= FE Soctronic Devices wo we Patrinsie and Fetringic Semiconductor — Charge clonaily i ‘Aaobi lity ¥ Conduct vi Boamiconcducor, Daft 2% Aiffation Current, Continuity oauation, Atl effack - PN puncton _ Energy bard ohagrarn 6¢ Pr Ganchion , 10 Cunen4 componants Sa PN finction 1 qanclion Capasitance - Applicatzen a diede, Diode switch, clipper, clampor and vottage mattipliore - Zona cdicde ~ Zener voriaga seg aledors“o Totroduction © ®. an Bien The most fundamental unit of ol mattay 3% a0 Atom - Ip ws the Smallest povtick of an element #*haé Aotains the Chaactrishes of that elemont- 7hi6 Ge mah elamane tbc veal, Ahaeae - Element ox Matter — conaists Of thvoo > ndamental Fomont particles named elerhen, profen and neutron Plechon - nagatively charged particla , itis denoted ay Proton - Positively Charged particle, }# at donotad ase Nouwtron ~ Uachorged partite - According fo Bohri atomic theory atoms have Planetary tre of Siruchwe consishing of mudlou ferrounded by orbiting afsedron ea nucleus Conash of Positively charged particle “profons’ and unchewged particle ‘neutwns’, “The negative charged particle ‘olectons” ave tightly bounded with nucleus . Foch atom hos Cersain aumber of electrons ancl Proter that distinguishes + frem other atom oF elements (09 Hydrogen - one electron 2 One pwton Silicon ~ Ih olethons and 14 prodons . Atomic fumbes moons — fotal number of elechons or protonsThe electrons are resolving ound the nuclous and’, cue arranged Fo clifforant orbits or Shells ata fired distance from Fhe nucleus Fach orbit Contain a of inad number of © /ectrons . and a given ‘y Qn? where n te Bhe ovbie Num ber Different orbits of On atoms ave named as 6,L)4,w and A on: K 76 Fha Orbit Closest #0 Fhe nucleus . Fath ovbip has UFferont onary Level axtociated, wits Tb fnegy Fever lepends on number a oledyors Tn east orbit, the ereray Qovel Fnevoass Tf the istance from Lhe nucleus Fnevoases » Electrons %n tha cutamoss Ofbit of an alae have highest onévay i and ave fovel bound to the nite, ae a Oto 2 force of attraction betware pease Chouged nusteuw 2 weacbi Chaigad oteston dacxoases with Fncraasing diciane, from” “He haeteaam Yalan glade! Tha. clecnens 90 Hu eutewtt pybit ¥s Known 8 Valence cloctrone Atoms inn fogether fo foem mofefor % mates Thi Bionage. is Faring place phos Valente electons. This firwage 18 cated Banding © Binding forceww “There ave Siypes of boncling namely © Jonic ey, \Q)- Covatant bending (3) Metalic fenclig - Boe Eee The bond formed be twaen or oppositely Chorged ioe which me Produced 4g Yansfor of Cledtrons from One Atom to other - The atom See electrons beromes & ogativa jon 8 Fhe. loging @lectrone becomes positive ivon @nd Vita Vata . The clectstafic force of attraction betwoan OP Poa toly Chavgad Jen forms an Tonic Lond - (ogy Chlorine has 7 vatente obebons where at Avdium tom fas | valonee elettm transfer 9 One Pfecton from foclium atomto thlbsine Atom makes j§ Called at dmde bonding. « The binaing forte between Sodium fon and Chlorine Jon gives vise te formation gp Sodium chloride. Covetent bonetir ww wet This bonding cums When Lhe Valence electrons of Raighbowt atoms ave Shared analy, Fhe Atoms - Thus thae #& no lon formation In Covolent boneting 7 Mogallie bencking ' The matallic Binaing forcesTh. ton t Covalent in Natue - Clorstatie force beftwoon ve lows oloctrone which form haid fogethes by the Qre neither jmic nor also be cafined os the tha positive Tons and nagoti a chud tong. The atoms aze AHrashon these eclochone and ého anneldipg) positive , (rs “1G scl . hone - Coppox ions wed in at Phase Samieonducder evict ae has The figh Vauum clioclo ore * Bus its wrens Aorniconductox levies high vottage power oritonductor lex? electronics » Computers been Aeplarec! fy Au ofound an Solid Statodovicos oF wide mang of applications : Efloetron device = movernont = OF Supplias tas has & . one 17 An electron device it clown fare place through twwhich Varnum oF { Ok Komicondutdor Samioncirlor dence Ar electwn device 4a which movement of elechons fare p tase Ehvongh Benieondaewo Based on conductivity materials can ba Classified Foo Byres Aamaly Condusoy, Indulador and Komisonductor Conductor — a good conductor of — oleeririby has a Gand Mrathue Of dvorlapping Valence band and conduction band - Therefore cay mobilitg °F clechons Constitute taryrent (09) mota Lire Coppox, iven ofc Toeutatox = & poor Concdutfor of olodviaty hana Yorge forbidden band and Boparats the filled : Conchuttin band. The electont Cannot hand “and YOean! to move from valance enough enoray So as Qcoyuire bond . 6° no trent flowin ao band ints Conduction Examphs Glass, ol’amond Fnsulator Somivonductox — Concurhivity Yin Bofwosn Concuttor and A Gnaulatos 74 has 9 Amay width forbidden onegy gop with almost filled Valance band and noosly omphy band . So #he clechont can Aceyuiae minim Conducton from valence band tnt e road Conduction band - do as to mowFosagy Band — Th. Yonge of ore possesod by fhe eloctons ?n an Atom is Caled ar onesey band Valence eletont fLechons proront In the. oufsemog orbit of an atom is Catted Valonce oloctions . Valence band = The range of onogy possa.scod be the clectons tn the Cetermeast orbit og¢ an atom - Conduction olectone - weer FXtomnal ona Line olatic field Remove te Volonca” Clectwne from the nucle S¢ or atom . Taig free clectne —constitading the plow of Current Callas a3 Conduction olertons . Conduction bond The ange 7 onoigy pomeuad by He Conduction olechons 14 called Conduction band . onengy bond In befwoen the Condurhion band ang Lhe Yalento band ts cated forbidden hand . ~ value [niga | Fy 2 bey — Sot on QE which Forbies don band{E) 242 lev - fox sami fhe probability of see filling Of an onaspy foul #1 ona hay© " Somitonduetort are Clascifiad as i) Inbinse Aemivonducks (puro) ci). Ektyinaic Semiconductor Compete) Tt may be q Piype own yr AMEE, *peuitandustos * A pure Semiconcuctos is cated fnhinsic Fromitonductos A wnder koom —famparatue Sore g the valence Otoetrons Oteyuie § Auyiciant ener, to antor the Condusfien band 4 form fiver electrons . 4 Onde fhe Influence Cloctric field those Olartrons Constitute elachic Currant . A phen an electron her bromen From a Covaleny bond , the ompty plate o» V1 Jape bebingy Sn the Crystal Strucuve iS CAlled hob e Apolo Cavries O unit positive Charge Holos also Contyibute. fo cloctiic current % Tn an “intrinkic Komicencluttor oven at Room tomporaue Cloeton Aole Pars oe created phen eléetrie field is applied Across an Potringic Boriconcuctos tho — ceusvant conclusion fares Place by meant of — f'roo eleefne and Aelos 4 Under the nf luonce 9 electic field the total Current through the fomiconducior 78 the Sum ep currents atue to frac electene and folas» The helos hieg positively chaged rove towards : : tho ngative forminal of #he battory - ‘ * As the holes Xoach the negative terminal of the battorg 1 Gloctrmns antes the Samiconduclor ecr the the ferminalx ind combine with holes - ime , Kho [desoly held oloctons attracted wey poritive tormined ® AE tho Samo near the poditiveterminal (y) ave from Bhoir atoms Snko the folec near tha positive terminal » This Creates Mow the nagative forminal twhich qe’ dept towards Gurren} conduction? Serniconductos Page] a aa firce elochon Ex binaie Komicanchacley, — Que to poor conetuction ak ww Aoom femparature + intrinsic famiconduttor a not wtod Satrin He Komicondutloe By adding @ Amat amount of Gnpuritg toCurrent conection Capability ‘Increases 215 Cillad sraput or In&ic . oti 0 tyre Semiconductor - A &matt amount of Pontavalent Impurities futhas ankeoric, anna: er phosphorus 49 added to pare Komicenduetor fo ae n i Bomitoncluttor + l) c@o whe The process @ ; mini: aan Adding impurity iv pee known — Pree Minority = clevig © eh OY or Ola os L Penta C) #]¢ ().- - yalene — loner : impurities Fmpuriblas Se () Grormanium atom has four valence olechone of ot an Cetimeniy has five Valense olectont Antimony Atoms forms Q covalent bana with Surre undin: four Jormenias atoms . Thur ~fout valonte Otetrors J] antimony — eer form covalent bond with opeue Valorne olecton ‘indviclual porate atom ang fit Yelonte feet is Lope free which as dena hound fo bbe antimony adem : on application 7 clonic fiold the free — ePechon antimony a diver ~fer Conduction without Creatin: Sine ik losses 78 elacton ik become Yvoly charged jon * a holeAsa Resutt of loping , the numbex of free Clecrons, far Oxceacls tho umber of holes 95 wtp Semjeonductor 80 oledrons cro Catted mage cossiors 2 holes Qe Catled = Minoviby Carriers 1 — Free ofectron mobile chape * cartes @! @: 2 @! Si 1 eo 1 Denes ion Cimmobile Chauge i Pty meonductor Fmpurilias Buch a» A Bmat amount of divalent pure Som tcondiretoy as aluminium 0% boron 49 added bo fo get fF dre » Trivatont inmpewr by added ‘to Lubinkic Aomitoncductor Gotrodines ‘asge number of holes 2m Valance bane - & Trivalant impudty — aceephs roc ofechon . 20 it Caved cueplor ‘mpurily + pw born atom donates a hole for conduction bezomat negatively Charged jon 4 inte holes are qe than number Of free ty cassiow 2 elechont electrons e ire Bomiconclector holes ae meson! Cue minorily Caio 7DCaaS "allen [ee : Under Hhermal equilibrium , the Predack of the Concentrator g n of free alectons and Conontration P of holes 74 constant ‘independent of the amomt 9 aeping by cloner and aeeeptor eo purities and 49 exproscad 28 reer —D there 0; — 48 Lhe Totrinsie Concentration and 184 function of fornperature. The danaitics of froe clectons and hola Can also be Avlated by laxo 2 electrical neuhrality Semiconductor 78 Acquired to Fe edacteteally neutral) The magnitude Positive Charge densify ee Ooyual the magnitude of negative. Chosge clensity rc Ny be Comentration of cloner aloms and it Contébuter Nd Fmmmobila petitive Charges por wubic metre . Thus total potitive Charge danuity is (worP)Let Wp bo the Concentration of atenptor atoms and iL contribute Na immobile negetive chages pox Cubic mete » The total negative chage donsity 12 (Mate ) - Thus No+p = Nrto -@ a fee, N qe Aomivondutfor — No Aueptor doping eae Concentyadion clecron nig much gyaater khan the Centontration of holes pling NexP .". we can cpl P ‘Tho — eetuation @® con be Aoduced fo 7. Q2ND Thus from above free etocton Concentration Approvimately Qeyuals donsity q cloner atoms . For MN type moteriat Mo Aagnition Concantration op negative mobile Charges (re free clectons J. Mn MD. Accoreling fo mass artion Cow & ae ”q ° s No elasteons Poeun sane Mn Py © Ny Dn D Concentration oe eloctonsin N- 4140. Pr ne Pa2 Cencontratton m holare 0% Nn y fn N&pe Gholor porunit PR. at ND xntringie Conenhation No - [> = Number of 4ve chang ox fm * Corhibuled by clonovions °¥ Cone @ loner atoms Np — Murmbors -ve Chesser /m* Combvibuted by auephorions 9x Contantration Of CUtaptor atomsmu cr a piype — Bamfenndurtor ge + ¢ ConcarrelioF Mp Fee Mi Pp free elochons in pamatercal Tre Me fe hohaleaeoniaen 2 = soleus: | Ape nee nt ret Wa P igre Semiconducles — cen centration of accepts atoms exceeds the Concentration Q one atoms , holes form the majorily Carries WN dype Semiconductor Contentwation 9) clonoy atoms excondy La concontration of acceptor atoms, elocdrens form the wget carriers a! obviete 2 T. convertrations of fonora and acceptors are Oyodd Conductivi a 4 emiconductr Ne omitenducfors are ohmie Ga) Phey obey ohms law - Thap is ea eT fe wleshie fieid ‘volts /mabre E - Current densi to amperes | Sey mete B=. whee Aemetvity tn hm — metre T= Sfp lp=e where 6 Conductivity in mholmetm or 8/meta ,But by dofinition T= Qvv — - ° 9y — volume expressed in here Chage donmty of rnobile- couloumbs | cubic motm . V- velocity of carrier flew tn mléce Vn - Votecily of elettron in nis Vp - Velocity of holes to mig Carriers Qn - Volume Chage donsiy of elechons por cubic metre Qvp — Volume Chage clon aity of holes Pox cubic mote Qvn = -¥P oy magnitude of the Chasge am the charge of An * elactron ative Ainee oledtens Ue. major cauces In n ype Qvp= OP q= Ge [ V%+8vp TV - F =%[-ovel+Prr] » « e =4/g, @= Enel or], “off %, 1 ~fo%g) | * [pee take | Mp = VPI, Mos ie whereBoth Mp # Mr aa exproteg $n misivim % oe Positive Ovuantifier & are Constant for mateval upt [gz =| Ctectrical Pierds Q aboot — A x00" V/ng d= <% T= VG ( Ptes fn) AN Tohiowie Semiconductor acpsnj whee ni a the Tntvingie — Contentredion er (rie x nite ) =n (Hpi dn) rn n kype Romitonductos — Conentration of minoriby carriers Ge) holes 29 negligble when compared fo Ehat 4 Concentration a majoriby Cauzors of. NYVND “| CY Noun Dy P type Somicondurfor —n ith | sev rate Elortical conductivity az room Temperate Somiconductors = Good metalic conductor - Jo #000" Slim Tnsulators 151 #157 Slr pot 406" | moteThe prot for J= GV T= %nv w Jo VPV Consider a piece pf metal ov Concluctr Fn which electrons are teniforaly Hiehib utes Nano of fire electons fis tributed fo the coaduttor bs feng 9 Fhe Condustoy A= Cross Kabionad area Electric fieid applied elechons Sdarl moving Gn the Condurlsr . Average Velocily of electrons =1)_ T— time fanen by the elochons fo travel hough a dit tone Fotal Chaye peesing Ebvough ong ata par Seton = Chae of anelechon x be elactwns per Sexond partin “d through aya @ = eM ge Oy Aye HE Tn) is jp i. Current doosily ge Curent per unitaren ~ Ny Ta Los volume tonduclor containing 0 folectron a» Concentration id Qlectrons por Unit volume hae n= LA‘ @ ‘Latingie Concentration - Va eelmed TS Wilh jncveate an fomporatuse bho fatinaie Concentiotion inereates(ni)and honee the Condustivi ty Fomparatura T 9 $ ncromet Thus nj Vouier with Ay > Constank Facependent of 7 kk = Bolizman constant in ov Ldegre 1 % Luo 8h%ay gap ab OF (shar) . TD Tompontua Fok Ptype semiconduclr — the number of free tom poratere while #he no oF electrons Sncroaces with increase io polas p Xemains constant NV kype Semitendustor — tha aumbes 9 holes ?ncveare with thereate #0 dornperature while the oumber q free electwons loos A204 change mappaaetockiyy Mobilits (#) The mobility of a” Spdinkic Semiconductns Jomperature yange of tro fo #008, ro Vole hole Q 33 a+ varies ad 77” over a The mobility of an Intinsic Komitonduetor Clecreaser with Fnevente hn temperature -pacbility 12 a -funetion of electric field Intensify , B Cev) + SE vemains Constand ooly ie GME < who N type silicon Exs Wy encvely fay ’ . : For 1 LH Lictv/en Hn io 9 type Silicon Vactes Afprovimately 96 oh. For higher fietds fg, varies fnvorsley Of & ond g a ie ° CON stant y, poed Approar atue 9 about Jos m/s Condustivity - The —Conetuctivily of an Sntrin mice Bornicondewtor Uncreate: with tnuoate sh fomporatuse . Tho conduchivily Ok any fompucduce is given by ez soya +a (TT) |] As Temporalure cocspicions Caate @ whieh Conduvtivily Snereasas pordagrer) Felvin AT= Rise In famp (rE) Conductiv’ Cetin sol A reels of Cehipate Gomlcenduttos - Deocroares wih Fnereare gh femparetuce *2 majorly ay Cawiors 2 neatly constant but mobility decventes | hie Causes Conduttivily Jo clocreate - . ith 7 Foegaash —The enegy gop ecroates with Increase un Hompaa hue Rr = Eqio~ PT B= constant olepends upon natue matesid) , B Bao Preagy gap at 0 be lv), siltcon ort diay mo : Germanium 2.23 xis 0-78 Bey -Drigt and Difussion erage @ a Patt Gomat — TP goime verte 4s applied te ko Kamiconduetoy bax , fhe holes mora towards the negative taming | of, the cee ind elecbrore foumace fhe positive tavmindl- “Thy'y Combined afford of He movement of bolas and cfectons Consiftufe olactre turrant- 74 Bnown os drt Current - When an otetne fied is applied across the Aamiconductor matarzal Fhe Chage carriers attain a Cortain drigp volouly %y Where Vy 4 orvuat fo the mobiliig of the te carriaxg and applied Clachic fiatd sntenaily ” the procusk The dripf wrod lanai Chage Carriers Auch as ake the curren) = POA through a Soyuare cantimete: Porpondiular #o the divortion OF flew | The eoyuation fox the site qn uw follows . ola fo tho Charge fre olectons and helas tunont dentily In wit be Tn clue to free elect onc Ih = YnRNE Af em? Jn clue fo poles ?8 Gisvty Tr vP Me EO Al em™w hore = o= number of fraa @ledrons pax cubic = candi P= number of holes pow cubie pe inode e ~ mobili oe alectone jn cm sys _ mobi holes tn Cm? J yes k= applied, olochie ford intannily Invitro as Chasge of an eledhon = (-6 10” 'Feoulomb— - Diffusion aurreot, aA clechie currant flew Ia a- Sembondse cle aver te tho absence of an applied velhage 1 provided a Concantration ; rn oaisis in Fhe materi A concentra fior vadient exist, i the number clachons ov holes 9S greeter in ome Aagion of fom conductor 25 compared be al rest of Pho veglon: of cithes When the Concentration FY qe of Cawfors oxists dito move from Hho gk p£ho carvers ton [ower Concentration tne material of higher concentration the region ef Ths precon Ht casted diffusion and the olecis cugeat rete! gue ke he poeee “Foes, diffusion Currant * ww yor hasta oa Conmder @ bar of PP feomicondueto® pon uniforr contertrafion 9 holer Now tanedaont ti frupare y-y' The clenaily oF holes on fro loyk side op yy! # lasger than that of tho ryt Side Thu there eviels a eencentratico Qrackient Celplde ) whose yok a gee fye- @ Por Contentration holes at Dept onda fhe Komitonduttor bar and may be fapened to a an oxigin plan: Pex con ; x= CO tentration a holee ot the fenapinasy Surpace yy’ se Dist 3 . sHance tho Frmaginay Suiface from tho oxiginplone The nogatie. sign Fnelicater Phat the hole concentration clecrcates wilh Fneroate- Sy the valuc of x Bocame the Contentratton sadiont (dplds) dhe holes Prom opt of, He yep! Sunpare. obippuse © Fowords the right Hide - This produser an olertie Cusvent ‘catled Aiffuron Current The magnitude of clipfusion cusvent por unit Ouen tt jven Gp -1 Op de. an Y > Chageof ahole Gn coulomb+ Dp > Pitturion Constant for bolas in re?/s0¢ ae - cencntration aa dz The negative “9? Endécatet phat Convantralton ames Gs negative with — he ines value qe my Jae ~y Pn 2. dz a nt in rn (ac where Dn is Fhe cliffusion constant for . YencTotal cusront ina Sem? eoncuchr TY cterhic qiald , Concentration “gradient wexi8L Fimattancous|y withina fomleondutoy —» tha bo kad Curent iS Fhe sum @ dvift current and oLitfuen Guuttont For a P type Komiconductor tal f it . Total eanent porunit posal emtert Tp, ey lpr ones. elena by afm @) p= OY MpPE -¥ Dp se yt Similarly, #he fotel ursrent aonsity for a ~ ype Bomitonduttor . Fae yHnr-F Lay B, dn - =] dn & Y Mon E _ ey Dp on ox. frau £ f fest wo * Dikeovered b fen Hau fin LOT - Whe °% Apedimen Caring 9 turret =F 99 placed Paw “lodapic field B | Pron an cfechic fredd & franaverte To phe direction ©, Fnduted “Pn fhe Spodimen ! pespendtaslor fo beth and B&B» This phenomenco sg coued the Hall Rye > This Hau offet tocol forlirdetormin ing eohothes a fami conductor 1S plype OF nore @ Mobile carrer concent © (i) Mobili byVa faymination Y; AIRY XK Pumigor OW ~ 4 OT ate ine Lee cn Hho. pokitive X dlirattion - hoka magnate field B be applied $n Fhe poditive > clacton . Tian ou pox Hau effort a force gars erarded mm #hO Chawga Cariaxe | fn the negative diredion « . The current 7 may bo hue Fo holas movi Po the pokilive a oliredtion ov dueio froo olechons moving the negative x olinertion fhrough Somiconduthr Spouirmon Lrvespetive Fhe nafure of tha Chage cossiore wohether roles oy —elecfrons Ahate Chasge cassie! ¢* preeol clownwards #0 wards fot 9 Hho SPeimen carried almoesh In 7 igpe Spoimanturrenk 3s a Kesutt How yoy 4 elorfons “There oleehont oS Offer —Aeumulate on Side} which Aunface hen poke negative chauged Aolative fosidaa - % Potential clifference Lharefore, clevelops botweon Augdoves parle Catted tha Hat voltage The How voltage Ps positive ak forminadd 2: 07 Kho P type fomiconductor che Haw vortage, forminal |. Thus Fhe polarity of Hou voltage enables uf ro ai e a cloteimine experimentally whetha he foovtarali a Seni Sporimen js op Ayre ™ pigre Vy, fo an ntype Semionductoy other hand fo 4 Vy wi positive. atExprimmiat Deleeclontion sp Ms Crnmder a % type Aomfconductor cana A tunont (1) and platedin 9 frangverse me i. ficly Bin a litecdn athown in tha figite Then cua fo tha forces exosted on alochons by Lhe cleric and magnetic fit, % Hau voHage (Yn) fe adueed qevote fhe Semiconductor - rnaintain a Sto afew of Uerreny the aforca exerted on the oleron.e netic field must belance Inordox }? Pbrough Komi concluttor clue fo obectic qietd and me eceth othor * Featertric) t Femagralio ap, Nye +B =e - £2 — BI -@ T> utnont densily ny n> Concentration 7 ofectonr ao £letanic Chay Tp as rowemarybe — snbrodauce a form catted Hatt cape Sn covaation — Aofines! OF frou cogpident Fy ~t Substituting oL in Ove ® EE: go Ra- QB that Ellouic field = Ve/g Vig = Hout voltage de Pittance @ bafweon Fwe sufaret tg We Know} clensily 4s claginad 03 cunt pot nae , But caren q= T), % a ds le eae whore bia the #hicrnow q fhe Somiconductor 7p tha dlirection Of panghet pind « tne value % and € an eorsafing Sabentateg Mes Be Txt a qt nv: Yyz BL Thetajore ey madauslsg Hho value 9 BL yan 4 Phe contontratigs of free elertrons con be determined ina bape Aemiconductor « The Kame eoyuation Ehat 4 envuation ® canbe ted fo cfetamine free lectront ina metas A Kimilot proteduse can bo uted fo deteumine #he Concentration op holes ina p gre Bornrvondarchy yr « pe BE Vig Vt The Hau Cond fi ecent for p tyre Revd py ae Hau cocrfpiient fora P4ype Komiconduchoy "S pom'tve whereas itis negative fora w tye03F = true Sotoy the Hatt voltage fna Ptype ‘emitonductor is of Sppomte polostly fo that in a N type Semiconductor ination ah Mobility eH cuvical Conduthvily Of n type Aumiconduttes riyre os php Btn - aterbon mobility Mee hote mobili ty SEY tn Thus if Phe Condustivily of 0 Aomitonductor i alyo — meatutad along with B, then mobility can 1, e Aletamined frm the yf otlowing aolations . fncee, = fy - fem vise] Hp = sae = ToAee L fr b lyped Applicetions : a) Te determine the TYP Komi wnduchy givfo Moatuie otedan ot hole concentration a mobility - nofie qierd met bo onse bhe du) Uhat do gtatie ™ motic pid - alae position nefie zield mote- Hawt voltage xoporsiow! to B- Henco moasuee 2m Vy foragnn « current dt Cute magnelit-fiald® - ci) Hau fect muti pliax- his snsteureord gwar a olp Proportional fo preduciy kwo nals eat curren J Mmaole prprHonat fo one ijprand ¢ * ™ proportional 1 Betond iJp fhon Hast voltage Vy as prportiond) © Product aifpe cauieu have be ES) By — Vendor theumal distributionie Spoce 17 ner . Riya defind® 3t/gg, inctad Qala, .@ + Continuity Foyuation. - tho sfundamonteD Jao wow The — tontinuity coruatin 76 governing Hho ylow of Charge - Continuity avuation describar (1) How #he Cattery Contantration Fn a ee elemental Volume of arg siol with time and olfstance - () TE enables us to Catulafe fhe excese dantily a Otectons or holet tm time and pare The Variation %n danaity 96 Caused by the Rate q enesation and Loss by xecombinatiin of Carriers within the Clement , dripk Of CasKierr foto we out of Khe clement - Varios Conmdes an Fnfinitesimadl 0 bee Aomivondustor bar qy Volume ipsa A and Length da - her the Average hole Contenhation within this Volume be Pushich ts vey onasty of majority carriers Ai Kime £ iy Monrily carrlastinare. Injested the Volume ab 2% 4p Aman Compared with Lhe the minovitg Cunent entorin and foaving at atdx 4 Iptdip which is due tp alizgucion “The = Minosi Komiconcluctor bar dacvaras exponen ally distanta Ua Aosut D ayfurion and Locombinate Carrer Contentratin ‘inpectad fnte one and 4 the with Frncrean = tnJip veprosents the dlacroase Yn number 9 Coulombe por Second within the Yolume Siaw the nitude Of Carrier ot Oy, thon mq oy 3p eouats the clorramse %n the senna holes wy pes Aeron within the @lomente) Volume Adx Thur deereate tn hole Conentration por Second due = 5p to current tp yadn = Aly) - de ate wa The thermal agitation penavales new clocton — hote pairs. “Tha ateubon exists for Tn Sosonss ond % hole for tp Acwnds afore rewmbination - The mean Gifo hime Tn and Tp of olachons # hola Tnelicate Lhe #me Aoyiires for oxtorgve Clodren and hola Contontration #2 Attu bo fhei ooyuil/ brian Values Conkidaing an W kype Kamivonduclor haw! #hermal eopuilibriym Concentraten Fo of holes and he 2 Cloctrons Ratpedivaly : When Fhe Sposimen is “llurminated by light or injacin 9 Carsiors, additvonal etecton belo pairs ae foomiated enifocrnly through out Fhe mectiam -This camer fhe Concentration of holes and electrons fo fnevease from Po # no to new Valuce . Tho vale 9 Change of Kola. olenaity F4 Cquat fo theiv rate qstexetion minus Fhe rate ak which they Aecombin with Olechons. Thus drs Ger dr p> minority hole Concentration ak ony. time J GS Gneration rato for minority corrioy Ro Rewmbinalion Aate for Minority cassror, R-_? a decrante win holo concentration pow Frond clue fo Aewmbination Sh Gs in chepondent op the magnitude the hele a 7 Concentra Hon Gu a funckion Q fomporatue » Tk Aepreronit tncrecse un hele Concentration per Acwnd luce to #hermd J imeration The vate Ap at oveay Insdand ty time Perwal the algabraie Sur 9 Hho Aates Rand 6 -Thus a Gb 2.Chances of Atxombination of Clortons @) Rodeos tho with the holes with Fncvease of Collector fo fasa Vollage Chee) Gn haso ell Thowegove. & Iereatg @ The Concentration Ger of pralnciiy Carriors twith in the basa Pneveaser - “Th; in dumm Incioare the omitier —tuvront For crhemaly argo ve 7 Mee er Gdastive. hase width maybe foduced to toro, coming voltage hreagdown of a tranaistor. THIS Pisnomenon—s wna 8 (8) panch Bovough Thansigtor ‘Breardowns « Breandovons wamoly @ Avalanche. routtiplication or Avalanche preakdecn oy punch Phrough: each hrough @ RF # ‘4 that Avalanche rmustiplicetion* The Yoltare a wry “ . ar a and holed, n Pha Samfcondastion The arises whan tho ol ocfrons atceloraled onough the applied! voltap' - ve @ ewifh bound olectrons aueclorefed electrons and yes ae ng: TA and produca moke roo. | fect nee i i more Collision due to which currant loge value - Hic avalanche place Focouse saturation Leo Teoo igre of Collide Broan dows in a Pransisfor 1 jplication of quribanthe. multiplication Ot hate. that (esses the Collector quo ioe Acvorse@® mig Th i © Avalanche mvartiplieapr murliplication sfector Jiven b qo ome - | 8 i= Veg J” * Bra, | Where | ee - 7 Veriam beiwoor Collector and base By, ‘ Bo - = Maximum Yovevse Bias Vottage which my bo applicd bafore breakdown bo toe, Collector And base Lasminals worth omiltes bpen is Called proasdowo votlage 7 ne ed empirical Cons fant depends on the laHi'ce material and cassier yre Zarb, Hbreuah ox Fach bough, ~ Db as a form af Vottag. breattdows thak anise jgbae dua fo the Fncreased width Of Collector base jitter clepletion Yegion with Focraasad Cotiecton. ary. junction votkage. - Since the bose as lighiy cleped 1 comporecl fo collechy deplotio region ponefrotes dleapor into tra base Aegivn For erkvernely lage Cottactor vortage, the effective base widkh bo xodured te xXeto aia votlog e breax down of a@ transistor Ditference befueen Avatanehe aed unch Ebro be breardewn VeyAvalanche Broardown Fanch Bee TE dares Place ab “Tt faxes place at Aifferent voi tag oe dlepon = Afired vortage be “pon the. Cireatt Configuration Gotlestor a. a #we0n mi So 24 leponcts upon the 1: tt & not dependont on Civant Configuration . Cinait Confiquration TRoxmal yun aw yYYW OV weed x The Yeversa Saturation ceerront in Seeiconctuctoy devices Changer with femperaiue a The Reverso Sefusation Current ap prowinately Aoubles vfor ony [oe yi8e Fn Fomporature « This = Caurar hippeualty SN Uxing EYandisfoy a9 an amplifier - ti * Temperature of the Coflodor bare Function Facraases _ (earage Covent of the Aranaisfy Pneveases g Cellector Current aldo Tneveases - A Tneveate vin Collector Cuervant produces an Gncraate. Gn power ctistipation ak the Collector base junction «This ai burn Fnereases the fomperakuc Coltactoy bese qention ousing Fhe Coltects current fo Purther Sneveate etemne tamulative and Phe a This prec. may uta ond | Ralings Tran a mew be ce. This precest Ga darer’bod a3 Fhermal Ren aoa « a» Thswy | Thermal yun away avoided by Bie aa > ae Stabilization Cred ky, Heat sing Anes Heat kink Ig a motalhe heat conducting clevice Placed in Close Contat with a frandistos bo Facwote the power lissipation capability of the fronsishs - Connecti Fransistey fo foatéing Facveates the Sarpare dtea from — eohich te heat a bo be dissipated fo the akmosphoe - Heat Moves from the. fron é' thoy to heat Fins ‘a aie ae the fins to a kmosphoro by Convection ¢ Radiation fransisjor Aandling mau Ay nals no heat Kine — Jowdpower transistors — fin YPE Power Eransists * eae re — Yeetangulay ansistos hoat ink Heat Aink painted black bo Kacdiate. mee heat and as mounted af Atha position whew the froo ak Can pte around GbTrorder fo uso the franaistoy “n oy application H six nevertary 1° Provide Sufficient Vortage ancl Currend do Sperate tha Franaitfey . This 41 Catted biceri i Test dhe peg ging Pure ay JS eps and wesistantes for obtaining Seared 9 point 6 eater! biasing «The tivatis “eel for getting tha dovived 2 propoy ©perating Point Ate Known ay 9 Chau 6 Th: ; . for Alistrtion free ouput Fo aomplifior GAwutts the Mupply voltage and ceackae Revigfances Muir be Chosen ~ frsilably fo operate the frangister 79 Phe Othve Aegion + Thete vortages and Currents ae Catleo{ yuietcam Wokues and it determine the operating pow Oy @ Point q Ehe anaittor - Renton fer og pablishing Q point Since the franaittor peuamotare Suhel fy Teo and Vat dre yunctons of fomporatue , the opersthing poins Shigts with Changes 2h tarmpeaiets Pravetor a G point OF a Pranaithr Is calablichebine: Barcebve: Agios gor Proper operation Woe bran sisterwo To hnig Used 4 Stability 4 cents Fee Tekst: etaiin ah eels J te bd biel ij ; Sipbilimaton feces — The [Regent do. the ute of Aoristive biasing, eiautt which atteras Ip bo ity a as to Keep Fe Aalat aly Constant with Veuiationg in Tu, PB and Vee - Compensation Hechniayue - This &efoxs to the use of kemporature Sonsitve devices Auch os theemiote dliodes Trey Provide Commpandeting Volos £ Cttrrents fo maintain Spoatieg point Constont The operating Point op a transistor %8 Kept -fired Usually at the Contre Fhe active regio Forder that Frput Aignal Fs eoelt amplifiod . Fy the print is Gn #ha Seturation region ex the abode Kegion the positive # neqativ. hogy cycle gets Chipped 4 Respectively - Lc Goad line hog os ae load fine 4s defined as Qine on the “ hich gives Oukpuk — Chatartertsties the branaigfor hich alite I, Corn H fo Xero fH nal fhe. Vatu Of Te and he COW apenas 2. * 2 a Seacliti on jAtonte Coackéi Bt Considers only the de “lead Aexi C Ac load (ine WN wesw FW this. bo Bhraig bt Tine Ehrough Point hoving 8lope- Comesponding fo Ri juibvent aera ae load verstancesho at food Vina iver He Yelue Of Toand Vee whon ae Kgnol %& applied - Ac foad Line fs Shopos than Hic cle Poad Dine - Ac Yoad fine faxes *nto atount the ac Poad ferishance Vhs Fhe tntarseddion @ de andoe Oonel Line 48 the operating pont. Gg pointe tend to Ghitk position duo Fhe main factow (%) Reverse Katuotion Cel rvent which double fr every loc Ancrente tp fompetatue (6) Bate omiffer YoHlage whith olecroase dsm por'c (Transistor ceutent gas which tncreares worth Jomporatue Stobili zation anne Sat stable sho maintenance of 0 peradng FP ee cated Gabilixation franasctor biaxi ©. Mothodt wet yw wens ‘ ' Bare tesitlor method Fired bles aw wen A Common emiffer —amplifios ven }5, Khown fo tyure . fixed bias Cr keitThe de analysss of pho cexuld lara + Yee Wie Re Vec = Taka + Vee al = fn el ‘ Me Te = Vee - Vee Ka a Jinto this eevaation 7 ‘faclepenclonL of tusront Te Aig Jas =° Stavitiy afer = 4p for © gee tranaistos Vee loos not vey Signiticantyy aluving whe As Veo as oy sfized Valuc Re tho base tavent Je is fixed: Therefore this type is called fixed biat 1yPe- on Actocdion 2 () Tf 6 Kimple to Shift the opening point ang where 9n tho achive Ragin 1] rarely bhangiig the bate Aonstor Re - A vou Smaut numbor of Components Ore Kooyuired - (2) Dom exits www (1) ‘The Collecty current does nef Aemain Constant wit vara tion 1A fomperature power supply voltage Thorafere. operating peint 16 censtable : @ A to VRE will change 2g 2 thus couse Reb ae an — cn buco will chagn - the gore fince k= Ig ange ; (3) Le pu loge quantity, THs. YO peor dias Stable CiretéCollector 4 . s race RS Bam Wan 5 ARD BM ARH® ZRSR The Cirasth of 9% Collects te base. bios ui at Shown in Fhe Pye Th it firme as hate biat etkeatt oxcopt that He hose xovister Rac Connected to collector Yather Ehan to Voc Supply» The tei: CAR Meets as Ytedbose ‘Aavishe . Sf the Coltedex current Te fends $0 ?ncveate due fornpetatuue o¥ hranaistor has been fo either ‘neraate +n Facveasg Yeplacat by one with iy hones Voltage drop aeroct Ke Therefor Te cocroatas thoraby Reducing the value Me of which tr term Componsades Vee = (Tesh) Re + Take + Ver Yee fhe fnesease tn ic Te: M“ec-Vee —IeRe ReotRe . ude eae VT Re+ ke . vin . s-, tthe ef F/E. ) Civadit Stabilizes tho operating Point against varia tone gr fomporahue ancl PB d Ramarits 3 Inthis , Te ‘Koop Te “indepenclont of Pp preety Conditions must fo mot(0) The Value of ke mati be cyuite lasge ch) The Vaktre of Re must bo made Smeut satisfactory yor amplifiet eceuts Line D Tp is rot ushoe de Load keristance} 5 stransformes Coupled arnplifier Collector Cideut 78 vey maul * ox amin Der used biasing aecingemey- Habilitation Crest Serj Bias ox voltage clividay bias ao Wry awn Teas 4 vou Com monk, TE us alto Known as Universal bias In bhig methed bwo Roristancet Ry and Po os pontential divider and are Connoed Across aus Aespp hy voliago Vee +o provide Prper biatig . The cmitfer reHstance Tho nef feucad bias ateces Lhe Ke provides Stabilisation . te miller peneien is Vat: be-€ fomparature , #his cautot a boa vise 79 Now tha Current in Fig antsoases nevoaren and consesnontly hep Lhore Ge) aAise 4h Te, Kiso in To across Rp asa Aesull voltage dsop the base taunyon} decraates Thus the Colfeckor cutrent improved operating poin + siability ae — 9 amph fo avoid. loss ac again a capotiter Sage This capactor offers and Aunce. tt Aosulting Fo fiost ocoates %— ‘connedled —*EOSS Recs Cope tilante. very gmat Reacfance poses through VF : fo ae egret