called vernaculars) while others preferred English.

Due to these issues, the sum of money allotted was not given until 1823 when the General
Committee of Public Instruction decided to impart oriental education. In 1835, it was decided that
western sciences and literatare would be imparted to Indians through the medium of English by
Lord William Bentinck' s government.

Macaulay 's Minutes ( I 835 )

Lord Bentinck had appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay as the Chairman of the General
Committee of Public Instruction. Macaulay was an ardent anglicist who had absolute contempt for
Indian learning of any kind.

Macaulay minutes refer to his proposal of education for the Indians. According to him:

o English education should be imparted in place of traditional Indian learning because

the oriental culture was ' defective' and ' unholy'.

o He believed in education a few upper and middle-class students.

o In the course of time, education would trickle down to the masses. This was called
the downward filtration theory.

o He wished to create a class of Indians who were Indian in colour and blood but
English in taste and affiliation.

Wood's Despatch (1 854)

Sir Charles Wood was the President of the Board of Control of the company in 1854 when he sent
a despatch to the then Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie. This is called the 'Magna Carta
of Engl ish education in India.'

Recommendations of the Wood 's Despatch:

o Regularise education system from the primary to the university levels.

o Indians were to be educated in English and their native language.

o The education system was to be set up in every province.

o Every district should have at least one government school.

o Affiliated private schools could be granted aids.

o Education of women should be emphasised.

o Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay were set up by 1857.

 o This despatch asked the government to take up the responsibility of education of the
people.

Assessment of the British efforts on education

Although there were a few Englishmen who wanted to spread education for its own sake, the
government was chiefly concerned only with its own concerns. There was a huge demand for
clerks and other administrative roles in the company 's functioning. It was cheaper to get Indians
rather than Englishmen from England for these jobs. This was the prime motive. No doubt it spread
western education among Indians, but the rate of literacy was abysmally low during British rule.
The state of women education was pathetic. This was because the government did not want to
displease the orthodox nature of Indians and also because women could not generally be employed
as clerks. In 1911 , the illiteracy rate in British India was 94% . In 1921 , it was 92% . Scientific and
technical education was ignored by the British government.

Key Points

• In 1498, Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India and reached Calicut and it made
the Portuguese to be the first European country to trade with India.

• The Dutch, English, Dane and French followed.

• By the last quarter of the eighteenth century, the English surpassed all others and became
the dominant power in India

• The period of Governor-General Lord William Bentink (1828-35) marked the beginning of
an era of social reform in India, he received help from Rammohan Roy.

• In 1829, Sati or the practice of burning a widow with her dead husband was made illegal
or punishable by law.

• With the help of lsh war Chandra Vidyasagar, Lord Dalhousie passed the Widow
Remarriage Act in 1856

• Permanents settlement, the Mahalwari system, ryotawari system etc were introduced
Three agents of modern education in India

• The British Government (East India Company)

• Christian missionaries
 • Indian intellectuals and reformers
Important Acts

• Charter Act of 1813

• Macaulay 's Minutes (1835)
• Wood's Despatch (I 854)
 SENSITIZING INDIA AS A LAND OF DIVERSITY

The extra ordinary characteristic of this land India. is that in-spite of all diversity in
different fields-physical, social, linguistic, cultural and religious; there is a fundamental thread of
unity in the history of India. India has been able to project itself as a single territorial unit in the
face of physical, political, social and economic contrasts. The unifying role of the Great Plains
between the Himalayan ranges on one hand and the Peninsular India on the other can hardly be
ignored. Climatically, the monsoonal rhythm of seasons provides a strong element of uniformity.
The concentration of monsoonal rainfall to a few months in a year and the associated agricultural
activities are an all-India phenomenon.

Many of our cultural traditions are strongly tied to the monsoons. Our saints have spread
the message of universal brotherhood which has helped a great deal in uniting different sections
of society in India and making the country a unified nation. India as country of unity in diversity
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata have produced themes even for tribal dances and music for
thousands of years and still continue to do so. Although Hinduism is the way of life for majority
oflndians,Hinduismandlslamareintertwinedintoacompositematrixthatintegrationoflndiais
strong!yrooted.

Infact,therearealmostasmanyMuslimsinindiaasinPakistan.Centuriesofforeignrule failed to
disrupt our cultural ties. On economic front, the development of inter-regional linkage
andtheemergenceofanationalhomemarkethaveplayedasignificantroleinunitingthecountry. For
example, tea from Assam, wheat from Punjab and Haryana, minerals from Chotanagpur plateau
and spices from the hill areas of the southern states are used all over the country and in
tumtheseareasobta initemsrequiredbythemfromotherareas.Tbisprocesshasbeenaccelerated
byrapiddevelopmentoftransportationandcommunication.Thefollowingaresomeofthefeatures or
phenomena make India as a land of unity indiversity:

ll Geographical Unity: From the very ancient part the whole of India as a geographical unit has
been described as Bharata Varsha or the land of Bharat. This very name is given to the whole
country in the Epics and Puranas. The country that lies north of the ocean and south of the
snowy mountains is called Bharat for their dwell the descendants of Bharata. Its people are
designatedasBharataSantati.ThetermBharatavarshastandsforfundamentalunity,thetermwas
notonlyassociatedwiththegeographicalboundariesbutwiththeideaofuniversalmonarchy.

The theologians,politicalphilosophersandpoetshavealwaysreferredtolndiaasoneandhavehighly
praised the rulers who attempted to extend their political supremacy from Himalaya in the Nmth
 to Cape Camorin in the South, from the river Brahmaputra in the East to Indus in the West. The
rulers of the medieval period also considered India as one geographical unit and sought to
extend their supremacy over this whole land. Even now this Geographical unity is reinforced by
the conception of common motherland "Bharatmata". The song Vandemataram
characteristically embodies this sentiment ofunity.

Z). Political Unity: The sense of the unity of the whole country was promoted by politics also. The
rulers of India established their sway over the whole country and consequently
contemplatedoveritas aunit.Therulersoflndiafromancienttimes aimedtoruleovertheentire
countryandtobecomeChakravarti.Chandragupta,AsokaandSamudraguptahadestablishedtheir
suzerainty over the whole of India and became Chakravarti. The institution of paramount
sovereignty was a familiar political idea of the Hindus in ancient ages. The frequent use of the
terms Rajadhiraj , Samraj, Eka-raja, Adhiraja, Virat, and Sarvabhauma etc. in the ancient Sanskrit
literature and the repeated performance of such rites and sacrifices as the Rajasuya, Vajapeya,
Punaraviseka, Mahabhisekha etc. show that the idea of universal conquest and an all India
overlord-ship was well-known to the ancient Hindus. In the Medieval period Ala-uddin Khilji,
Akbar and Aurangzeb sought to establish their political supremacy over the whole of thecountry.
The Mughals established an imperial system which deepened the conception of oneness of rule
andsamenessofpoliticalexperience.TheB ri tishalsoachievedthe1Opoliticalandadministra ti ve
unityoflndia.Afte1thepoliticalemancipationoflndia,theincorporationofthePrincelyStatesin the
Indian Union has completed this political unity of thecountry.

J1 ReligiogslJpity:Thereisanundercurrentofreligiousunityamongthevariousreligious sects in the

country. The worship of Vishnu and Siva under different names is as widespread in the North as
in the South. The temples of Vishnu and Siva have been constructed all over the
country.Theyraisetheirspiresnotonlyinthesnow-coveredHimalayasandindo-Gangeticplains
butinthedeltasoftheTungabhadra,KaveriandKrishnaalso.TheRamayanaandtheMahabharata have
been studied in the far South as well as in the Punjab, Kashmir and the Doab. The stories of Ram
and Krishna are sung with much devotion and respect in the South, North, East and West. The
Cow, the Vedas, the Gita, the Puranas and other scriptures are respected equally throughout
thecountry.Monotheism,immortalityofthesoul,reincarnation.Karma,Moksha,Nirvanaetc.are the
doctrines believed in and followed by all the sects of the country. The most sacred places of
Hindu pilgrimage such as Badrinarayan in the North, Dwaraka in the West, Rameswaram in the
south and Jagannath Puri in the East embrace the whole of the country and they speak of India
bein one land. The dailv ra er of the Hindus includes the names of all the main rivers of the
 north and the south like the Indus (Sindhu), the Ganga, the Jamuna, the Godavari, the Saraswat:i,
the Narmada and the Kaveri. This speaks of the fundamental unity of the people of India. These
religious beliefs lay emphasis in the fact that India is one land.
~ CulturallJnity:Indiancultureandcivilizationisuniqueinitsfeatures.Nodoubtpeople
followdifferentlanguagesandcustomsbutonecanfi.ndabasicunityofliteraryideas,philosopby, literature,
and conventions throughout the country. The festivals like Diwali, Dussera, Raksha Bandhan and
Hali are celebrated ill every part of the country. The cultural unity and the
homogeneityarealsoreflectedinthesocialceremoniesandthereligiousrites,festivalsandmodes of life
which are the same in north, south, east and west. The sanctity of the family, the rules of the castes,
the Samskar's, the rite of cremating a dead body, the cleanliness of the kitchen etc. are common to
all the communities and sects oflndia.
Sl UnityofLapguage: India enjoyed unity of language. Before the Christian era Prakrit
wasacommonlanguageofthepeople.ThemessageofthernissionariesofAsokawassuccessfully
carriedinthislanguagetothedoorsofhissubjects.SubsequentlyPaliandSanskritreplacedPrakrit
language. Sanskrit has been acknowledged as one sacred language by all sections of the people
irrespective of their race, rank and creed. Different sects and creeds have adopted Sanskrit as the
sacred language of their scripture. Sanskrit has become the original source of different languages of
the country like Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya and Bengali etc. Sanskrit bas always been the
medium of philosophy, theology and mythology. During the time of the British rule English
language achieved success in uniting the people of India when it was declared as the medium of
instruction in all educational institutions and used as the official language. At present Hindi has
been doing the same work. At different periods the Arayans, the Sakas, Scythians, Parthians and
theHunashavecometolndia.Incourseoftime,theyhadlosttheirseparateindividualityandwere
completely absorbed in the Hindu fold. Even large number of Muslims and Christians who have
been living in India are the descendants of the Hindus who were converted to Islam and
Christianity. All the races and tribes living in India have acquired the physicaluniformity.

Indiancultureisanorganicandharmonioussynthesisofalargenumberofhurnancultural trends.Thus
in-spiteoftheappallingdiversitylndiaisherselfthegreatexampleofthedoctrineof
oneinmany.Thereisunityindiversity- aunityformoreprofoundthanthatproducedeitherby
geographical isolation or by political suzerainty. In India there is unity that transcends the
innumerable diversities of blood, colour, language, dress, manners and sects. The unique feature
oflndianculture,civilizationanditsbistorylieinthecontinuityofreligiouspracticesandthespirit of
tolerance by its people in allages.
STRATEGIES TO ATTAIN HARMONIOUS LIVING IN A DIVERSIFIEDSOCIETY
 In order to promote unity in diversity, we should consider a number of steps. First, there
needs to be proportionate development. Second, we should respect the will, aspirations andneeds
of the people. Third, we should identify genuine problems, ascertain their root causes andaddress
themappropriately.Fourth,weshouldmakepeopleawareoftheimportanceofeachother' ssocial,
cultural and religious heritages. And finally, we should recogrnse the fact that each culture,
religion, language and ethnic group is equallyi.mportant.

KEY POINTS

• Unity means integration orsolidarity.

• Durkheim bas pointed out that there are two types of solidarity: Mechanical solidarity and
organicsolidarity.
• Unities in diversity arenotcontradictorytermsratheritshowsthe'feelingofone ' in the existence of
differences.

• Indiahasbeenabletoprojectitselfasasingleterritorialunitinthefaceofphysical, political, social

and economic contrasts.
• Tbefollowingaresomeofthefeaturesorpbenomenamakelndiaasalandofunity indiversity:

1. GeographicalUnity

2. PoliticalUnity

3. Religious Unity

4. Culturalunity

5. Unity ofLanguages.

In order to promote unity in diversity, we should consider a number ofsteps

• First, there needs to be proportionate developmen t.

• Second, we should respect the will, aspirations and needs of the people.

• Third,weshouldidentifygenuineproblems,ascertaintheirrootcausesand address
theappropri ately.
 • Fourth, we should make people aware of the importance of each other' s
social,cultural and religious he1itages.

• Andfinall y, weshou ldrecognizethefacttbateacbcul ture,religion,languageand ethnic

group is equallyimportant

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY ITS

SIGNIFICANCE AND RELEVANCE IN THE PRESENT INDIAN
 CONTEXT

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

• Culture is central to the life of individuals and their learning. It plays a role not only in
communicating and receiving information but also in shaping the thinking process of
groups and individuals.
• A pedagogy that acknowledges responds to and celebrates fundamental cultures offers full,
equitable access to education.
• Today's classrooms require teachers to educate shtdents varying in culture, language,
abilities and many other characteristics (Gollnick& Chinn, 2002). To meet this challenge,
teachers must employ not only theoretically sound but also culturally relevant pedagogy.
• Gloria Ladson - Billings (1994) introduced the term ' Culturally Relevant Teaching' to
describe teaching that integrates a student's background knowledge and prior home and
community experiences into the curriculum and the teaching and learning experiences that
takes place in the classroom.

TENETS OF THIS PEDAGOGY:

1. Holding high expectations for all students

2. Assisting students in the development of cultural competence.
3. Guiding students to develop a critical cultural consciousness.

Gay (2000) and Villegas and Lucas (2002) use the terms ' Culturally Responsive Teaching' or
' Culturally Responsive Pedagogy' to describe teaching that recognises all students learn
differently and that these differences may be connected to background, language, family
structure and social or cultural identity.

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy recognises the importance of including students' cultural

references in all aspects of learning (Ladson - Billings, 1994).

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY:

• It acknowledges the legitimacy of the cultural heritages of different ethnic groups, both as
legacies that affect student's dispositions, attitudes and approaches to learning and as
worthy content to be taught in the formal curriculum.
• It builds bridges of meaningfulness between home and school experiences as well as
between academic abstractions and lived socio- cultural realities.
• It uses a wide variety of instructional strategies that are connected to different learning
styles.
• It teaches students to know and praise their own and each other's cultural heritages.
• It incorporates multiculrural information, resources and materials in all the subjects and
skills routinely taught in schools.
 STRATEGIES FOR CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY:

Jeff Kugler and Nicolas West- Burns (2010) suggested the following strategies to implement a
culturally responsive framework for education.

I. Expand upon what is considered as the curriculum - recognising both the informal and the
subtle ways in which the curriculum defines what is and what is not valued in our schools
and society.
II. Use inquiry -based approaches to student learning to develop engaged and self-directed
learners. Support students in making decisions about their learning that integrate who they
are and what they already know with their borne and community experiences.
ill. Use a variety of resources, including community partners, to ensure the learning
environment and pedagogical materials used are accessible to all learners and that the lives
of students and the community are reflected in the daily workings of the classrooms.
IV. Ensure the curriculum as flexible and adaptive to the lived experiences of students so they
see themselves and their lives reflected in daily learning opportunities.
V. Know and build upon students' prior knowledge, interests, strengths and learning styles and
ensure they are foundational to the learning experience in the classrooms and the school.
VI. Ensure that learning engages broad range of learners so that varied perspectives, learning
styles and source of knowledge are explored.
VII. Differentiate instruction and provide a wide range of methods and opportunities for students
to demonstrate their learning, ensuring both academic rigour and a variety of resources that
are accessible to all learners.
Vill. Work to ensure that socio-cultural consciousness of students is developed through
curricular approaches, emphasizing inclusive and accepting education, to inform critical
examination and action regarding social justice issues.

SIGNIFICANCE AND RELEVANCE IN INDIAN CONTEXT

❖ The globalised sense prevailing in Indian society and the advancement in IT,
Communication bring culturally, linguistically and regionally different people together at
one platform to fulfil their dreams.
❖ In the present scenario of technological and commercially driven sensibility the aim of
higher education in Indian society bas become a mere medium to achieve productive
education which can help only for scientific and tecbnologic growth , mechanic expertise,
data based knowledge and greater sense of being educated leaving behind its core purpose
of upliftment of human values, ethics and culture.
❖ The biased approach towards any particular culture, language bas not been part of Indian
social structure as well as its educational system.
❖ The assimilation of various cultures in Indian society has always profited in richness of
 ❖ From the ancient time Indian higher education concentrated not only to impart education
which can be helpful for survival in the worldly life but also to aid in intellectual and
spiritual enhancement.
❖ For this purpose the greater stress was given on teaching human values, traditions, rites and
rituals with the help of interesting stories, festive ceremonies narratives with higher goals of
human life.

In today's Indian scenario the culturally responsive education should be brought before present
generation in order to have:

(a) Enhancement of higher human values

(b) Concern for environment
(c) Love of humanity
(d) Individualistic spiritual growth.

KEY POINTS :

► Gloria Ladson - Billings (1994) introduced the term ' Culturally Relevant Teaching' to
describe teaching that integrates a student' s background knowledge and prior home and
community experiences into the curriculum and the teaching and learning experiences that
takes place in the classroom.
► Gay (2000) and Villegas and Lucas (2002) use the terms ' Cul turally Responsive
Teachim( or ' Culturally Responsive Pedagogy'
► The term is used to describe teaching that recognises all students learn differently and that
these differences may be connected to background, language, family structure and social or
cultural identity.
► It is a student- centered approach to teaching.

TENETS OF THIS PEDAGOGY:

1. Holding high expectations for all students

2. Assisting students in the development of cultural competence.
3. Guiding students to develop a critical cultural consciousness

Culturally Responsi ve Pedagogy recognises the importance of including students' cultural

references in all aspects of learning (Ladson - Billings, 1994).

Refer to Characteristics of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy given before.

SIGNIFICANCE AND RELEVANCE IN INDIAN CONTEXT

❖ In the present scenario of technological and commercially d1iven sensibility the aim of
higher education in Indian society has become a mere medium to achieve productive
 data based knowledge and greater sense of being educated leaving behind its core purpose
of upliftment of human values, ethics and culture.

1n today's Indian scenario the culturally responsive education should be brought before present
generation in order to have:

(a) Enhancement of higher human values

(b) Concern for environment
(c) Love of humanity
(d Individualistic spiritual growth.
 3.2 Fundamental Right
Fundamental rights are the basic human rights enshrined in the Constitution of India
which are guaranteed to all citizens. They are applied without discrimination on the basis of
race, religion, gender, etc. Significantly, fundamental 1ights are enforceable by the courts,
subject to certain conditions. Fundamental rights are those rits which are essential for
intellectual, moral and spiritual development of citizens of India. As these rights are
fundamental or essential for existence and all-round development of individuals, they are
called 'Fundamental rights'. These are enshrined in Part ill (Articles 12 to 35) of
the Constitution of India. The fundamental rights have been classified under the six
categories

1. Right to Equality
2. Right to Freedom
3. Right against Exploitation
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies

3.2.1 Why are they called Fundamental Rights?

These rights are called fundamental rights because of two reasons. They are enshrined in the
Constitution which guarantees them. They are justifiable (enforceable by courts). In case of a
violation, a person can approach a court of law.

3.2.2 Why there are six fundamental rights

The constin1tion of India had seven fundamental rights that are borrowed from the
constitution of the USA. But later on right to property was abolished and now there are just
six fundamental rights.

3.2.3 Right to Equality Art (14-18)

3.2.3.1 Article 14

1
 This article represents the idea of equality, which states that the state shall not deny to
any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of
India. The equality before the law is guaranteed to all without regard to race, colour, or
nationality.

3.2.3.2 Article 15

This article states that the state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds
only of religion, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them and would not be subject to any
disability, liability, restriction, or condition. Nothing in this article shall prevent the state
from making any special provisions for women and children. So article 15 mainly speaks
about Non-discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.

3.2.3.3 Article 16

Article 16 speaks about Equality of opportunity in public employment. this article

explain that, no citizen shall on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of
birth, residence, or any of them, be ineligible for or discriminated against in respect of any
employment or office under the state. So this law emphasis the public employment.

3.2.3.3 Article 17

Article 17 abolishes Untouchability and forbids its practice in any form.

Untouchability refers to a social practice that looks down upon certain oppressed classes
solely on account of their birth and makes any discrimination against them on this ground.

3.2.3.4 Article 18

Article 18 abolishes all titles and prohibits the state to confer titles on anybody
whether a citizen or a non-citizen. However, military and academic distinctions are exempted
from the prohibition.

3.2.4 Right to Freedom (19-22)

Article 19-22 deals with Right to freedom. Freedom is one of the most important
ideals cherished by any democratic society. The Right to Freedom guarantees to the citizens

2
of India six Fundamental Freedoms 1) Freedom of Speech and Expression, 2) Freedom of
Assembly, 3) Freedom to form associations, 4) Freedom of Movement, 5) Freedom to reside
and to settle, and 6) Freedom of profession, occupation, trade, or business. Some of these
rights are subject to certain conditions of state security, public morality and decency and
friendly relations with foreign countries. This means that the State bas the right to impose
reasonable restrictions on them.

3.2.4.1 Article 19
This article guarantees six freedoms they are,
Freedom of speech and expression: The State guarantees freedom of speech and expression
to every person of India. However, the State can impose restrictions on the freedom of speech
and expression in the interests of the integrity, security and sovereignty of the country,
friendly relations with foreign nations, for public order, with respect to defamation,
incitement to offence or contempt of court.

Freedom to assemble: The State guarantees every person the freedom to assemble
peacefully without arms. However, as above, reasonable restrictions can be imposed in the
interests of the sovereignty and integrity of the country and public order.

Freedom to form associations: The association can be formed by ensuring the security of
the country and the society.

Freedom to move freely: A citizen of India can move freely throughout the tenitory of
India. But this right can also be restricted on the grounds of security, public order or for
protecting the interests of the Scheduled Tribes.

Freedom of residence: Citizens of India have the right to reside in any part of the country.
Although restrictions can be imposed on the grounds of secmity.

Freedom of profession: All citizens have the right to carry on any trade or
profession/occupation, provided the trade or occupation is not illegal or immoral. Also, the
law does not prevent the State from making laws related to technical or professional
qualifications required for practicing the occupation or trade.

3.2.4.2 Article 20

3
Article 20 deals with the protection of citizens in respect of conviction for offences. This
provides for three types of protection of the individual.

Retrospective criminal legislation: This is also known as ex-post facto criminal legislation.
Under this, a person cannot be convicted for an act that was committed at a time when the act
had not been declared by law as an offence.

Double jeopardy: This indicates that a person cannot be convicted for the same offence
more than once.

Prohibition against self-incrimination: This implies that no person accused of an offence

shall be compelled by the State to bear witness against himself.

3.2.4.3 Article 21

Article 21 states no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to
the procedure established by law. This article was introduced by the 86th Constitutional
Amendment in 2002. It provides that the State shall provide free and compulsory education to
all children between the ages of 6 and 14.

3.2.4.4 Article 22:

This article Safeguards against Arbitrary Arrest and Detention

Firstly, article 22 guarantees the right of every person who is arrested to be informed of the
cause of his arrest;
Secondly, his right to consult and to be defended by a lawyer of his choice.
Thirdly, every person a1Tested and detained in custody shall be produced before the nearest
Magistrate within a period of twenty-four hours and shall be kept in continued custody only
with his authority.

3.2.5 Right against Exploitation (Articles 23 - 24)

This right implies the prohibition of traffic im human beings, beggar, and other forms of
forced labor. It also implies the prohibition of children in factories, etc. The Constitution
prohibits the employment of children less than 14 years in hazardous conditions.

4
3.2.5.l Article 23
Traffic in human beings and the beggar and other similar forms of forced labor are
prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in
accordance with the law. Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from imposing
compulsory service for public purposes, and in imposing such service the State shall not
make any discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste or class or any of them.
Article 23 protects citizens not only against the State but also from private citizens.

3.2.5.2 Article 24
This article introduces the Prohibition of employment of children in factories. No
child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or
engaged in any other hazardous employment.

3.2.6 Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25 - 28)

This indicates the secular nature of Indian polity. There is equal respect given to all
religions. There is freedom of conscience, profession, practice and propagation of
religion. The State has no official religion. Every person has the right to freely practice
his or her faith, establish and maintain religious and charitable institutions.

3.2.6.1 Article 25

Article 25 guarantees the freedom of conscience, the freedom to profess, practice, and
propagate rnligion to all citizens. This freedom subject to public order, health, and
morality.

3.2.6.2 Article 26

This Article provides that every religious denomination has the following rights,
subject to morality, health, and public order.

1. The right to form and maintain institutions for religious and charitable intents.
2. The right to manage its own affairs in the matter of religion.
3. The right to acquire the immovable and movable property.
4. The right to administer such property according to the law.

3.2.6.3 Article 27

5
 According to Article 27 of the Constitution, there can be no taxes, the proceeds of which
are directly used for the promotion and/or maintenance of any particular religion.
3.2.6.4 Article 28
This article permits educational institutions that are maintained by religious groups to
disseminate religious instruction.

3.2. 7 Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29 - 30)

These rights protect the rights of religious, cultural and linguistic minorities, by
facilitating them to preserve their heritage and culture. Educational rights are for ensuring
education for everyone without any discrimination.

3.2.Article 29

The State shall not deny admission into educational institutes maintained by it or
those that receive aids from it to any person based on race, religion, caste, language, etc. This
right is given to individuals and not any community.

Article 30

This article introduces the right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational
Institutions. This right is given to minorities to form and govern their own educational
institutions. Article 30 is also called the "Charter of Education Rights".

Right to Constitutional Remedies (32 - 35)

The Constitution guarantees rernedjes if citizens' fundamental rights are violated. The
government cannot infringe upon or curb anyone's rights. When these rights are violated, the
aggrieved party can approach the cow:ts. Citizens can even go directly to the Supreme
Cow:t whlch can issue writs for enforcing fundamental rights.

Article 33

Article 33 empowers Parliament to modify the application of Fundamental Rights to

the armed forces or forces charged with the maintenance of public order. On the other hand,
Article 35 lies down that the power to make laws to give effect to certain specified
Fundamental Rights shall vest only with the Parliament and not with State Legislatures.

6
Article 34: This article state that restriction on rights conferred by this part
while marital law is in force in any area.
Article 35: This article state that article legislation to give effect to the provisions of this
part.
Nature of Rights
• Fundamental rights are equal for all.
• Rights are justiciable - Article 32
• Fundamental rights are not absolute.
• They limit the auth01ity of the central and state governments.
• Fundamental rights distinguish between citizens and foreign nationals.
• They can be suspended during emergency.
• Parliament can amend Fundamental rights.
Critical Evaluation Of Fundamental Rights
• No rights outside the constitution
• Too many limitations
• Preventive Detention and Fundamental rights
• Rights can be suspended during emergency
• Absence of Economic rights
• Vague and complex language
• Supremacy of Parliament over Fundamental Rights
• Special concessions for minorities and backward classes are against the Principle of
Equality

Key points
Fundamental Right: Fundamental rights are the basic human rights enshrined in the
Constitution of India which are guaranteecll to all citizens. They are applied without
discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender, etc.

7. Right to Equality
8. Right to Freedom
9. Right against Exploitation
10. Right to Freedom of Religion
11. Cultural and Educational Rights
12. Right to Constitutional Remedie.

7
Explanations of the right
Right to Equality Art
Article 14: This article represents the idea of equality.
Article 15: This article states that the state shall not discriminate against any citizen on
grounds only of religion, caste, sex, place of birth.

Article 16: This article speaks about Equality of opportunity in public employment.

Article 17: This article abolishes Untouchability and forbids its practice in any form.

Article 18: This article abolishes all titles and prohibits the state to confer titles on anybody.

Right to Freedom

Article 19: This article guarantees six freedoms they are,

Freedom of speech and expression, Freedom to assemble, Freedom to form

associations, Freedom to move freely, Freedom of profession, Freedom of residence

Article 20: This deals with the protection of citizens in respect of conviction for offences.
This provjdes for three types of protection of the inilividual.

Retrospective criminal legislation:

Double jeopardy:
Prohibition against self-incrimination

Article 21: this states that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except
according to the procedure established by law.

Article 22: This article Safeguards against Arbitrary Arrest and Detention

Article 23: Traffic in human beings and the beggar and other similar forms of forced labor
are prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in
accordance with the law.
Article 24: This article introduces the Prohibition of employment of children in factories.

Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25 - 28}

8
 This indicates the secular nature of Indian polity. There is equal respect given to all
religions.

Article 25: This article guarantees the freedom of conscience, the freedom to profess,
practice, and propagate religion to all citizens

Article 26: This Article provjdes that every religious denomination has the follow ing
rights, subject to morality, health, and public order

Article 27: According to this Article of the Constitution, there can be no taxes, the
proceeds of which are directly used for the promotion and/or maintenance of any
particular religion.

Article 28: This article permits educational institutions that are maintained by religious groups
to disseminate religious instruction
Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29 - 30)
These rights protect the rights of religious
Article 29: The State shall not deny admission into educational institutes maintained by it or
those that receive aids from it to any person based on race, religion, caste, language, etc. This
right is given to individuals and not any community.

Article 30: This article introduces the right of Minorities to Establish and Administer
Educational Institutions.

Right to Constitutional Remedies (32 - 35)

The Constitution guarantees remedies if citizens' fundamental rights are violated.

Article 33 empowers Parliament to modify the application of Fundamental Rights to

the armed forces or forces charged with the maintenance of public order.
Article 34: This article state that restriction on rights conferred by this part while

marital law is in force in any area.

Article 35: This article state that article legislation to give effect to the provisions of this
part.

9
 Haibin Mathew

Preamble of the Indian constitution

Text

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its
citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political; (Adopted from USSR)

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity, and to promote among them all,

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
(Adopted from French revelution).

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this 26th day of November 1949, do HEREBY

ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES TIDS CONSTITUTION.

Historic background

It was, indeed, a way of life, which recognizes liberty, equality, and fraternity as the principles of
life and which cannot be divorced from each other: Liberty cannot be divorced from equality;
equality cannot be divorced from liberty. Nor can liberty and equality be divorced from fraternity.
Without equality, liberty would produce the supremacy of the few over the many. Equality without
liberty would kill individual initiative. Withoutfraternity, liberty and equality could not become a
natural course of things.

The Supreme Court of India originally stated in the Berubari case presidential referencel that the
preamble is not an integral part of the Indian constitution, and therefore it is not enforceable in a
court of law. However, the same court, in the 1973 Kesavananda case, over-ruled earlier decisions
and recognized that the preamble may be used to interpret ambiguous areas of the constitution
where differing interpretations present themselves. In the 1995 case of Union Government Vs LIC
of India, the Supreme Court once again held that the Preamble is an integral part of the
Constitution.
 Haibin Mathew

The preamble-page, along with other pages of the original Constitution of India, was designed and
decorated by the renowned painter Beohar Rammanohar Sinha of Jabalpur

The preamble was amended only once on 18 December 1976, with most of the opposition being
jailed during the Emergency in India, the Indira Gandhi government pushed through several
changes in the Forty-second Amendment of the constitution. Through this amendment:, the words
"socialist" and "secular" were added between the words "Sovereign" and "democratic" and the
words "unity of the Nation" were changed to "unity and integrity of the Nation".

The sours of the constitution

Our preamble starts from "We the people of India" and ends with "Do here by adopt, enact and
give to ourselves this constitution" so from this we can understand that the people of India are
the sours of the Indian constitution

Nature of Indian state

Sovereign

Sovereign means the independent authority of a State. It means, that it has the powei- to legislate
on any subject; and that it is not subject to the control of any other State I external power.

Sovereignty, in short, means the independent authority of a state. It has two aspects- external and
internal. External sovereignty or sovereignty in international law means the independence of a
State of the will of other states, in her conduct with other states in the committee of nations.
Sovereign in its relation between states and among states signifies independence.

The external sovereignty of India means that it can acquire foreign teITitory and also cede any part
of the Indian territory, subject to limitations (if any) imposed by the constitution. On the other
hand, internal sovereignty refers to the relationship between the states and the individuals within
its teni tory.

Socialist

Before the term was added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the Constitution had socialist content
in the form of certain Directive Principles of State Policy.
 Haibin Mathew

The term socialist used here refers to democratic socialism, i.e. achievement of socialist goals
through democratic, evolutionary and non-violent means.

wealth should be shared equally by society through distributive justice, not concentrated in the
hands of few, and that the government should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce
socio-economic inequalities.

Secular

Secular means that the relationship between the government and religious groups are determined
according to constitution and law. It separates the power of the state and religion. By the 42nd
Amendment in 1976, the term "Secular " was also incorporated in the Preamble.

Hinduism, Buddhism , Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity and Islam are equally respected and
moreover, there is no state religion.

All the citizens of India are allowed to profess, practice and propagate.

Explaining the meaning of secularism as adopted by India, Alexander Owics has written,
"Secularism is a part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution and it means equal freedom
and respect for all religions."

Democratic

The people of India elect their governments by a system of universal adult franchise, popularly
known as "one person one vote" .

The word democratic refers not only to political democracy but also to social and economic
democracy.

Republic

In a republican form of government, the head of state is elected and not a hereditary monarch.

As opposed to a monarchy, in which the head of state is appointed on a hereditary basis for life or
until abdication, a democratic republic is an entity in which the head of state is elected, directly or
indirectly, for a fixed tenure. Thus, India has a president who is indirectly elected and has a fixed
term of office. There's an absence of a privileged class and all public offices are open to every
citizen without discrimination.
 Haibin Mathew

Objectives of Indian constitution

Justice

Justice stands for rule of law, absence of arbitrariness and a system of equal rights, freedom and
opportunities for all in a society.

India seeks social, economic and political justice to ensure equality to its citizens.

(i) Social Justice:

Social Justice means the absence of socially privileged classes in the society and no cliscrimination
against any citizen on grounds of caste, creed, color, religion, gender or place of birth. India stands
for eliminating all forms of exploitations from the society.

(ii) Economic Justice:

Economic Justice means no discrimination between man and woman on the basis of income,
wealth and economic status. It stands for equitable distribution of wealth, economic equalities, the
end of monopolistic control over means of production and distribution, decentralization of
economic resources, and the securing of adequate opp01tunities to all for earning their living.

(iii) Political Justice:

Political justice means equal, free and fair opportunities to the people for participation in the
political process. It stands for the grant of equal political rights to all the people without
discrimination. The Constitution of l nclia provides for a liberal democracy in which all the people
have the right and freedom to participate.

Equality

The idea of equality refers the equality in between the people of Inclia. According to this,
opp01tunities should be provided to the citizens irrespective of cast, creed, color, gender,
discrimination and all should be treated equally before the law
 Haibin Mathew

Liberty

The idea of Liberty refers to the freedom on the activities of Indian nationals. This establishes that
there are no unreasonable restrictions on Indian citizens in term of what they think, their manner
of expressions and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action. However, liberty does
not mean freedom to do anything, and it must be exercised within the constitutional limits.

Fraternity

This refers to a feeling of brotherhood and a sense of belonging with the country among its people.
It embraces psychological as well as territorial dimensions of National Integration. It leaves no
room for regionalism, communalism, casteism etc., which hinders the unity of the State.

The Preamble declares that fraternity bas to assure two things-the dignity of the individual and
the unity and integrity of the nation. The word 'integrity' has been added to the Preamble by the
42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976)

Forty-second Amendment

The preamble has been amended only once so far. On 18 December 1976, during the Emergency in
India, the Indira Gandhi government pushed through several changes in the Forty-second
Amendment of the constitution. A committee under the chairmanship of Sardar Swaran
Singh recommended that this amendment be enacted after being consulted to study the question of
amending the constitution in the light of past experience. Through this amendment, the words
"socialist" and "secular" were added between the words "Sovereign" and "democratic" and the
words "unity of the Nation" were changed to "unity and integrity of the Nation".
Unit -2 Article 45&30(1}, Constitution Value and aims of Education.

Article 45

Art icle 45 in the constitution of India 1949,Provision for free and compulsory education for
children The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until
they complete the age of fourteen years.

Education of Minorities - Article 30 ( 1)

Article 30 in the Constitution of India 1949, Right minorities to establish and

administer educational institutions. It reads, (i) all minorities whether based on
religion or language shall have the right to establish and administer educational
institution of their choice,(i i) The state shall not, in grating an Aid to educational
institution discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that is under
the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.

Constitutional value and Aims of Education

The Indian Construction has certain core Constitutional values that constitute its
spirit and are expressed in various article and provisions.

These are: Sovereignty, Socialism, Secularism , Democracy, and Republican character

of Indian state, Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, Human dignity and the Unity
and Integrity of the Nation. The aims of Indian education has been deeply rooted in
the values specified in the constriction.

1. Development of Democratic Values in the People: These values apart

include a spirit of large -hearted from one another. No education is worthwhile
if an educated man does not translate these values in his behaviour and no
democracy in that case can survive for long. Hence, education has to make
deliberate and planned effort on development of these values in the people.

2. National Integration: It means harmonizing religious, language, caste, and

class and community differences as they exist in India causing social tension. It
is essential that the people of India in spite of these differences live peacefully
and cooperatively and utilize their varied talents for the enrichment of the
national life as a whole. Education through various programmes and tailored
curricula should make efforts to develop in the people such attitudes and
values.
3. Development of Social , Moral and Spiritual Va lues: In a Democrat ic
country like India it is inevitable to inculcate social, moral and spiritual values
in t he people. Knowledge in the absence of essential values may be dangerous.
The success of democracy, its strength and stability are contingent upon
people's developed sense of social responsibility and a keener appreciation of
moral and spiritual values hence, education must make efforts on developing
t hese values in t he people.

4. Social and Nati onal Development: Education should be able, to

discharge its natural functions and must correspond to its structure, goals and
content in the interest of national development and social progress.

5. Social Transformati on: Education should enable t o bring desirable changes

in t he society.

6. Development of Physical Resources: Modernization of agriculture and

rapid industrialization also be an import ant aim of education in a democracy
like India.

7. Conservation and Preservati on of Culture: The education has to

provide for the preservation of the rich and varied cult ure of the country.

The education in India has to aimed to attain the Constitutional values such as
democracy, secularism, liberty, equality , j ustice, fraternity.
 Unit - 2

Iss1Jes related to inequality, discrimination and marginalization. It's impact

on the fulfillment of the constitutional promise of freedom-justice-equality
and fraternity.

lnilia face many problems like inequality, discrimination and marginalization etc.

1) Inegualitv
Inequality is the difference in social status, wealth or opportunity b/w people or
groups. there for different types of inequalities. They are,
1. Economic inequality
2. Gender inequality
3. Political inequality
4. Income inequality
5. Social inequality

economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity b/w different
groups in society.

• I~ tam ts ru: e£.onamk lm:qyalib'.

* Growth in technology.
* Personal factors.
* Gender gap.
* Education affected wages.
* Wages are determined by labor market.
* Wealth concentration.
* Globalization.

2- Gender Inegualitv

- Gender inequality acknowledges that men and women are not equal and gender affects on
individual living experiences.
- Gender inequality is the social process by which men and women are not treated as equal.

• Caus~li /issueli of !:i;ender Ine~ualin

* Gender inequality wages and earnings is a part attributable to gender job segregation.
Segregation may be the results of explicit job discrimination by employees or it may
be a function of general norms. That shape the emotional and job decision of women
and men.

* Un even access to education.

Lack of employment equality.
*
* Racism.
Lack of Religious freedom.
*
* Social mind set.
Sexual harassment.
*
* Un equal payment in the workplace.
* Women are promoted less often than men.
* Fear of asking to be paid what you are worth.

3- Political Inequality

- Political inequality is the difference brought about by the ability to access governmental
resources, which there for have no civil inequality.

- Political inequality is structured difference in the distribution of political resources. One

group has greater or lesser access to, or acquisition of political resources than another group.

4- Income Inequalitv

Income inequality is an extreme concentration of wealth or income in the hands of small

percentage of population.

• Efk~ts ~[ lru:rune lneq1u1li~

* Higher rates of health & social problems.
* Lower rates of social goods.
* Pol icies to reduce economic or income inequality.
* Lower level of economic growth. When human capital is neglected for high end -
consumption.
5 - Social Inequalitv

Social Inequal ity is the Existence of unequal distribution opportunities of rewards for
different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and
recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of good, wealth, opportunities, rewards and
punishment.

Social inequality refers to disparities in the distribution of economic basis of income as well
as between the overall quality luxury of each person, existence within a society.
While economic inequality is caused by the unequal accwnulation of wealth, social
inequality access because of the lack of wealth in certain area. This people from obtaining the
same housing, health care etc.

2) Discrimination

Discrimination is the act of making unjustified distinctions between human being based on
the groups, classes or other categories to which they are Perceived to belong. People may be
discriminated on the basis of race, gender, age~ religion or sexual orientation as well as other
categories.

3) Marginalization

Marginalization is a process of where by something or someone is pushed to the edge of a

group & accorded lesser importance.

• Cause~ of Marginalization
* Lack of understanding these groups.
* Lack of acceptance.
* Intolerance.
* Stigmatization.
* Prejudice.
 - The impact on the fulfillment of the Constitutional promise of freedom, justice,
equality and fraternity.

J) Freedom

The right to freedom is the most important fundamental right granted by the Indian
constitution. It is the prevalence of these freedom that make democracy meaningful. Article
19 of the Constitution provides freedom namely.

I. Freedom of speech & expressions -19 (a)

2. To assemble peaceably & without arms -19(b)
3. To form associations & unions - l 9(c)
4. To move freely throughout the territory of India - 19(d)
5. To reside & settle in any part of the territory oflndia -19(e)
6. To practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or bussiness-19(f)
Article 19 are not unrestricted. They are subjected to reasonable restrictions which
may be imposed by the state.

2) Justice

Indian Constitution guarantees justice to all. All Indian citizens are guaranteed equal
rights to life of personal liberty.

lndia seeks social, economic and political justice to ensure equal to it's
citizens.

1. Social justice: social justice means the absence of socially privileged classes in the
society & no discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, creed, color,
religion, gender or place of birth. India stands for eliminating all forms of
exploitation from the society.
11. Economic justice: economic justice means no discrimination between man & women
on the basis of income, wealth & economic status.
111. Political justice: It means, equal, free & faire opportunities to the people for
participation in the political process.
3) Equality

Equality is ensuring individuals or group of people are not treated differently or less
favorably on the basis of their specific protected characteristics inclucting area of race, gender,
religion or belief and sexual orientation. There are ctifferent types of equality.

* Sexual equality.
* Civil equality.
* Political equality.
* Economic equality.
* Equality of opportunity of education.

4) Fraternitv

It means a sense of brotherhood. The Constitution promotes their feeling of fraternity by

tbe system of single citizenship. The preamble describes that fraternity has to assure two
things.

I. The dignity of individual of the nation.

II. Unity of integration of the nation.
These are the Indian Constitutional promises ...... !

1) What is marginalization?
2) Wbat are the ctifferent types of inequality?
3) Suggest any two measure to solve issues related to marginalization?
4) There are many issues related to inequality & marginalization, write the major issues
& suggest measure to solve them?
5) What is justice?
6) What is freedom?
7) Wbat is the cause of gender inequality?
8) What is social inequality and it's causes?
9) What is equality & what is inequality?

10) what is the causes of marginalization?

 UNIT - II

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICIES - THEIR

IMPLICATIONS IN THE CURRENT CONTEXT

The framers of the Indian constitution were aware of the fact that the state had to
face challenges. They knew well that the most important of such challenges was to provide
equal welfare to all the citizens. They realized that, for facing these problems certain policy
directives were necessary. It was in this context that the framers included a chapter for
directive ptinciples of state policy in the constitution. There are two major goals for the
inclusion of directive principles in the constitution. They are:

• To ensure the enjoyment of social, economic and political j ustice by each and every
individual.
• To establish a welfare state.

What are the directive principles?

Directive principles of state policy are guidelines to the future governments which they
should consider when they formulate policies and make laws. In short these Directives are the
policies which the state should follow in achieving the directive principles of social,
economic and political justice, liberty, equal:itty and fraternity which exposed through the
preamble to the constitution.

The directive p1inciples of state pol:itcy contained in part iv; Article 36-Slof the
Indian constitution constitute the most interesting and enhancing part of the constitution. The
idea of directives being included in the constitution was b01Towed from the constitution of
Ireland. The directives are non-justiciable in character. Directive principles are not
enforceable by any court.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

The constitution does not contain any classification of the directive principles.
However, on the basis of their content and direction, they can be classified into 3 broad
categories:
 Socialistic principles Gandhian principles Liberal-Intellectual
principles

• Securing welfare of the • To organize village • To secure uniform

people(Article.38) pancbayats (Art.40) civil code through out

• Securing proper • To secure living wage , the country (Art.44).

distribution of material decent standard of • To separate the
resources of the life.(Art.43) judiciary from the
community(Art.39) • To promote cottage executive in the public

• Equal pay for equal industries(Art.43) services of the

work(Art.39) • To provide free and state(Art.50)

• Protection of childhood compulsory education • To protect monuments

and youth against to all children up to 14 of historic and
exploitation (Art.39) years of age(Art.45) nationalunportance

• Right to work, education, • To promote economic (Art.49)

etc. (Art.41 ) and educational • To promote

• Securing just and interests of the weaker international peace

humane conditions of section of the people , and security(Art.51 )
work and maternity relief particularly, the
etc.(Art.42) scheduled castes and
scheduled
tribes.(Art.46)

• To enforce prohibition
of intoxicating
drinks(Art.47), and cow
slaughter(Art.48).

• To organize agiiculture
and animal husbandry
on scientific
lines(Art.48)
 IMPLICATION OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
IN THE CURRENT CONTEXT
The directive principles contain mainly 3 things.
• The goals and objectives of the state.
• The policies which the government should follow.
• Certain rights other than fundamental lights.

Directives in the nature of ideals of the state

• The state shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by seculing a social
order permeated by the social, economic, and political justice.
• The state shall endeavour to secure just and humane conditions of work, a
living wage, a decent standard of living and social and cultural opportunities
for all workers.
• The state shall direct its policy towards securing equitable distribution of the
material resources of the community and prevention of concentration of
wealth and means of production.
• The state shall endeavour to promote international peace and amity(Art.51)

Directives shaping the policv of the state

• To establish economic democracy and justice by seculing certain economic

lights.
• To develop cottage industries.
• To secure uniform civil code for the citizens (Art.44).
• To prohibit consumption of liquor and intoxicating drugs except for medicinal
purposes (Art.47).
• To organize agriculture and animal husbandry on modem and scientific lines.
• To prevent the slaughter of useful cattle (Art.48).
• To organize village panchayat as units of self government (Art.40).
• To promote educational and economic interests of weaker sections.
• To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wild life
(Art.48A).
 • To protect and maintain places of historic and artistic interest (Art.49).
• To separate the judiciary from the executive (Art.50).

Non -justiciable rights of citizens

• Right to get adequate means of livelihood.

• Right of both sexes to equal pay for equal work (Art.39 d).
• Rights against economic exploitation.
• Right of chilcken and the young to be protected against exploitation and to
opportunities for healthy development, consonant with freedom and dignity.
• Right to equal opportunity for justice and free legal aid (Art.39A).
• Right to public assistance in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and
other cases of undeserved want(Art.41).
• Right to humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
• Right to a living wage and conditions of work ensuring decent standard of life
for workers.
• Right of workers to participate in management of industties.
• Right of children to early childhood care and education till the age of 6 years
(Art.45).

The efforts of translating the directive principles into reality are

first of all evident in the five year plans. A lot of land reform programmes have
been launched to lift the social and economic status of the poor and landless
farmers of the country. The state owned factories, industries and corporations are
expanding and more and more people have been given employment. Various
legislations such as The Employees State Insurance Act , Workmen
Compensation Act, The Minimum Wage Act etc. some of the efforts which tt·y
to establish a just order taking guidelines from the DPSP. Government enacted
Equal Remuneration Act in 1976 which provides equal pay for equal work for
both men and women.

The government has launched National Social Assistance

Programme for the poor and old age people, which involves Indira Gandhi Old
Age Pension Scheme, Indhira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme
(IGNWPS), Indhira Gandhi NationaJ Disability Pension Scheme (IGNDPS),
NationaJ Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS) and Annapurna.

The Mahatma Gandhi NationaJ RuraJ Employment Guarantee

(MGNREGA) was introduced in 2005 as NREGA to enforce the directive
principle embodied in the Article 39, 41. To enhance the nutritional level of the
children and adolescent girls a lot of programmes have been launched such as
Mid - day meaJ scheme , ICDS, SABLA etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

The key difference between fundamental rights and directive principles are given
below:

Fundamental Rights Directive Principles

They refer to the basic rights guaranteed They are the guidelines to the state to
to the citizens of India under the Indian be followed while framing laws and
constitution. principles.
They are written in part 3, Article 12-35 They are written in part 4, Article 36-
of the constitution of India. 51 of the constitution of India.
It is negative in nature as it prevents the They are positive in nature as it
government from doing certain things. requires the government to do certain
things.
They are justiciable as they can be They are not justiciable as they cannot
enforced and their violation is a be enforced and their violation is not a
punishable crime. punishable crime.
They establish political democracy. They establish social and economic
democracy.
They are legal sanctions. They are moral and political sanctions.
They promote individual welfare. They promote the welfare of the entire
community.
IMPORTANT IDGHLIGHTS

► Directive principles of state policies are guidelines to the future

governments which they should consider when they formulate policies and
make laws.
► In short these directives are the policies which the state should follow in
achieving the directive principles of social, economic and political justice,
liberty, equality and fraternity which exposed through the preamble to the
constitution.
► Part 4 of the constitution from Articles 36-51.
► Borrowed this idea from the Irish constitution Of 1937, which had copied
it from the Spanish constitution.
► lt embodies Gandhi 's concept of the 'welfare state'.
► Granville Austin has described the directive principles and fundamental
rights as the ' conscience of the constitution' .
► Dr B R Ambedkar described these principles as ' novel features' of the
Indian constitution.
► The directive principles are non justiciable in nature , that is they are not
legally enforceable by the courts for their violation.
► The government (central, state and local) cannot be compelled to
implement them.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

On the basis of the content and direction they can be classified into 3 broad
catego1ies:

1. Socialistic
2. Gandhian
3. Liberal-intellectual
 IMPLEMENTATION OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
• Planning commission
• Land reforms laws
• Minimum wages act(l948), child labour prohibition act(l986), mines
act, etc.
• Maternity benefit act(1961), equal remuneration act(1976).
• Nationalization of life insurance, general insurance, commercial banks
• Legal services authorities act
• Khadi village and industties, coir board, handloom board, silk board,
etc.
• Rural employment programs
• Wild life protection act, forest act, pollution control board
• Agiiculture modernization programs: irrigation fertilizers, seeds, etc.
• Panchayati raj system
• Reservation for SC/ST and weaker sections
• Judiciary separated from executive
• Monuments, places and objects of national importance
• Public health
• Old age pension
• Prohibition of slaughter of cows

REFERENCES

► https://youtu.be/9JKHv7gsBBo
► https://youtu.be/kSlWYCDk l bc
► https://youtu.be/VYEqqjnbOZc
► SCERT + 1 Political Science texrt book
► Contemporary India and Education - Dr. Santhosh Areekk:uzhiyil
► Knowindia.gov .in
► Javatpoint.com
 UNIT: 3

Inequalities : Caste, Colour backwardness. Cultural social and

Economic Backwardness

The constitution of lnclia codify the fundamental rights of its citizens, which are defined
in part 3 of the constitution. One sucb right is the Right to equality, which is protected under
Article 14 to 18. Article 14 Says that "the state shall not deny to any person equality before
the law or equal protection of the law within the territory of lndia. Thus equality of all was
the keystone of the lndian constitution, inequality is prevalent in India more than any other
countries.

Meaning of inequality

Inequality is the difference in social status, wealth or opportunity between people or groups.
The Cambridge dictionary describe inequality as the unfair situation in society when some
people have more oppoitunity than other people. It is even more simply as the state of not being
equal, especially in status, right and opportunities. It is also refers to as the unequal access to
anything. Inequality exist in terms ofreligion, caste, language and region and there are historic
reason for the same. The term itself is quite vast and has various interpretations. For the purpose
of simplicity inequality would be broadly classified as Economic inequality and social
inequality.

Causes of inegualitv

1) Private ownership of means of production

2) Law of inheritance
3) Poverty
4) Inadequate employment generation
5) Inflation ( It is a situation in which the prices of the commoclity increase or the
value of the money falls)
6) Privatisation and Globalization
7) Differential regional growth
8) Concentration of economic power in the hands of few
9) Inequality in professional training
Different types of inequalities

1. Caste base inequality and backwardness

Cast in India is a social institution that perform multiple function. It is a unit of social division,
a source of discrimination and exclusion, a strong community consciousness based on ascribed
status and a social category chosen for a policy of protective discrimination by the state in
independent India, all at the same time. A strong caste consciousness create boundaries along
caste line and helps in the making of a hierarchical order. It is based on birth. It is purely an
ascribed status so no one cannot advance and improve their social status in any way. Caste
based discrimination is mainJy associated with Indian Hindu community. Mainly there are
Sdifferent castes in India. They are-

!) Brahmin ( priest, academics)

2) Kshatriya ( warriors )
3) Vaishya ( Merchants, land owners)
4) Sudra ( Commoners, peasants, servants )
5) Untouchables ( out of caste, sweepers)

In this type of stratification system, status of individuals in each class is ascribed at birth in
accordance with the Hindu religion, beliefs and customs and social mobility is completely close
off to members of an inferior caste. caste membership determines social status, positions and
occupations of individuals

In modern period caste system is weekend due to urbanjzation and development of democracy.
Rigidity and strictness in urban areas are weakened due to better implementation of laws.
Discrimination of lower castes is still common in rural areas. The Caste System which has a
long history of discrimination, is difficult to be taken out of one 's life.

2. Colour based inequalities and backwardness

Colour or racial inequality can be defined as imbalances in the distribution of power, economic
resources and opportunities based on skin colour. It is also called colourism or shadeism.
Racism is typically understood to be dfacrin1ination committed against people of a different
ethnicity. There is a bel ief that certain group of people are innately inferior to other groups of
people based on their racial classification. Race is a social category not a biological one.
Just like caste in India, race in South Africa stratifies into a hierarchy. South Africa' s white
minority held the dominant share of power and wealth. Researchers have founded extensive
evidence of discrimination based on skin coJour in criminal justice, business, economy,
housing, heaJth care, media and politics in the USA and Europe.

3. CulturaJ inequalities and backwardness

CuJtural inequality is defined as perceived or actual differences in the treatment,

public recognition or status of different groups cultural norms, practices, symbols
and customs. Group grievances and violent conflict can emerge out of the inferior
treatment or status afforded to different groups cultural practices by the state.
However in many conflicts, political and economic issues are complemented by
perception of cultural discrimination, exclusion or inequality of treatment
Cultural inequalities cover a range of practices and intentionally on the part of
the state in question. They can be grouped into 3. They are

1. Recognition of religious practices and observances

In muJti religious society, different levels of formal recognition or

restrictions on the observance of rel igious practices are often an important sources of
cultural status inequaJity.

2. Languages and language recognition :

The privi leges of one of a few language over others often a type of inequaJity. The
dominance of those for whom these languages are the mother tongue. Conflict revolving
around language have been notable in India.

3. Recognition of ethno cultural practices

The states recognition and support for the cultural practices of different groups is
another important aspect of cultural inequality. Which is also expressed in the
functioning of state itself in the form of identity of the state.
4. Social inequalities and backwardness

The preamble of Indian constitution declare social justice to be one of the

objective of the constitution, to be achieved through various provisions in the
constitution. The most important provision is the directives principles of state
policy. This article highlight the important concept related to social justice and
social inequality.

.Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and

reward for different positions or status within a group or society. Social inequality
resuJt from a society organized by hierarchy of class, race, and gender that broker
access to resources and right in ways that their distribution is unequal. It contains
structured and recurrent pattern of unequal distribution of goods, wealth,
opportunities, rewards and punishment. Social inequalities found almost in every
society. It is shaped by range of structural factors like geographical location,
citizenship status and are often underpinned by cultural discourse and identity
defining.

5. Economic inequalities and backwardness

Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income, wealth and

opportunity between different groups in the society. It is a main concern in almost
all countries around the world and often people are trapped in poverty. It is almost
obviously shown by people 's different positions within the economic distribution
of income, pay and wealth.

Income : The money received from all sources like Rent, Employment, profit etc.

Pay : It refers to payment from employment only

Wealth : It refers to the total amount of asset of an individual or households

Causes of income inequality

• Labour market outcomes

• Globalization
• Technical changes
• Tax evasion
• Inflation

Effects of income inequality

• Poverty
• Damages to vulnerable population
• Economic instability
• Reduction in the flow of cash

Measures to reduce inequality

I) Reduction in the concentration of economic power in the hands of few

2) Development of backward areas
3) Land reforms
4) Provide more sociaJ security measures
5) Control of black money
6) Better distribution of income and weaJth
7) Educate and empower women
8) Better implementation of poverty alleviating programmes
Unit IV- Discrimination and marginalization- its impacts on achieving constitutional values-
Positive discrimination.

Discrimination

Our world has a lot of diversity. People are different in their appearance, abilities, culture, food
habits, lifestyle, religion etc. Acceptance of this uniqueness is the success of peaceful existence.
Moreover, everyone has the right to live in this world and enjoy all kinds of freedom in its
fullness, irrespective of his / her personality, health or another features
Meaning

► It is the practice of treating unfairly a person or a group ofpeople differently from

other people or groups ofpeople.
► In general, discrimination is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the
differences between things.
► Discriminatio11 i-S the act of making u,zjustified distinctions between human bei11gs
based on the group s, classes, or other categories to which they are perceived to
belong. People may be disc1iminated on the basis of race, gender, age, religion, or
sexual orientation, as well as other categories.
► Discrimination especially occurs when individuals or groups are unfairly treated in a
way which is worse than other people are treated, on the basis of their actual or
perceived membership in certain groups or social categories. It involves restricting
members of one group from opportunities or privileges that are available to members
of another group.

What leads to discrimination

1) Stereotypes: An idea or statement about all of the members of a group

2) Prejudice: A negative attitude towards a group of people

3) Racism: A belief that members of one race or ethnic group are superior to others

Types of Discrimination/Causes of discrimination

1. Caste

According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch, caste disc1imination affects an estimated 250
million people worldwide and is mainly prevalent in pruts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa. As of 20 I 1, there were 200 million Dal it's or
Scheduled Castes (formerly known as "untouchables") in India.

2. Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity

Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to
stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically
superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of
sexual violence. Gender discrimination may encompass sexism, and is discrimination toward
people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination
is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality. It may arise from social or cultural
customs and norms.

3. Language Discrimination

People are sometimes subjected to different treatment because their preferred language is
associated with a particular group, class or category. Commonly, the preferred language is just
another attribute of separate ethnic group.

4. Regional discrimination

Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region

in which a person lives or the region in which a person was born. It differs from national
discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the
victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries.

5. Religious beliefs

Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what

they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given religion. For instance,
the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed a large portion of Europe, was subjected to
discrimination under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced
to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration
and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all
because of their Jewish religion.

6. Race or ethnicity

Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on the basis of real and perceived
racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the ethnic penalty. It can also refer
to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical
appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another.

7. Nationality

Discrimination on the basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above
section for employment discrimination specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound
together with racial discrimination although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop
refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of
firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality.

8. Language

Diversity of language is protected and respected by many nations which value cultural
diversity. However, people are sometimes subjected to different treatment because their
preferred language is associated with a particular group, class or category.

9. Disability

Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of 'normal

living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social
services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various
disabilities.

Effects of discrimination

1) Physical and emotional impact:

Exclusion or rejection directed to you by others for reasons that you often have no control of,
can cause extreme worry to an individual. It results in anxiety, sadness, depression etc.

2) Social, educational, fmancial impact:

Discrimination may force people to withdraw from the mainstream, they may show less interest
in activities around them, and have less focus on studies

3) Political impact:

People who face racial discrimination may regroup with some negative feelings in mind against
other groups and may results in conflicts.
Prevention

1) Parents have a key role in shaping the personality of a growing child, care should be taken
in molding the behavior of an individual with feeling equality.

2) Good school and class atmosphere

3) Conducting awareness programs, (road show, theatre, cinemas)

4) Ramps, handrail, and other alteration in workplace / education systems for disabled

people

5) Motivation of people facing discrimination

6) Reservation for seats in vehicles, in jobs, educational institutions etc.

ArticlelS restricts discrimination on the ground of:

Religion: It means no person should be discriminated on the basis of religion from accessing
any public place, or policy by the state or any group.

Race: Ethnic origin should not form a basis of discrimination. For Example: citizen of Afghan
origin should not be discriminated from those of an Indian origin.

Cast: Discrimination on the basis caste is also prohibited to prevent atrocities on the lower
caste by the upper caste.

Sex: Gender of an individual shall not be a valid ground for discrimination in any matter. Ex:
Discriminating transgender, female etc.

Place of birth: A place where an individual is born should not become a reason for
discriminating other members of the society.

COMPENSATORY DISCRIMINATION (POSITIVE DISCRIMINATION)

► Positive discrimination is the process of giving preferential treatment, especially in

employment, to minority groups of society that have been prejudiced against in the
past. The term positive discrimination is sometimes used to refer to "positive measures"
or "special measures".
 ► Seats are reserved in the proportion of the population of SC's and ST's to the total
population. The seats are " reserved" in the sense that candidates who stand for them
must belong to the designated groups. These legislative reservations are the only ones
that are subject to a constitutional time limit.
► The reservation or quotas for dalits and the adivasis relate to three broad categories:
employment, educational, and political, the first two being most significant for the bulk
of the dalis and adivasis populations. IS % of govermnentjobs at all levels are reserved
for dalits and 7.5 % for adivasis. This includes jobs in central government; state
govemment; and in public sector units.
► Similarly, 15% and 7.5% of the places in higher education are reserved for dalits and
adivasis, respectively.
► Policy makers believed that having access to place reserved for dalits and adivasis
candidate would help reduce some of the educational disparities. Additionally, the
seventy third and seventy fourth constitutional amendment acts led to the reservation
of seats in the local government.
► In the continued absence of dalits and adivasis from the upper rnns of the civil service
led to the implementation of quotas in promotions, too.
► In addition to employment and educational quotas, number of schemes such as
provision of scholarships and fellowships at all levels, midday meals, uniforms,
stationery, and books.

Constitutional provisions

► The constitution prohibits discrimination (Article 15) of any citizen on ground of

religfrm, race, caste, etc.; untouchability (article 17); and forced labour (article23)
► It provides for specific representation through reservation of seats for the SC and the
ST in the parliament (article 330) and i1I the legislative assemblies (article 332), as
well as government and public sector jobs, in both the federal and state governments
(article 16(4), 330(4), and 335)
► Article 15(4), 16(4), 16(4A) also related to the positive discrimination. It gives special
rights and reservation to protected groups.

MARGINALIZATION
 • Marginalization is excluding particular group from successfully participating in society
because society can't fuUy accommodate them. Marginalization has the ability to cause
severe material deprivation as well in its most extreme form can exterminate groups.
• The process whereby something or someone is pushed to the edge of a group and
accorded lesser importance. This is predominantly social phenomenon by which
minority or sub-group is excluded, and their needs or desires ignored.
• Marginality is an experience affecting millions of people throughout the world.
• Marginalization is a multidimensional, m ulti causal, hist01ical phenomenon. There are
no general laws to understand and comprehend the complex nature of marginalization.
The analytical tools that can be used in most cases include class, in relation to specific
social, cultural, economic and political conditions, as well as ideological systems, social
awareness, and human action.

Nature of Marginalization

• The nature of marginalization varies in different settings. For example, the

marginalization of women in Iraq is not the same as in India, though they broadly share
some features. The religious, ideological system, patriarchy, political economy of a
country, and tl1e overall social system have an impact on the marginalization of specific
groups or an individual.
• The nature of marginalization also varies in relation to elderly people living in different
countiies and cultures. In some societies, the elderly is given more respect compared to
other and, hence, are subject to less marginalization.
• Similarly, the level of awareness among the marginalized groups plays very important
role, and the nature of marginalization varies accordingly. Organized communities who
are aware of their rights, demand more justice than unorganized communities.
• Usually, democratic institutions are favorable for most of the disadvantaged groups.

Marginalized Groups

1. Wome1l
2. People with disabilities
3. Ethnic Minoruy
4. Caste
5. Tribes
6. Elderly
The Levels of Marginalization

l. At individual Level: it results in an individual' s exclusion from meaningful

participation in society. The example of individual marginalization is the exclusion of
individuals with disabilities from the labor force.
2. At community Level: Some groups are excluded
3. Gender: Sometimes women were excluded from the labor force and this lead to their
marginalization from the topmost executive positions and decision making.

Types of Marginalization

► Social Marginalization
► Economic Marginalization
► Political Marginalization

Causes of Marginalization

✓ Exclusion
✓ Globalization
✓ Displacement
✓ Disaster- Natural and Unnatllral

Discrimination and marginalization: impacts on achieving constitutional

values

Impact on Sovereignty: You may have read the Preamble. It declares India "a sovereign
socialist secular democratic republic". Being sovereign means having complete political
freedom and being the supreme authority. It implies that India is internally all powerful and
externally free.

Threat to Socialism: You may be aware that social and economic inequalities have been
inherent in the Indian traditional society. Which is why, socialism has been made a
constitutional value aimed at promoting social change and transformation to end all forms of
inequalities.
Negative effect on Secularism: We all are pleased when anyone says that India is a home to
almost all major religions in the world. In the context of this plurality (means more than one or
two; many), secularism is seen as a great constitutional value. Secularism implies that our
country is not guided by any one religion or any religious considerations.

Threat to Democracy: The Preamble reflects democracy as a value. As a form of government

it derives its authority from the will of the people. The people elect the rulers of the country
and the elected representatives remain accountable to the people. The people of India elect
them to be part of the government at different levels by a system of universal adult franchise,
popularly known as ' one man one vote'.

Prestige of Republic: India is not only a democratic nation but it is also a republic. The most
important symbol of being a republic is the office of the Head of the State, i.e. the President
who is elected and who is not selected on the basis of heredity, as is found in a system with
monarchy.

Threat to Justice: At times you may also realize that living in a democratic system alone does
not ensure justice to citizens in all its totality. Even now we find a number of cases where not
only the social and economic justice but also the political justice is denied. Which is why, the
constitution-makers have included social, economic and political justice as constitutional
values.

Liberty: The Preamble prescribes liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship as
one of the core values.

Threat to Equality: Equality is as significant constitutional value as any other. The

Constitution ensures equality of status and opportunity to every citizen for the development of
the best in hlm/her.

Negative impact on Fraternity: There is also a commitment made in the Preamble to promote
the value of fraternity that stands for the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people
of India.

Dignity of the individual: Promotion of fraternity is essential to realize the dignity of the
individual. It is essential to secure the dignity of every individual without which democracy
cannot fun ction.
Impact on Unity and integrity of the Nation: As we have seen above, fraternity also promotes
one of the critical values, i.e. unity and integrity of the nation . To maintain the independence
of the country intact, the unity and integrity of the nation is very essential.

Effect on doing Fundamental Duties: Our Constitution prescribes some duties to be

performed by the citizens.

Important questions

1) What is marginalization?

2) Suggest any two measure to solve issues related to marginalization?

3) There are many issues related to inequality & marginalization, write the major issues
& suggest measure to solve them?

4) what is the causes of marginalization?

VISHNUPRATHAP M
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION

Topic : Constitutional amendments ,Child right and child labor

Recent amendments.

ANASWARA.K

SOCIALSCIENCE

Roll No: 42

PKM College.
 INTRODUCTION

The Indian constitution is the supreme law of India. It is document which describes the
rights and duties of its citizens and the way in which it is governed. The Indian constitution is the
longest in the world. It took around 2 years, 11 months and 17 days for the assembly to finish
writing the entire constitution and that too handwritten. ' Dr.B.R Ambedkar' was the principal
architect of tbe Indian Constitution and independent India' s fi rst Jaw minister. The Indian
constitution is the world's longest for a sovereign nation as it touches every aspect of the life.
Since the formation of the constitution on 6th November 1949, about 100 amendments have been
made. Though India became a free nation on August 15, 1947 it declared itself a Sovereign,
Democratic and Republic state with the adoption of the Constitution on January 26, 1950.

The Indian Constitution unique in its features. Also many of its features have been
borrowed from various other countries. A constitution is a set of rules and regulations guiding the
administration of a country. As of now it has 448 articles in 25 parts and 12 schedules. There are
104 amendments have been made in Indian amendments have been made in Indian constitution so
far. According to our constitution India is Democratic Republic means the administration or
government of the country is run by the Elected representative of the Indian people. It means we
have no king. It is for the people, By the people, of the people.
 Constitutional Amendments

The Amendments was borrowed in South Africa. The procedure laid down for its
amendment is neither as easy as in Britain nor as difficult as in USA. In other words, the Indian
constitution is neither flexible nor rigid but a synthesis of both. "Article 368 in part xx" of the
constitution deals with the powers of parliament to amend the constitution its procedure. Addition,
Variation or repeal any provision of the Constitution. However, the parliament cannot amend
those provisions which form the "basic structure" of the constitution. This was the ruled by the
supreme court in the Kesvanandha Barati case(1973). The first amendment was made in 1951.
The first amendment is related to land reforms.

Constitution can be amended in three ways:

1. Amendment by simple majority of the Parliament.

2. Amendment by special majority of the parliament.
3. Amendment by Special majority of the parliament and the ratification of half of
the state legislaturns (Article368).

Procedure for Amendment as laid down in Article 368:

I Introduction of a bill for the purpose in either House of parliament
Introduce either by a minister or by a private member and does not require prior permission or
the president. The bill must be passed in each House by a special majority that is, a majority (that is,
more than 50 percent) of the total membership of the House and a majority of two-thirds of the
members of the House present and voting. Each House must pass the bill separately. In case of a
disagreement between the two Houses, there is no provision for holding a joint sitting of the two
Houses. If the bill seeks to amend the federal provisions of the Constitution, it must also be ratified
by the legislatures of half of the states by a simple majority that is, a majority of the members of the
House present and voting.
 After duly passed by both the House of parliament and ratified by the state legislatures, where
necessary, the bills is presented to the president for assent. The president must give bis assent to the
bill. He can neither withhold his assent to the bill nor return the bill for reconsideration of the
parliament. After president's assent, the bill becomes an Act (i.e., a Constitutional Amendment
Act) and the Constitution stands amended in accordance with the terms of the Act.

By Simple Majoritv of Parliament

A number of provisions in the Constitution can be amended by a simple majority of the
two House.
• One of the Examples was the Formation of news states and alteration of areas,
boundaries or names of existing stages.
• Abolition or creation of legislative councils in states.
• Salaiies and allowances of the members of parliament.
• Citizenship - acquisition and termination.

By Special Majority of Parliament

Special Majority: a majority of the total memlber ship (irrespective of fact whether there are
vacancies or absentees) of each House and a majority of two - thirds of the members of each
House present and voting.
The majority of the Provisions in the Constitution need to be amended by a special majority.
• The provision which can be amended by this way includes:
o Fundamental rights
o Directive principles of State Policy.
o All other provisions which are not covered by the first and third categories.

By Special Majority of Parliament and Consent of States.

Those provisions of the Constitution which are related to the federal structure of the polity
can this way. The moment half of the stages give their consent, formally is completed. There is
no limit with in which the states should give their consent to the bill.
 1) Election of the president and its manner. consent to the bill. Those provisions of the
Constitution which are related to the federal structure of the policy can be amended by this way.
The moment half of the stages give their consent, the formally is completed. There is no time
limit within which the states should give their.
2. ) Supreme court and high courts.
3.) Distribution of legislative powers between the a Union and the states.
4. ) Extend of the executive power of the Union and the states.
5.) Power of parliament to amend the Constitution and its procedure ( Article 368 itself).
These are laws that can only be amended if they have a Special majority in Parliament and
are approved by a majority of the states.

The procedure is not so flexible as to allow the ruling parties to change it according to their
whims. Nor is it so rigid as to be incapable of adopting itself to the changing needs.

Child Right and Child labor

In every 10 worker in India is a child; a child who is guaranteed protections under the Indian
law, and guaranteed an education and mid- day meals, till the age ofl4. Child labor is a serious
problem in developing countries. We often see young boys and girls working in tea stalls,
Roadside, Restaurants, small industries and households. Any one below the age of 14 is
considered a child labor. The wages given to these children are much less compared to the wages
to adult laborers.
The Indian Constitution accord rights to children as citizen of the country, and in keeping
with their special stan1s the state has even enacted special laws. The Constitution, Promulgated in
1950, encompasses most rights included in the UN convention on the rights of the child as
fundamental rights and Directive principles of state policy.
India has been trying to combat this blight since before it became a republic, with the passing
of the "Employment of Children Act, 1938". Post-Independence, the "Factories Act 1948 and
the Mines Act 1952 ", banned the practice of 14 and 18, in their respective production
processes.
This set the tone for the "Child labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act of 1986" which
prevents the employment of children below the age of 14 years in life- threatening occupations
identified in a list by the law and finally the " Juvenile Justice(Care and Protection) of
children Act of 2000" made the employment of children a punishable offence.
 "The Right to Education Act, passed in 2009", was supposed to go beyond punishing
people for child labor to creating a conductive environment for building the capabilities of all
Indian children, so that they could have a complete education and enter the workforce out of
choice and not compulsion. However, even after all this; child labor continues to be the norm in
many industries.
Child labor is widespread and bad for development, both that of the individual child and of
the society and economy in which she or he lives. If allowed to persist to current extent, child
labor will prevent the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals of halving poverty
and achieving Education for all. Nearly all of the world ' s governments have ratified
international human rights conventions which call for the elimination of child labor and the
provision of universal primary education. Fulfilling these commitments is of critical importance
for development.
Constitutional Guarantees that are meant specifically for children include:
► Right to free and compulsory elementary education for all children in the 6-14 years age
group(Article24A)
► Right to be protected from any hazardous employment till the age of 14 years (Article 24)
► Right to be protected from being abused and forced by economic necessity to enter
occupations un suited to their age or strength (Article39(e)).
► Right to equal oppmtunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions
of freedom and dignity and guar teed protection of childhood and youth against exploitation
and against moral and material abandonmentt (Article39(f)).
► Right be early childhood care and education to all children until they complete the age of six
years (Article45).

Recent Amendments
❖
nd
102 Amendment Act,2018
National Commission for Backward Class
Insert of new articles 338- (1) There shall be a Commission for the socially and educationally
backward classes to be known as the National Commission for Backward Classes.
Amendment of article 366.
Socially and educationally backward classes & quot ; means such backward classes as are
so deemed under article 342A for the purposes of this Constitution; Socially and educationally
backward classes.
 ❖ 103rd Amendment Act, 2019
For the purposes of this Article 15 and Article 16, economically weaker sections, shall be such
as may be notified by the state from time to time on the basis on family income and other
indicators of economic disadvantage.
❖ l 04 nd Amendment Act,2020
Amendment of article 334- " Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after
certain period"; (Extend reservation seat .SC and ST in the Loksabha)
Removed the reserved seats for the Anglo Indian Community in the loksabha and state
assemblies amend article 334.
So, till date , there are 104 amendments have been made in the Indian Constitution since its
inception in 1950.

Another Recent Amendments are:

❖ The constitution( 86 th Amendment) Act 2002
Provides Right to Education until the age of 14 and early childhood care until the age of
6(Article 21)
❖ 89th Amendment Act,2003
Bifurcated the erstwhile combined National Commission for Schedule Castes and Scheduled
Tribes into two separate bodies, namely, National Commission of SCs (Article-338) and
National Commission of STs (338-A).
❖ 91 st Amendment Act,2004
Restricted the size of the Council of Ministers (CoM) to 15 percent of legislative members &
strengthened the Anti Defection laws.
❖ 92°d Amendment Act,2004
Included Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithali as official language.
❖ 93rd Amendment Act,2006
Provided for 27 percent reservation for other backward classes in government as well as
private higher educational institutions.
❖ l 00 th Amendment Act,2015

The term the constitution (100 th Amendment) Act,2015 was in news in the fourth week of
May 2015 as the president of India Pranab Mukherjee gave his assent to the Constin1tion (119th
Amendment Bill, 2013 that related to the Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) between India and
Bangladesh.
TOPIC-Article 30(1) and Right to Education
India Act of 2010

SEMINAR
CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION

SUBMITTED BY-

ATHIRA SHAJI

SOCIAL SCIENCE

ROLLNO-45

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 Unit-3
Universalization of Education and Constitutional Provisions

Topics:

✓ Article 30(1)

✓ Right to Education India Act of 2010

nd
There are some changes regarding the 42 Amendment to the constitution. During
1976 our constitution was amended in many of its fundamental provisions. Under the
Constitution oflndia, the central govt bas been specifically vested with several educational
responsibilities. The major constitutional provisions on education are: - free and
compulsory education, education of minorities, language safeguards, education for
weaker sections, secular education, equality of opportunity in educational institutions,
instruction in mother-tongue, promotion of Hindi, women's education etc.

Universaljzation of education js maiinly divided jnto two. That js universalization

of elementary education and universalization of secondary education. Universalization
of elementary education has been accepted as a national goal in India. Central and state
Govts are making strenuous efforts to achieve this goal. The Article 45 in the Directive
Principles of State Policy in the Constitution mandated the state to endeavor to provide free
and compulsory education to all children up to age fourteen in a period of ten years.
Universalization of elementary education basically evolves three important things: -
universalization of provision, universalization of enrollment and universalization of
retention. Universalization of provision means that school facilities should be provided to
all the children between the age of 6 to 14. Universalization of enrollment means that all
the children between the age of 6 to 14 must be enrolled. Universalization of retention
reveals a child who joins primary school; he or she should remain there till he or she
completes all their primary education. The effort made by center and state Govts are: - All
India Council for Elementary Education 1957, Primary Education Act, Kothari
Commission 1964, NPE 1986, Lok Jumbish Program 1992, District Primary
Education Program 1994, National Program on Nutrition Support to Primary
Education 1995, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 2000, RTE Act 2009 etc.

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 Universalization of secondary education means; secondary education is the
education provided to the students of age group 14-18 years. High power committee of
CABE on "Universalization of Secondary Education,, in Sep 6, 2004. The Central
Advisory Board of Education, the oldest and the most important advisory body of the Govt
of India in education was first established in 1920 and it was received in 1935 and has been
in existence ever since. The aim of the committee was to prepare a blueprint for the
universal ization of secondary education consequent upon the attainment of universal ization
of elementary education. The committee shall be provided secretarial assistance by
NCERT. The committee shall give its recommendations within 6 months from the date of
its constitution. The four guiding principles under this are, namely universal access,
equality and social justice, relevance and development, structural and curricular aspects,
impact at the level of access, socio-cultural character, developmental objectives and
structural-cum-cunicular provisions of secondary education all at the same time and
throughout the nation. The major vision under this concept was to provide high quality
secondary education to all Indian adolescent girls and boys up to the age of 16 by 2015,
and up to the age of 18 by 2020. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksba Abhiyan was a nation
mission for secondary education. Centrally sponsored scheme of the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, GOI, for the d,evelopment of education in public schools
throughout India. It was launched in March 2009. The scheme includes a multidimensional
research, technical consulting, various implementations and funding support to secondary
education.

Article 30(1)

Article 30 was adopted on December 8, 1948.

• "Article 30 of the Indian constitution consists of provisions that safeguard various rights
of the minority community in the country keeping in mind the principle of equality as
well.,,
• Article 30(1) enjoins that, "All minorities, whether based on religion or language,
shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice."