UNIT -1

Fundamentals of Computer
Introduction to Computers
Definition : Computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as an input
from the user and processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called
program), produces a result (output), and saves it for future use.
The word computer originated from the Latin word “Computare” which
means “Computation“. It’s believed that the first computer was Analytical
Engine, invented by Charles Babbage in 1837. Therefore, Charles Babbage is
also known as the father of computer or the inventor of computer.
Evaluation and History of Computers
Before computers were developed people used sticks, stones, and bones
as counting tools. As technology advanced and the human mind improved with
time more computing devices were developed like Abacus, Napier’s Bones, etc.
These devices were used as computers for performing mathematical
computations but not very complex ones.
Some of the popular computing devices are described below, starting
from the oldest to the latest or most advanced technology developed.

Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed
to be the first computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000
years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them.
The beads were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to
perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like
China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is shown below.
Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by
John Napier (1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9
different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So,
the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use
the decimal point.

Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It
was invented between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher
Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic
calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could
only perform addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of
gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the
neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to
read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this
machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped
reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted drums. See the following
image;
Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as
"Father of Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could
perform simple calculations. It was a steam driven calculating machine
designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It
was a mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of
solving any mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent
memory.
Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It
was a mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and
record or sort data or information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S.
Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company
which later became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in
1930. It was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has
vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25
calculations in few minutes.
Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when
Howard Aiken planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations
involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership
between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.
 Generation of Computers
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in
computer technology with time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits
were developed to perform the counting. It replaced the gears and other
mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing machines.
In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the
previous generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed,
memory and power of computers. There are five generations of computers
which are described below;
First Generation Computers
In the period of the year 1940-1956, it was referred to as the period of the
first generation of computers. These machines are slow, huge, and expensive. In
this generation of computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components
of CPU and memory. Also, they were mainly dependent on the batch operating
systems and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and
input devices. For example ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation Computers
In the period of the year, 1957-1963 was referred to as the period of the
second generation of computers. It was the time of the transistor computers. In
the second generation of computers, transistors (which were cheap in cost) are
used. Transistors are also compact and consume less power. Transistor
computers are faster than first-generation computers. For primary memory,
magnetic cores were used, and for secondary memory magnetic disc and tapes
for storage purposes. In second-generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN
are used as Assembly language and programming languages, and Batch
processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these
computers.
For example IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, etc.
Third Generation Computers
In the third generation of computers(1964-1971), integrated circuits (ICs)
were used instead of transistors(in the second generation). A single IC consists
of many transistors which increased the power of a computer and also reduced
the cost. The third generation computers are more reliable, efficient, and smaller
in size. It used remote processing, time-sharing, and multiprogramming as
operating systems. FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were
used which are high-level programming languages.
For example IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, IBM-370/168, etc.

Fourth Generation Computers

 The period of 1971-1980 was mainly the time of fourth generation
computers. It used VLSI(Very Large Scale Integrated) circuits. VLSI is a chip
containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements and because of
these chips, the computers of this generation are more compact, powerful, fast,
and affordable(low in cost). Real-time, time-sharing and distributed operating
system are used by these computers. C and C++ are used as the programming
languages in this generation of computers.
For example STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, etc.
Fifth Generation Computers
From 1980 – to till date these computers are used. The ULSI (Ultra Large
Scale Integration) technology is used in fifth-generation computers instead of
the VLSI technology of fourth-generation computers. Microprocessor chips
with ten million electronic components are used in these computers. Parallel
processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software are also used in
fifth-generation computers. The programming languages like C, C++,
Java, .Net, etc. are used.
For example Desktop, Laptop, NoteBook, UltraBook, etc.

Basic Organisation of a Digital Computer

Basically a computer system that capable to store data in terms of digits
and proceeds the data in form of discrete (binary i.e. 0/1) steps form one state to
the next state. The whole states of digital computer system involved binary
digits which means it takes the data in the form of magnetic marker status either
presence or absence and/or ON/OFF switches or relay. In these types of
computer whole data is represented in the form of binary or digital.

Following figure shows Block Diagram of a Digital Computer:

Basic units of digital computer:

To perform a task through a digital computer some of the basic units are
required. These units are combining together to finish a task as per the user
requirement. These are as following;

1. Input Unit: to given the outside world data to the computer system through
the input units; some of the other functions perform by the input units are as
follows;

● It is capable to reads the instruction and data form the outer world or
user instruction.
● It’s converts the accepted instruction and/or data in computer
acceptable form (binary formate etc.)
● It’s next task to supplies the converted instruction to the computer
system for further processing.
It’s an electromechanical device. Some of the name list of input devices of
digital computer system;

● Keyboard Devices
 ● Image Scanner: Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Device,
Optical Mark Reader (OMR),Bar-Code Reader, Magnetic-Ink
Character Recognition (MICR)
● Point-and-draw Devices:-Mouse, Trackball, joystick, Electronic Pen,
Touch Screen
● Data scanning Devices

● Digitizer:-Electronic-card Reader, Voice Recognition Devices,

Vision-Input System, Electronic cards based Devices, Voice
recognition Devices, Vision based Devices.
2. Output Devices: Some of the following important functions performed by
output units are;

● It’s responsible to accept the resultant value after proceeding and/or

produced by the computer, which are in code form; and hence it can’t
be easily understood by user.
● It converts these coded results to human acceptable and/or readable
and understandable form.
● It suppliers the converted results to the outside world.
As input device it’s also an electromechanical device. Below is the name list of
output devices;

● Monitors: LCD, CRT, TFT

● Printers: Dot-Matrix Printer, Inkjet Printer, Drum Printer, Laser

Printer
● Plotters: Drum Plotter, Flatbed Plotter

● Screen image projector

● Voice response systems

3. Storage Unit: To understand the requirement of storage unit we have to
know about the function performed by the storage units.

● The data and instructions required for processing (received from input
devices).
● Intermediate results of processing.
 ● Final results of processing, before these results are released to an
output device.
Main types of storage units of digital computer system: Broadly we are
categorized storage units in two parts;

● Primary Storage: Sometimes it is also knows as main memory;

because it is used to hold pieces of program instruction, data,
intermediate results of processing data and recently result produced by
processing.
● Secondary Storage: The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary
storage, is used to take care of the limitations of the primary storage. It
is used supplement the limited storage capacity and the volatile
characteristic of primary storage.
4. Central processing unit: The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a
computer system are jointly known as the Central Processing unit (CPU). This
is the brain of a computer system. In a computer system, all major calculations
and comparisons are made inside the CPU, and The CPU is responsible for
activating and controlling the operations of other units of the computer system.

● Arithmetic Logic Unit: The arithmetic logic unit of a computer

system is the place, where the actual execution of the instructions takes
place, during the processing operation. All the comparisons (decisions)
are made in the ALU.
● Control unit: The control unit acts as a central nervous system, for the
other components of the computer system. It manages and coordinates
the entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program
stored in main memory, interprets the instruction, and issues signals.