MILKFISH RESEARCH IN THE

PHILIPPINES
E.O. Tan
D.L. de Guzman
L.C. Darvin
M.C. Balgos

Fisheries Research Division

Philippine Council for Agriculture
and Resources Research and Development
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

Development and directions in milkfish research in the

Philippines from 1976 to the present are reviewed and ana-
lyzed. T h e problems of milkfish culture are dichotomous: low
productivity vis-a-vis seasons of glut and price fluctuations.
To intensify fish production, extensive research has been
conducted on fertilizer management, reclamation of acid
sulfate soils, and pond construction and engineering. Re-
search efforts have also been heavily directed toward increas-
ing fry production through artificial propagation, improve-
ment of fry collecting gear, and increasing fry survival
through nutrition, control of parasites, and proper handling.
Research on improved icing, packaging, and processing
techniques along with market analysis are necessary for max-
imizing economic returns.

INTRODUCTION

Milkfish, Chanos chanos (Forsskal), is the predominant fish cultured in the Philip-
pines. In 1981, 170 431 t of milkfish were harvested from about 195 000 ha of
brackishwater ponds, accounting for 90% of the total fishpond production in the
country. Milkfish is popular even with Filipino communities abroad, to which most
of the 5 2 6 1 of exported frozen milkfish went in 1981. Philippine exports of canned
milkfish have increased steadily in recent years, and there is a growing demand for
milkfish juveniles for tuna bait.
172 MILKFISH BIOLOGY AND CULTURE

Much remains to be done, though, to increase the present annual average milkfish
fishpond production of 870 kg/ha. This low yield is related, among other reasons, to
an insufficient use of inputs, large tracts of underdeveloped fishpond areas, and
irregular supplies of fry. In marketing, seasons of glut, variable price levels, and
abnormal market flows are common problems.
The government, the research community, and the private sector are exerting
concerted efforts toward increasing milkfish production and stabilizing the industry.
Yields of more than 2 t/ha per year from the more progressive fish farms of Bulacan
and Iloilo indicate the potential for increased production.

MILKFISH AS A RESEARCH PRIORITY

Aquaculture research in the Philippines accelerated during the 1970s due in part
to the establishment and strengthening of better-equipped aquaculture research and
training centers. Later, a national research system was developed through the
Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development
(PCARRD). There has been increased government and international support for
fisheries research along with active participation by the private sector in research and
extension.
Milkfish culture and related studies are top priority research areas in aquaculture.
The lead agencies in milkfish research are the Aquaculture Department of the
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC-AQD) and the Brack-
ishwater Aquaculture Center at the University of the Philippines in the Visayas.
Adaptive trials are carried out by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources and
by fishery schools throughout the country.
Within the PCARRD registry, about 80 research studies in milkfish were com-
pleted from 1973 to 1982, most of which dealt with pond management techniques.
Extensive research was conducted to optimize fertilizer efficiency in the production of
lablab and plankton as a food base. Field trials were conducted on the reclamation of
acid sulfate soils, and a number of experiments on the polyculture of milkfish with
tilapia, shrimp, mudcrab, and other nontraditional cultured species were carried out.
Breakthroughs were achieved in broodstock development, induced spawning, and
sex differentiation of milkfish breeders. Various aspects of the biology and physiology
of fry and broodstock were also explored. For postharvest handling and processing,
methods and fish formulations were standardized. Ample data were gathered on the
economics of the milkfish industry. This paper reviews the research conducted over
the past 8 years.

RESEARCH STATUS (1976-1983)

Culture Techniques
Pond engineering. The design and construction of brackishwater milkfish ponds
have evolved through years of commercial practice by the private sector. Engineering
principles and technologies have recently been applied to these practices. Current
pond engineering technology has established the following: (1) criteria concerning
site selection; (2) relationship between the size of gate, pond water level, and design
 MILKFISH RESEARCH IN THE PHILIPPINES 173

tide curve; (3) design elevation for foundation; (4) relationship among the sizes of
pond compartments according to their functions; (5) different types of layout
schemes; (6) size and proportioning of dikes; (7) control of internal erosion and
seepage; (8) methodology of pond construction and repair, including related facili-
ties; and (9) construction tools and machinery (de la Cruz 1979).
Through the progression system of pond culture, it has become possible to raise at
least six crops per year. In this system, three adjacent ponds with a 1:2:4 area ratio
form a module. Stock is transferred from a smaller to a bigger pond after a 30-day
culture period in each compartment. Once a pond is vacated, it is immediately
prepared for another stock. T h e progression system is a continuous program of pond
preparation, stocking, transfer, and harvest. Potential production is about 3 t/ha per
year.
Fertilization and growing of natural food. Research on optimizing fertilizer use
has taken into consideration the types and amounts of elements needed, the nutrient
ratios, sources of nutrients, and the frequency, time, and methods of fertilizer
application. A series of studies indicated that about 1 ppm of nitrogen and 1.5 ppm of
phosphate should be maintained in the pond water for sustained growth of benthic
algae. Among traditionally used fertilizers, mono- and diammonium phosphate
proved to be superior. Split applications at an interval of 2 weeks in 3 months
resulted in higher milkfish production than bulk doses of the same amount (Singh,
unpubl.). Applications made on a semisubmerged platform or in solution improved
the fertilizer use efficiency and reduced phosphorus losses (Ladja 1983).
The use of artificial substrates is promising in increasing production in brackishwa-
ter ponds. Nylon nets are set in the pond bottom to which lablab can attach and grow.
At 60% of pond area added artificial substrates, it is estimated that a 15-20% increase
in fish production is possible compared to the conventional lablab method.
Acid sulfate soil. A technology has been generated to reclaim acid sulfate soils
common in new brackishwater ponds. This type of soil was found to respond poorly to
phosphorus fertilization and to release nearly lethal concentrations of aluminum and
iron, leading to low productivity. The reclamation technology involves a repeated
sequence of intensive draining, drying, and flooding before the residual acid is
neutralized by liming (Singh 1982, Singh and Poernomo 1984).
Nutrition and feed development. Nutrition studies have indicated that 40-50%
protein is required in the diet by milkfish fry for maximum growth, efficient feed
conversion, and high survival rate. High density rearing of fry to fingerlings in an
indoor system seemed feasible using a purified diet with prophylactic treatment
(Camacho 1975).
No clear-cut technology on milkfish feed formulation seems to be available.
Present practices utilize single-ingredient materials like rice bran, bread crumbs, and
corn bran. Addition of Terramycin and Vigofac in these feed materials favored the
growth rate of milkfish. Other forms of feed ingredients used are copra meal, hog
mash, dried rice straw, broken bones, fish meal, egg yolk in small quantities, ipil-ipil
(Leucaena leucocephala) leaves, and kangkong (Ipomoea reptans) leaves. For natural
food, dried grass, filamentous green algae, particularly phytoflagellates, and gulaman
(Gracilaria sp.) are being used. Feeding techniques, however, need to be standard-
ized.
174 MILKFISH BIOLOGY AND CULTURE

Parasites and diseases. At present, the extent and kinds of diseases and parasit-
ism in milkfish have not been established. Various parasites and diseases affecting
milkfish in different parts of the country have been described (Velasquez 1979).
Lio-Po et al (1982) reported the known diseases of economically important fish
species in the Philippines including those of milkfish. Bacterial (Vibrio sp.) and
fungal diseases and parasites (isopods and copepods) of milkfish were described.
Prophylactic treatments are known but are only effective and adaptable in small
confined areas.
Environmental factors that may cause widespread infestation of fish in the pond
are not known. Knowledge of the life cycle of fish parasites is needed to devise
successful prophylactic measures.
Polyculture. Polyculture of milkfish with prawn or mudcrab is traditionally
practised, as these species enter milkfish ponds with the incoming tide. To system-
atize the practice, five different stocking combinations of milkfish and prawn (Penaeus
monodon) were evaluated in brackishwater ponds. The polyculture of 2000 milkfish
and 6000 prawns/ha was reported to be economically feasible, with average milkfish
and prawn production per 100 days of 388.06 and 75.58 kg/ha, respectively
(Pudadera 1980), although the monoculture of prawn (production of 144.30 kg/ha
per 100 days) was more profitable. Trials have also been conducted on the polycul-
ture of milkfish with P. semisulcatus and with all-male Oreochromis mossambicus (IFP
1976a). Milkfish-tilapia trials consistently gave high yields (IFP 1976b).
Freshwater production. Milkfish pen culture has been a profitable enterprise in
Laguna de Bay since the technology was successfully demonstrated by the Laguna
Lake Development Authority in the early 1970s, with an average production of 5
t/ha per year. The industry is beset by serious problems such as the occurrence of
destructive typhoons and high fingerling mortality rates, seasonal off-flavor taste,
and occasional fish kills. In studies conducted to improve fishpen design and con-
struction, criteria for site selection and several fishpen models were recommended.
Acclimation methods were also developed to reduce fingerling mortality. It was
shown that, with nursery pond-reared fingerlings at 12-15 ppt salinity, mortality can
be reduced by 10% if dilution progresses over a 6-hour period (Baguilat 1980). Cages
were tested for rearing fry to fingerlings to minimize handling, salinity, and transport
stress. O n e trial showed that the effective cost of rearing fry to fingerlings in
freshwater ponds is equal or almost equal to purchasing fingerlings from brackishwa-
ter nurseries (Mane 1979). More studies on freshwater nursery techniques are
needed, however.

Fry Collection, Storage, and Transport

Fry grounds and seasonal occurrence. Milkfish fry appear throughout the year
in one location or another, but have marked peak periods, and the fry supply
fluctuates to some degree from year to year. Fry catch for a given level of effort varies
from day to day within the month, with peak gathering periods occurring during the
monthly high tides associated with the full and the new moon (Librero et al 1976,
Smith 1981, Villaluz et al 1982).
Traditional and new fry grounds were reported along with corresponding catching
gear being used in these areas and the degree of resource exploitation. Larval net tows
 MILKFISH RESEARCH IN THE PHILIPPINES 175

showed that Antique Province has one of the most productive fry grounds in the
country.
Collecting gear. T h e design, construction, and area of operation of fry collecting
gear are dictated primarily by the topography of the fry ground, the wind direction,
the local current system, and tidal fluctuations. Traditional gear and methods of
collection are modified for convenience and as the result of availability and cost of
materials (Villaluz et al 1982).
The common types of milkfish fry collecting gear used on Panay Island were
classified by Kumagai et al (1980) according to mobility as passive filtering or active
(dragged or pushed). Experiments were conducted to test the efficiency of modifica-
tions of traditional collecting gear using netting materials of various meshes and
colors (Kawamura et al 1980, Quinitio and Kawamura 1980, Paler 1981). Efficiency
was based on the number and survival of fry gathered compared to those caught by
the original gear. Driving effect, ease in handling, and visibility of fry were also
considered for every gear tested.
Storage and transport. Fry dealers have developed their own techniques for
storing and feeding fry prior to sale or transfer to a nursery. Consequently, different
stocking densities during storage are used, no standard feed is given, and the suitable
water salinity for storing fry is not known. The fry are commonly stored in water with
low salinity and fed with boiled egg yolk. Mortalities range from 3% to 10% in at
most 2 weeks of storage.
It is commonly believed that mortality can be reduced when fry are stored in fresh
water. A study of the effect of various salinity levels and stocking density manipula-
tion methods on the survival of milkfish fry during storage revealed, however, that it
is not necessary to reduce the salinity of the water used. It is more important to
provide sufficient food and to maintain good water quality by changing about
three-fourths of the water every morning to obtain better survival (Quinitio and
Juario 1979). The recommended stocking density for storing milkfish is 150-400
fry/liter in plastic basins and 100-122 fry/liter in earthen jars.
Fry are transported in oxygenated plastic bags. Fingerlings are transported in the
same manner but are considered more fragile than the fry, more susceptible to
disease, and therefore in need of more careful handling. For the Laguna de Bay
fishpens, most of the fingerlings are transported by petuya, an open boat with a
pump aerator which allows for changes of water.

Artificial Propagation
An analysis of the milkfish fry industry in the Philippines by Smith (1981)
indicated that fry resources are sufficient and can meet present demands if they are
fully exploited. Nevertheless, a steady supply of artificially produced milkfish fry for
culture to marketable size would help stabilize the milkfish culture industry by
reducing dependence on the natural fry supply. Several studies were therefore
conducted in the past decade to learn more about wild milkfish and to learn how to
induce them to spawn in captivity and to rear the resultant larvae to fry. These have
been followed by studies on captive broodstock reared in pens and cages at the
SEAFDEC-AQD Igang Substation.
Biology. Sex differentiation of milkfish spawners based on discernible anatomical
176 MILKFISH BIOLOGY AND CULTURE

differences in the anal regions of mature fish has been observed (Chaudhuri et al
1976). Milkfish egg collections around Panay Island indicated spawning migration
patterns (Senta et al 1976). T h e eggs occurred in waters of 10-900 m depth. A
considerable number were obtained from 200 m-deep waters, although the majority
of the eggs were found close to the coast.
T h e probable transport and movement of milkfish eggs and larvae from the
spawning ground to the fry collection ground were discussed by Kumagai and
Bagarinao (1979) based on drift card experiments. The results of the experiments
suggested that the vertical and horizontal distribution of milkfish eggs and larvae at
various developmental stages-, current, and the active movement of the postlarvae
are to be considered in determining drift patterns or mechanisms of transport of
milkfish eggs and larvae at sea.
Induced spawning. Induced spawning and larval rearing of milkfish were
pioneered by SEAFDEC-AQD. Attempts to induce ovulation in sabalo (milkfish
spawners) using different hormones succeeded as early as 1977. In the following years
further studies led to the formulation of an effective spawning dose for the wild and
captive stock. After a series of experiments, SEAFDEC-AQD published a guide to
induced spawning and larval rearing techniques that recommended the use of a
mixture of acetone-dried pituitary gland homogenate of coho salmon (SPH) and
human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) for the female and Durandron Forte "250"
(DF), a long-acting androgen, for the male. Careful capture, handling, and transport
were also recommended to ensure successful induced spawning (Juario and Duray
1982).
From the experiments on rearing newly-hatched milkfish larvae, the highest
survival rate was achieved by giving various feeds from day 1 to day 21, changing
one-third of the water whenever necessary, and maintaining the light green color of
the water throughout the rearing period. Figure 1 shows the feeding schedule for
milkfish larvae during the 21-day period.
Maturation in cages. Following the land-based studies, significant findings were
achieved when milkfish matured sexually and spawned spontaneously in floating
cages at Igang in August 1980 (SEAFDEC 1980). T h e fertilization rate of the eggs
was 55-65%, the hatching rate 30-50%, and the larval survival rate 50%. Spon-
taneous spawnings recurred in 1981, 1982, and 1983 (Marte, pers. comm.). More
studies are being conducted to determine optimum requirements for gonad matura-
tion.

Economics
T h e average yield of milkfish ponds is 870 kg/ha per year. Recent studies concluded
that this low production is a result of extensive farming techniques in the Philip-
pines. Generally, inputs are not used in sufficient quantities to increase yield
substantially. T h e average stocking rate of fry is too low, while the average stocking
rate of fingerlings is too high. Levels of organic and inorganic fertilization need to be
increased. Other significant factors that may explain current milkfish yields include
age of pond, status of tenure, miscellaneous operating costs, farm size, and climate
(Librero et al 1977, Chong et al 1981).
 MILKFISH RESEARCH IN THE PHILIPPINES 177

Fig. 1. Feeding schedule for milkfish larvae during the 21-day rearing period (from Juario and Duray
1982).

Larger farms are more efficient than medium and small farms (Chong et al 1981).
Milkfish farmers should be encouraged to reorganize and restructure small units of
production into large units to make production more efficient and profitable. With
group farming, farmers should also be encouraged to apply more yield-increasing and
yield-protecting inputs such as fertilizers and, whenever appropriate, to encourage
the use of cheaper indigenous materials for fertilization and pesticide application.

Postharvest Handling and Processing

As with other aquatic products, the price of milkfish is dictated by its quality upon
reaching the consumer. A portion of the harvested fish can be processed to make
them last longer. Postharvest operations and product utilization technologies have
been developed for dissemination and commercial application to milkfish (Orejana
1979). A National Science Development Board assisted project dealing with post-
harvest fish handling preservation and processing has come up with a publication
entitled "Milkfish (Bangos) as Food" (NSDB 1978), which includes handling,
freezing, canning, other processing methods, and use of the by-products of milkfish
processing.
178 MILKFISH BIOLOGY AND CULTURE

Handling, chilling, and freezing. Dolendo et al (1978) determined the proper

handling and icing of milkfish to preserve its quality during transport and storage.
Pre-chilling to 4°C immediately after harvest with appropriate ice to fish ratios was
found to maintain the quality of the fish. Suitable containers for every mode of
transport, blast freezing, proper packaging, and storage methods were recommended
after considering economy, length of the trip, and ease of handling.
Processing. Product formulation studies were conducted for canned milkfish
prepared in various styles and recipes (Palomares et al 1978). Drying, smoking,
fermentation, and pickling were also studied, and procedures for sun-dried milkfish,
soft-boned and deboned smoked milkfish, and fermented and pickled milkfish were
recommended (Guevara et al 1978).
By-product utilization. Hand in hand with the processing of milkfish, particular-
ly in the canning operation, the utilization of waste has to be considered. Fish meal,
fish silage, hydrolysate (bagoong and patis) and oils, and guanine extracts are some of
the more important by-products prepared from milkfish waste. Publications on the
canning of milkfish and the preparation of its by-products are now available. Further
improvements in keeping the quality of frozen and processed fish, e.g., improved
packaging, will be needed. Likewise, quality standards for processed fishery products
should be established.

RESEARCH THRUST

T h e national research system coordinated by PCARRD guides the research

activities pursued by various agencies. Research areas have been identified and
organized into a framework of activities under general research thrusts. In the
aquaculture commodity, the five general research thrusts involve priority research
areas on milkfish culture as follows:
• Increased pond production through intensive culture by
— Improved aquaculture engineering systems
— Improved pond management
— Sociological and production economics studies
• Postharvest handling, processing, and marketing
• Production of seedlings
— Seed production of cultivable species
— Broodstock development
— Nutrition and feed development
• Development of integrated agro-fishery systems
• Development of pen/cage culture

CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS

T h e need for intensification and adoption of appropriate technology in milkfish

production has to be pursued more vigorously. The more progressive pond operators
have shown that the national average production of 870 kg/ha per year may possibly
be raised to 2 t/ha per year.
 MILKFISH RESEARCH IN THE PHILIPPINES 179

It is necessary to emphasize the advantages of investing in necessary inputs to

increase production. Levels of inputs — including fry, fingerlings, miscellaneous
operating costs, and organic and inorganic fertilizers — that were found to be
significant determinants of output per hectare can indicate the areas where further
research can help improve cultural practices (Chong et al 1981).
Extension and technology dissemination should receive additional support, both
from the government and from the private sector. Identification of and solutions to
site-specific problems will require a linkage between researchers and extension
specialists.
Active government support is equally needed in financing and marketing. With
more incentive and liberal credit programs developed, loans for buying supplemental
inputs can be made available to operators. Provision can be made for adequate
infrastructure support and marketing channels.
Though prawn culture may give higher returns, milkfish will nevertheless still be
the primary cultured fish in brackishwater fishponds. This fish has great potential in
the processed food industry. The canned milkfish industry is picking up with
increased local demand, serviced by both small private entrepreneurs and large
canning factories.
It is hoped that the potential demand will encourage milkfish pond operators and
other sectors involved in the industry to make Philippine milkfish farms more
productive and profitable.

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