TABLE OF CONTENTS

SYLLABUS Chapter 1 Baslc Concepts (1 1)to (1 132)

1.1 Introduction. 1-3
Network Analysis (17EC35)
1.2 Network TerminoloEY ****

-1-3
Module 1 1.2.1 Network.. 1-3
transformations, Nerwork
reduction using Star
sources. Source 1.2.2 Network Element...
a s c Conrps Practical independent 1-3
and node analysis With linearly dcpendent and
Dedta r a r t r m a ion Loop (Chapter 1)
-

nerrorks. Concepts of super node and super mesh. 1.2.3 Branch... 1-3
Surves for N and AC
1.2.4 Junction Point .
C- *'*'*''****'*''*'*******

Module 1.2.5 Node.. *** * * *

1-4

Nerwor Theorems: and Norton's theorems.

1.2.6 Mesh (or Loop) . 1-4
MIlman's theorems, Thevinin's
Superpasiaion Reciprocity. 1.3 Classification of Electrical Circuits. ********************** 1-4
Marimum Power transfer theorem. (Chapter
-

1.4 Basic Circuit Parameters

Module-3 14.1 Resistance (R) .1-5
elements under switching
Transient Behavior and Inidal Conditions
Behavior ofcircult
of initial and Anal conditlons in
RL, RC and 1.4.2 Inductance () 1-7
condition and thetr Representation., evaluation
RLC circuits for AC and DC excitations. (Chapter-3) 1.4.3 Capacitance (C).. 1- 8
Solution of nerworks, step. ramp
and Impulse
Laplace Transformatdon & Applicadons: 1.4.4 Voltage-CurrentRelationshipsfor Passive Elements.... .. 1-9

responses waveform Synthests. (Chapter ) 1.5 Concept of ldeal and Practical Sources..
*****************************************************.1-9

Module 4 1.5.1Voltage Source... . 1-9

Resonant Circuits: Serles and parallel resonance, frequency- response of serles and 1.5.2 Current Source. ..1-10

Parallel circuits, Q-Factor. Bandwidth.(Chapter

) 1.5.3 Dependent Sources . . .
.. .1-12

1.5.4 Regulation and Loading of Sources. 1-12

Module-5 .

Two Port Network Parameters : Definition of 2. Y. h and transmission parameters, 1.6 Ohm's Law.
***e*****s**********a*******a*o************************ 14
modeling with these parameters, relationship between parameters sets. (Chapter- 6) 1.6.1 Limitations of Ohm's Law.
1-15
1.7 Series and Parallel Combination of
Elements.. ***************************** -15

1.8 Short and Open Circits..

*************asr********o******.************************e***************a** 1-16
1.8.1 Short Circuit... . . 1-16

1.8.2 Open Circuit. * . . 1 -17

1.8.3 Redundant Branches and Combinations... ..1-17

1.9 Kirchhoff's Laws.. *******************************************************

..1-18

)
()
 120 Node Analysis 1 9
1 201 Points to Remember for Nodal Analysis 1-9

1 20 2 Supernode. 19%
Aypyng aVl 20
nentksbe PolaW a hile
re
120.3Steps for the Node Analysls.. 97
g 71
R 4 y t md AVi
a ciovedPath 1.21 Magnetically Coupled Circulls. 115
Netwurd tquations 2
Apy) Airuhhm laws
to Get 1.21.1 Self and MutuallyInduced t.M.F..
Nto
1 25 1115
****t*******"*********** ***

!Renew
N AC
Onuits
26 1.21.2 Dot Convention.... ' ''* 1-117
Quantity
1101ttin ofan Alternating 1 26 1.22 Duallty....sssenenetessagsssn*sassst*******i**s*sserseeenus****a*sseenm***s**e*a-***asnssnamomu 1 121
husor Oagram . 1.22.1Construction of Dual Networks....
1 0 2 mase 1 27 1-123
KepevmtatiM of PhasoN.
Atathematral
1 103 ' * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
29 Chapter 2 Network Theorems (2-1) to (2-98)
11mdance in Ac. Ôrcuts ****************************'*********** 32 2.1 Introduction....
************a*************"******°************"'**'******** ******. .
2
sn AC Orcuits.
112 Awer 1-32 2.2 Thevenin's Theorem. *********************************'******"""**s****ss-spnna.as...
****

1121Pwer factor ios. *************** * ********"*****************°*************

I33
2.2.1 Explanation of Thevenin's Theorem
. 2-2
RAC Ôrruit.
13 Senes ************* ********°****** * 36 2.2.2 Steps toApply Thevenin's Theorem...i.... 2-3
of Resistors.
Dvision in Parallel Circuit
114Curent - 38
2.2.3 Method of Calculating Zeq for Network with Dependent Sources
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * "
* . .2-55
* * * * * * * * *

115 Source Transformation. *

*
2.2.4 Limitations of Thevenin's Theorem....
1-40 2-7
115.1 Combnatons of Sources *
. . . . 1-40
2.2.5 Proof of Thevenin's Theorem . . 2-7

115.7VoltageSourcesinSenes ** I-41 2.3 Norton's Theorem. ************************** ***************************** " 25

in Parallel.
1.15.3 Votage Sources
. . 1-41 2.3.1 Explanation ofNorton's Theorem.. 2-225
115.4 Current Sourcesin Series. 1-42 2.3.2 Steps to Apply Norton's Theorem .... ... 2-26
in Parallel...
1155 CuTent Sources 2.3.3 Proof of Norton's Theorem.
*************************************************** *********************°****** 49 2-27

116 Source Shifting .

2.3.4 Duality between Norton's and Thevenin's Theorem..

50 2 28
116.1 Voltage Source Shifüng..
1-51 2.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem. *****
************************"****** -41
L162 Current Source Shftng..
****************"*** 1-566 2.4.1 Explanation ofthe Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.. 2--41
1.17 Delta-Star and Star-Delta Transformations. **********

1-57 2.4.2 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 2-42

117.1 Delta-Star or tto TTransformation..
-59 2.4.3 Corollary... ...243
1.17.2 Star-Delta or Tto Transformation...
1 72 2.5 Superposition Theorem **********************************"*****************************
2 58
118 Concept of Loop Current.. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
********************

********************************** ************°****
l -73
2.5.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem.. ... 2-58
1.19 Loop Analysis or Mesh Analysis.
2.5.2 Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem .... 2-650
1.19.1 Points to Rememberfor Loop Analysis. . . . .....1-74
1.19.2 Supermesh . ... 1-75 2.6 Millman's Theorem. i****.*********no****************************************************** 76
... 1-75 2.6.1 Explanation of Millman's Theorem. 2 - 77
119.3 Stepsfor theLoop Analysis....
(i) (vi)
 2-77
Pro olAman' Ihearem Chapter 4 Laplace Transformation and
7 ReviprociTy Theorem 2 87 Applicetions
8 41Introduction 4 1)to (4 118)
7tplanatsn ofReiprocity Theorem 4-S
4 1.1 Concept of Laplace
272 Proof of Reciprociny Theorem
1.2
Transform Method
28 Mler's Theorem. 96
Advantages of Laplace Transform
81 Proof of Miller Theorem 2-97 413
Disadvantages cf Laplace Transtorm.
2.82 Dual of Muller's
Theorem. 2.97 4.2
Definition of Laplace Transform.
43 Properties of Laplace
Chapter 3 ranslent Behavlor and Initial Conditions (3 1 ) to (3 . 92) Transform.
3.1 Introduction.. 3 2 4.3.1 Lineanity -
4.3.2 Scaling Theorem (Multiplication by Constant K)
3.2 Mathematical Background of Differential Equations 3 2 .

7
4 3.3 Real Drfferentiaton
3.3 General and Particular Solutions 3 3 (Differentiation in Time Domain). 4-7
43.4 Real Integration.
3.3.1 Homogeneous Equation. 3-3
4.3.5 Differentiation by s (Multipication by t).
3.3.2 Non-Homogeneous Equation.. 3-4
4.3.6 Complex Translation..
4-9

3.4 Initial Conditions in Network..* * **a .******* ***************************** 3-5 -10

4.3.7 Real Translation (Shifting Theorem) .
10
3.5 Initial Conditions in Basic Passive Elements
4.3.8 Initial Value Theorem... 4-11
3S.1Resisto 3-6
4.3.9 Final Value
Theorem. 4-12
3.5.2 Inductor.. 3 -b
4,4 Standard Time Signals and Waveform
35.3 Capacitor.. 3 - 8
Synthesis. .4-19
A4.1 Step Function. . . 4-20
3.6 Transient Response of Series R-L Circuit for D.C. Excitation ******************** 3- 10
4.4.1.1 Unit Step Function [u{t)). 4-20
3.6.1 TransientResponse of Driven Series R-L Circuit... ***'* 3- 10
4.4.1.2 Shifted Unit Step Function. -

4-21
3.6.2 Transient Response of Source Free or Undriven Series R-L Circuit.... 3-15
4.4.1.3 Use of Unit Step Function
4-21
3.7 Transient Response of Series R-c Circuit for D.C. Excitation.. ***a*********** 3-26
4.4.2 Ramp Function.... 4-23
3.7.1
Transient Responseof Drtven Series R-CCircuit.. 3 26 4,4.2.1 Unit Ramp Function [rtt}] 4-23
3.7.2 Transient Response of Source-Free or Undriven Series R-C Cirauit 3-30
4.4.2.2 Shifted Unit Ramp Function
4-24
- 41
3.8 Transient Response of Series R-LC Circuit for D.C. Excitation.. **************** 9*
4.42.3 Addition of Two Ramp Functions -25
3.8.1 Specifcations from Step Response ofSecond Order Cicuit... 3-45 4.4.3 Impulse Function ....
- 27

3.9 Transient Response of Series R-L, R-C, R-L-C Circuitsfor A.C. Excitation..3-S1 4.4.3.1 Delayed Unit Impulse Function
4-28
3.9.1 AC Excitation to Series R-L Circuit.. * * * ' * * * * ' ' .
3-51. 4.4.3.2 Impartant Properties of Impulse Function
4-29
3.9.2 AC. Excitation to Series R-C Circuit.. 3-53 4.5 Relationships between Standard Time Functions ****** ****** *****-*n*~ 30
3.9.3 AC Excitation to Series R-L-C Circuit. -56 4.5.1 Relation between Unit Step and Unit
Ramp. .

30
4.5.2 Relation between Unit Step and Unit
Impulse 30
(i)
ix)
 Functions..
. 4-32
f Standard Chapter 5 Resonant Circuits
i liasiwns 4-32
S.1
(5-1)to (5.48)
481 hxtn...
4-32
Introduction.. *********************************************** *** ******4nas******. 2
Ramp funtin 5.2 Q-Factor or Figure of Merit.. ******** *******

3 3 *****"***************************** ***** e***** *s*sin 5-2

functien
. . .

63Inuse 5.3 Serles Resonance. **************** ************************************************************* *

********, 4 4 1
Function.. 5.3.1 Phasor Diagrams..
7Lpae
Transform of aPeriodic 5-5
- 51 5.3.2 Reactance Curves.
5-6
4.S Convolution Theorem. 5.3.3 Variation of Impedance, Admittance, Current and
** -52 Frequency. 5-6
inverse Laplace Transfom..
5.3.4 Q-Factor of Series Resonant Circuit... 5-8
.4-53
Roots 5.3.5 Voltages across Land C under Resonance.
and Real 5-9
49.1 Simple
4-54 5.3.6 Bandwidth and Selectivity. S-9
49.2 Multiple Roots..
.

56 5.4 Properties and Applications of Series Resonant Circuit.. ****esnussnsp*a* 5-23

4.9.3 Complex Conjugate Roots. 5.5 Parallel Resonance
494 nverse uplace Transfom using Convolution Integral.. 58 (Antiresonance). *********************anui*s************t*********** 5-30

Inverse Laplace Transform. *******.*********************°* ,4 -67 5.5.1 Variation of Susceptance with Frequency.. .5-35
4.10 Spedal Case of
5.5.2 Impedance of
Differential Equations using Laplace Transform...
4-658 Antiresonant Circuit Near Antiresonance.... .5-36
4.11 Solving 5.5.3 Bandwidth and
Series Circuit to D.C. Excitation..**************v**o* ** 70 Selectivity of Antiresonant Gircuit. .. 5-39 C
4.12 Response of RL 5.6
71
Properties and Applications of Parallel Resonant Circuit. - 46
Series Circuit to D.C. Bxcitation.
4.13 Response of RC
Chapter 6 Two Port Network Parameters (6 1) to (6-70)
Series Circuit to D.C. Excitation...
4.14 Response of RLC
6.1 Introduction...
Grcuit to Sinusoidal Excitation.. *************esevesee.
4-76 6-2
4.15 Response of RL Series
6.2 Two Port Network.Parameters- Terminal Characteristics of Network.
76 6-2
4.16 Response of RC Series Circuit to Sinusoidal Excitation...
- 80
6.3 z-Parameters or Open Circuit Impedance Parameters...
Circuit with Sinusoidal Excitation... *************************.. -4
O*
4.17 RLCSeries esesoaenroorsssensuassoeanneeesuorse

6.4
4.18 Transform of Basic R, Land CElements. ******************essesossnere*** 4*82
y-Parameters or Short Circuit Admittance Parameters.. ne*******.***. 6 17

..4-82
6.5 h-Parameters or Hybrid Parameters..*********.**************n
4.18.1 Resistor (R).. e*********** 6 25
4 82 6.6 ABCD Parameters or Transmission Parameters or Chain
4.18.2 Inductor( ParameterS. 6-34
4.18:3 Capacitor C 4-83 6.7 Summary of Two Port Network Parameter..**********°******************i* *** 6-48
. 4 84
4.18.4s-Domain ork... 6.8 Interrelationships between Parameters.. **** **********************s*************
.6-48

4.18.4.1 Advantages of s-Domain Network. 4-84

6.8.1z-Parameters interms of other Parameters.... ...6-48
4.19 Solved Examples with Zero Initial Conditions...
**********o**************** .. 4 86
6.8.2 y-Parameters interms of other Parameters... 6-51
4-95
4.20 Induding Initial Conditions in the Network Analysis . 6.8.3 h-Parameters interms of other Parameters. .b-54

4.20.1 Initial Current through inductor.. 4-95 6.8.4 Transmission (ABCD} Parameters interms of other Parameters........6- 56
4.20.2 Initial Voltage across Capacitor..... . . 4-95
Solved Question Paper of VTU (S 1) to (S .4)
January-2017.
********************************'*********************i********************e*** to (S -4)

()
 Basic Concepts

Syllabus
Practical sources, Source tranformations, Nenwork reduction
using Stas Deita
Loop and node analysls Hith lbrearly depndent and independent sourcesfor DC vanformasicn
-

AC nenworks. ad
Concepis of super node and sper mesh

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Network Teminology
1.3 Classification of Electrcal Circuits . . . . . . . .

Jan.-o4, Aug.-04, 05, Mars 8

1.4 Baslc Circut Parameters
1.5 Concept of ldeal and Practical Sources.... Jan.-04, 06, July-0, 05, 07, Marks 3
1.6 Ohm's Law
1.7 Sernies and Parallel Combination
of Elements
1.8 Short and Open Circuits
1.9 Kirchhoffs Laws
1.10 Review of A.C. Circuits
1.11 Impedance in A.C. Circuits
1.12 Power in A.C. Circuits
1.13 Series R-L-C Circuit .. AUg.-96, Juky-13,. Marks 6
1.14 Curent Division in Parallel Circuit
of Resistorss
1.15 Source Transfomation.
......... . .. ... Aug.-05, Jan.-08, 17, July-14, Marks 10
.

1.16 Source Shifting ******* ****

an.-06, 13, July-06, Aug.-11, Marks 6

.17
Delta-Ster and Star-Delta Transfomations. Feb.95, Jan.-04,05,06,07,10,17
.

******

..94,14,15,16,17, Mar.-01, June-12,

. . .

. Julyo7, 09, 10, Aug.-05, 06, 11,

**** * Dec.-15, ***** . Marks 10
1.18 Concept of Loop Curent

(1-1)
(il
 -2 Basic Concopls
Network Analysis
1-3
Basic Concepts
... Aug.-94, 05, 06, 11,May-10, 12, 13,
... Jan.-04, 05, 06, 07, 08, 09, 10, 11, 1.1 Introduction
17 The ohm's law, V R can be
. . .
13, 14, 15,16, =

... Fob-03, June-12, practice, the circuits successfully applied to the

simple ircuits. But in
may consist of one or more sources of emf. and number of
... July-07, 08, 09, 10, 13, 14, electrical parameters, connected in
different ways. The different
*

elements are resistors, electrical parameters or

. . Dec.-11,
* * * s n s

Marks 10 capacitors
and inductors.
Mar.-2000, 01, Aug.-2000, 01, 02, 06,
alongwith various sources of energy give rise to The combination of such elements
referred as networks. The terms complicated electrical ircuits, generally
. June-12, July-04, 08, 10, 13, 14, ircuit and network are used
electrical literature. in synonymously the
.. Jan-06, 08, 09, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17,
Key Point The netwoTk analysis meas to fnd
brarch ofhe network;by using fundamental laus and current thaough ot coltage acros any
.. Doc.-11, Marks 14
Circuits various simplification techraques.
AMsredcaly Coupled
2 ... March-02, Aug.-2000, 11, 1.2 Network Terminology
22 Duay
... Jan-05, 06, 07, 14,
July-04, 05, 07, 10, 13, 14, 121 Network
Dec.-12, Marks 10
Any arrangement of the various electrical
sources along with the different circuit
energy w
elements is
called an electrical network. Such a network is
shown R
in the Fig. 1.2.1. D wWw

1.2.2 Network Element

Any individual circuit element with two terminals R
which can be connected to other circuit ww-
element, is
called a network element Fig. 1.2.1 An electrical network
Network elements can be
either active elemnents or
are the elements which
passive elements. Active elements
supply power or energy to the network. Voltage source and
current source are the
examples of active elements. Passive elements are the elements
which either store eriergy or
dissipate energy in the form of heat. Resistor, inductor and
capacitor are the three basic passive elements. Inductors and capacitors can store
and resistors dissipate energy in the form of heat. energy

1.2.3 Branch
A part of the network which connects the
various points of the network with one
another is called a branch. In the Fig.
1.2.1, AB, BC, CD, DA, DE, CF and EF are the
various branches. A branch may consist more than element. one

TECHNICAL
PUBUCATIONS An up thrust for kmowiledge
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowiedge
 Network Analys/s 1-6
Baslc Concepts
Basic Concopts

Newort Ane)ysis
1-4 applied to them. Example is a network using diode as an element whose response is not
linear.
1.2.4 Junction Point
Point D and C
3) Bllateral network: A circuit whose behaviour and
junction point.
characteristics is same
where three or more branches meet is called a
irrespective of the direction of current through various elements is called bilateral
A point 1.2.1. network. Example is a network consisting R, L and C whose behaviour remains same
are the junction points in the network shown in
the Fig.
though the direction of current through then changes.

1.2.5 Node The 4) Unilateral network: A circuit whose behaviour is dependent on the direction of
are joined together
is called node.
point at which two or
m o r e elements
1.2.1,
current through various elements is called unilateral network.
Example is a network
network shown in the Fig.
A
nodes of the network. In the consisting diode or transistors. The diode allows flow of current only in one direction.
junction points are also the
nodes of the network
A, B, C, D, E and F are the 5) Active network: A network consisting at least one source of energy caled an

active network. Example is a network consisting at least one battery, voltage source
1.2.6 Mesh (or Loop) current source etc.
in a network in such
is branches forming a closed path
set of
Mesh (or Loop) a
branches do not form a closed path. 6) Passive network : A network which contains no energy source is called passive
branch is removed then remaining
way that if one node,
from a particular network. Example is a network consisting only elements such as R, L and C without any
A loop also can be defined as apath which originates
cosed
without traveling
various other nodes, energy source.
same node, traveling through
ferninatirng at the A-B-C-D-A, A-BCF-E-D-A,
D-C-F-E-D
twice. In the Fig. 1.2.1 paths
through any node 7) Lumped network A network in which all the network elements are physically
etc. the loops of the network from each other and shown to be concentrated at one place in a network is
are
mesh does not contain separable
However the difference between a
mesh and a loop is that a called lumped network Example is a network consisting elements R, L andC.
but
mesh is the smallest loop. A mesh is always a loop
within it. Thus a
any other loop A-B-C-D-A is a mesh
while
8) Distributed network A network in which the network elements are not physically
be a mesh. In the Fig. 1.2.1 path
a loop may or may not
separable but are distributed all along the length of the network is called distributed
A-B-C-F-E-D-A is a loop.
network. Example is a ransmission line whose resistance is distributed all along its
length and can not be shown concentrated at one place and hence not seperable.
Review Question Electrical circuits or networks

1. State the diference between a mesh and a lop.

of Electrical Circuits VTU.: Jan04:Aug.04,053

1.3 Classification of
is based on the behaviour and characteristics Activo Passive Linear Nonlinear Bllateral Unilateral Lumped Distributed
The classification of electrical circuits networks are classified
electrical circuits or
Fig. 1.3.1 Electrical circuits or natworks
various elements used in the network. The

as,
of
Rovlow Questions
whose elements are always constant irrespective
1) Linear network : A network called linear network Ohm's law
is
etc. is 1. Hou electrical circuits are classified ?
changes in time, voltage, temperature can be applied to
such
of superposition 2. Distinguish the following wilh suitable examples.
applicable for such networks. Principle with to the input applied to
networks. The response of various
elements is linear respect i)Linearand nonlinear elements. ii) Unilateral and bilateral elements.
are networks using
elements R, L and C. VTU iJan-04, Aug-05, Marks 6
them. Examples
values with change
network whose parameters change their 3. Define and distinguish the following network elements i) Linear and nonlinear i) Actioe amd
2) Nonlinear network: A nonlinear network. Ohm's law is not
in time, temperature, voltage
etc. is. called passive ii) Lumped amd distributed. VTUT Aug.04,Marks
of superposition is not applicable to such
applicable to such networks. Principle exdtation TECHNICAL PUBLUCATIONS An up thrust lor knowlodgo
is not linear with respect to the
networks. The response of the elements
TECHNICAL PUBLICATONS- An u s trkowsdoe
 Nase Cwn o l Netwuh Arglyoio 11 Bak Conopds

P a r a m e t o r s
1.4.2 Induotanoo ()
Choult
Baele The cola having, N number of tune made up of various materials ard having
14 plonwnta aiv rolatur, l l tor aid a rapacl
n nll vArious plzes are called Inductors
The property of a coll whlch upposes any change in current passing through it is
4 Reeistanoe (R)
alertal
called an Induclance denoted as L.
nmaule tu' ol any
t A
ninoy
called wW Inductance ls treatod as a circuit elenent which
he nyity nt tduough n is Fhux ()
the tlow the stores enerEy in Uhe fom of electromaynetic field.
whh oyyare lo albown n ig. 1.4.1 N uns
an R aymb lts symbol ls shown in the Fig 14.2. The
veiehainrdenetnd

measurenl In oduns ()
inductance property ls measured in henries (H). In
ie 141 the malslane iealstanv R ol a materlal a e ,
affnling
the inductance, the voltage across it ls proportional to
Ihe lahus Res/otivity (») Fig. 14.2
) the rate of change of current and constant of
(0 ) Ama ot nue
en tion (a)
longth proportionality ls an inductance L

Itigivvn di0
The voltage and current relationslhip
OL and 0 YOdlo)
on the temperature.
nsietaikr also depeinds
The
ighenby
Ohms law a where i(0) = Initial current through an inductor
and
he
=
currentin inductance can not change instantly,o
assodiated with it to the
1he wer
ammeuned is given by, Mathematically inductance is the ratio of flux linkages (No)
current () producing the flux

given by V and I then,

curent are d.c. i.e. wnstant
the vultage and

IR
The power in the inductor is,pO 10
The energy stored in an inductor is,

watts
The power is measured in
The energy unsuned is given by
W
v)iodt=J idtd t
POdt 0i0d W [L{) di() = ie

The enengy consumed is measured in joules 0).

If the current flowing is constant I then W LIJ.
For constant dc V and L energy consumed in time t is,

VT
TECHNICAL PUBLICATICN. An p rnst koedg
TECHNCAL SUCAROKS. An up r s r owdge
 Basic Concepts
Naork Ana)sis
18 Notwork Analysis 1-9 Basic Concept

1.4.3 Capacitance (C)

1:4.4 Voltage-Current Relationships for Passive Elementss
material is called a
from each other by an insulating The three passive elements are resistance (R), inductance (L) and
capacitance (C). The
Two conducting plates separated used dielectrics are
dielectric. The commonly behaviour of these three elements alongwith the respective
capacitor. The insulating
material is called voltage-current relationship is
given in the Table 1.4.1.
etc.
peper, air, mica
an The behaviour of the three elements can be summarized as,
The property of a capacitor to store
in the form of electrostatic
field,
electrical energy Curent through,
across it is
when a potential difference is applied ifvoftage: known
denoted as C Its symbol' is
called capacitance Fig. 1.4.3
1.4.3. It is measured in farads (F).
shown in the Fig.
is
Thecharge acquired by a capacitor is a capacitance C.
and a constant of proportionality
proportional to the voltage applied
9 Charge in coulombs
.

Its current can be obtained by differentiating above equation,

dg= ut dgCurrenti(t)
cv) but
dt C dt Table 1.4.1 Behaviour of basic circuit elements
Note that in the Table 1.4.1, VR,vL and vc are the voltages across R, L and C
respectively while ig,iz and ic are the curents through R, L and C respectively.
If voltage and current are
d.c. then use V and I instead of v(t) and i(t).
v(0)= Initial voltage across the capacitor
where
Review Question
h e voltage across.capacítance Ecan not chanige instantly. L. Explain the voltage-current relationships for the three basic passive circuit elements.

Thepower in the capacitor is, i n watts. 1.5 Concept of ldeal and Practical Sources
The energy stored can be obtained as, VTU:Jan.-04, 06, July-01, 05, 07
There are basically two of energy sources; voltage source and current source.
W = fv(0 i) dt =[ v(9c d These are classified as i) Ideal
dt
-

source and i) Practical source.

0
Let us see the difference between and
ideal practical sources.
w Cv() dv) = Le C 1.5.1 Voltage Source
Idealvoltage'source: It is defined as the
energy source which gives constant voltage
across its terminals irrespective
of the current drawn through its terminals. The
If the voltage across C is constant V then W =
CvJ. for ideal voltage source is shown in the _ymbol
Fig. 1.5.1 (a). This is connected to the load as
shown in Fig. 1.5.1 (6). At
any time
the value of voltage at load terminals remains same.
This is indicated by V- I characteristics shown in the 1.5.1 (c). Fig.
TECHINICAL PUBLICATIONS. Aua nnst
for knowiedge
TECHNICAL PUBUCATIONS- An up thrust for knowtedge
 Basic Concepts Network Analys!s 1-11 Basic Concepts
1 10

LoadV

(a) Symbol (b) Clrcuit (e) Characteristies

(c) Characteristics
(6) Cireuit Fig. 1.5.3 ldeal current source
source
1.5.1 ldeal voltage Practical current source:
(Symbo

Fig. But practically, every current source kis high internal

soOurce has small intemal shown in parallel with current
But practically, every voltage
shown in resistance, source and it is represented by Ra This is
Practical voitage source
source and is represented by Rse as shown in the Fig. 1.5.4.
ries with voltage
showa in seres Inlemal
esstne

ne Fig. 152
resistance
ldeal
sh
ress MW Ideal RLoa||M - Practical

(a) Circult (b) Charactoristic

-Pracdical
Fig. 1.6.4 Practlcal current source

L Because of Rsh, current through its terminals decreases slightly with increase in

voltage at is terminals.
(b) Characteristics
(a) Circuit
source
Key PointoradedarieroceR
Flg. 1.5.2 Practical voltage
Both voltage sources and current sources are further classified as follows:
slightly with increase. in
across terminals decreases
Because of the Rse, voltage ) Time invaríant sources The sources in which voltage and current are not varying
Cument and it is given by expression, with time are known as time invariant sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by
capital letters.

The in which voltage and current are varying with

) Time varlant sources sources

KeyPoint Fo ideal Doltage source time are known as time varlant or A.C sources. These are denoted by small letters.
These are shown in the Fig. 1.5.5 (a), (b), (c) and (d).
1.5.2 Current Source
which gives constant current its terminalsat
ldeal curret source: It is the source for ideal current
across its terminals. The symbol
irrespective of the voltage appearing shown in the
source is shown in the Fig. 15.3 (a).
This is connected to the load as (b) A. C. voltage source
(a) D. C. voltage source
the current flowing through load I; is same i.e. is
Fig. 153 (6). At any time, the value of This is explained by
V-
across its terminals.
irrespective of voltage appearing
characteristics shown in the Fig. 1.5.3 (c).

(d) A. C. current source

c) D. C. curent source

Fig. 1.5.5

TECHNICAL PUBuCATIONS An up thnust for knowiedge

TECHNICAL PUBUCATIONS. An up hnust for knowedge
 Baalo Concepla Nolwork Analyala 1-13
1-12
Nahvora Ana)as
called independent On no load, VNL is same as the rated value of
which are discussed above
are
voltagp source Wrile VFL is erminal
The sources currents in the voltage on full load.
Independent s o u r c e s other voltages or
does not depend on
of voltage or
because these sources a polarity
sources

netiwork for their value.

These are represented by a circle with
Koy Point
indicated inside.
dirtion of curent
If the source is loaded in such a way that the
1.5.3 Dopendent Sourcos load voltage falls belovw specfied full load value
or current in
depends on voltage and the regulation is higher than that specified for
those whose value of
source
sources a r e 1.5.6 and further 102
Dependent shown in the Fig. the source then the source is said to be loaded. This
the circuit. Such sources are indicated by diamond as
is loading of sources.
classified as,
Lcad
It produces a voltage
Source:
as a function of voltages For example : Consider the source of 10V shown 10v
) Voltage Dependent Voltago VDVS. It is shown in
the Fig. 1.5.6 (a). having internal resistance of 1, in the Fig. 1.57.
given
elsewhere in the circuit. This is called The terminal voltage is,
as a function of currents Fig. 1.5.7 Loaded source
It produces a current
li) Cument Dependent
Current Source
is showm in the Fig. 1.5.6 (b). V IL RL
This is called CDCS. It 10
elsewhere in the given circuit. . (15.1)
as a function of current IL R +
Source: It produces a voltage
ii) Current Dependent Voltage shown in the Fig. 1.5.6 (c).
is called CDVS. It is
elsewhere in the given circuit. This On no load, R; =o and V, = V =VNL= 10 V

current as a function of voltage

It produces a Let the specified full load current be 1 A
v) Voltage Dependent Current Source called VDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 1.5.6 (d). ie. IL =lFL =1 A.
given circuit. This is
elsewhere in the
On full load,

I=Ky VeK RL 1L =90 .. from equation (15.1)

V-KV,
(c)
(d) VFL IFL XR; =1x9 =9V
(a) b)
% Reg N x 100 x100 = 11.11 %
sources FL
of dependent
Flg. 1.6.6 Types
present If now R is changed to 52 then, Allowable
and V and I| are voltage and current respectively,controlled
the value
K is constant
circuit The dependent sources are also
known as
IL = 10 =1.667 A VHL ------- ---- ldeal
elsewhere in the given +1
sources.
Loading
Sources
VL =
IL RL =
1.667x5 =8.335 V of sourcea

1.5.4 Regulation and Loading of

It is seen that practically the output voltage of the voltage

source decreases as load Reg 10-8.335100
8.335
called
current increases. The allowable drop
in voltage is specified interms of parameter = 19.97 %
Flg. 1.5.8 Loading of source

regulation of source. It is defined as,

This worsens the regulation and the source is said to be loaded. Thus for any
olfa N IL1A there is loading of source which is shown in the Fig. 1.5.8.
HEloadyolage

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowfedge

TECHN'CAL PUBLICATIONS- An up trust for knowtedge
 Netwcrk Analus f 1 Ea Conceps
Banc Conosys

1.6.1 Limitations of Ohm's Law

The limitaions of he Ohm's law are,

VTU Jan-04. 06, July:04, 05, Mark diodes, volt2ze

lo the non lincar devices such a5 diodes, zene
1) t is not applicable
VTU: Juh04, 07.Narko 3 regulators etc.

for non-netallic conductors such as silicon carbide. The law

2) It does not hold good
for such conductors is given by,

V = k 1 where k, m are constants.

1 . 6 Onm's Law
the ) and
differenr (V), curent
hrn the poandal Roview Quostion
gvs ehdasup
1827 discovered a law called Ohm's law.
s amut Dr. Ohm i
e r
( d a de the Ohm's law and state its limitations.
1. Ezplain
the c a t r e i r u t is directly proportional to the
Tk are flaons ttvngh
to the resistarice of the circuit, 1.7 Series and Parallel Combination of Elements
y
t r a t ari nTey prportional
s
r The Table 1.7.1 gives the equivalent of 'n basic elements is series,
R

ww
ement Equivalent
M eaal,

amperes, the
V is
A h r l s he
cuTEnt flowtng in
the
is the resistance of
* n i z e ppled z2d R Fig. 1.6.1 Ohm's law
showa in the hig. 1.6.1.
nia s

dierence is deined in such a way that the constant of

The of potential
PaTaliy is unity.

On's law s,
Table 1.7.1 Series combinations of elements

ConstantER The Table 1.7.2 gives the equivalent of 'n' basic elements in parallel,
The Ohn's law can be defined as,
uivaléit
The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points ofa conductor to the
urent flowing between them is constant, provided that the temperature of the
mductor remains constant.

Point

TECHNICAL PUBLUCATIONS An up thrust for

knotedg
TECHNICAL PUBLUCATIONS An up thrust for
knowtedge
 Networ Anaysis -17
Basic Concepts
1
Networt Anayas 1.8.2 Open Circuit
When there is no cornection between the two points of a rtworn, havizg vme
voltage across the two points then the two points are said to be open crcued
As there is no direct connection in an open acun, the resistance of he open dizeuit
is
The part of the network which is open
circuited is shown in the Fig. 18.2 The points
A and B are said to be open ircuited. The
resistance of the branch AB is Roc =Q.
There exists a voltage across the points AB 1.8.2 Open circuit
Fig.
called open circuit voltage, VAB but Roc =* .

combinations of elements According to Ohm's law,

Table 1.7.2 Parallel
e geis dvided 0 A
Key Point Roc o

Key PointThus current through open ccut is alua aiss coagt

HCTOSs.open crcuited terminals

1.8 Short and Open Circuits

in the nework 1.8.3 Redundant Branches and Combinations
short circuit or open circuit existing
In the network simplification, The redundant means excessive and unwanted.
plays a n important role
Key Pointin a cifct there are 6T COTbuators
1.8.1 Short Circuit
cunnt thenssuck branches cale Teaunian crCil po
to each other with a thick
network joined directly
When any two points in a

points
are

said to be short ircuited. The resistance of trie ew

metallic conducting wire, the two
are
The redundant branches and combinations can be removed and these branches do not
such short ircuit is zero.
Ap- affect the performance of the cireuit
short
The part of the network, which is Thick circuits are,
circuited is shown in the Fig 18.1 The conducting-
R0 VAB 0 The two important situations of redundancy which may exist in practical
Wire
points A and B are short circuited. The branch or combination across which there exists a short circuit,
09
Situation 1: Any
resistance of the branch AB is R
=
becomes redundant as it does not cary any current.
.

The curent is flowing through the

lAB Fig. 1.8.1 Short circuit I in a network, there exists a direct short circuit across a resistance or the
short circuited path. combination of resistances then that resistance the entire combination of resistances
or

According to Ohm's law, becomes inactive from the circuit point of view. Such a combination is redundant from
0V ircuit point of view.
VAB Rx IAB =
0xIAB=
consider the combination of resistances and a short circuit as
To understand this,
Key Point hius colage shown in the Fig 18.3 (a) and (b).

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thnust for krowiedge

TECHNICAL PUBUCATIONS - An up trust for krowedge
 Baslc Concopts Notwork Analysls
1-18 1 19
Basic Concopts
eruevn Ana)ss
R2
At this
junction point if 1= 2 A, I2 = 4 A and I3 1 A then to determine
=
Short
METODUndan write, total current entering is 2+ 4 6 A while total current
l4 we

R2 And hence, l4 5 A.
leaving is 1+ l4 A
=

R1S Short
This analysis of currents
RS but the
entering and leaving is nothing
application of Kirchhoffs Current Law. The law can
No cuTent be stated as,
No curront
through R
through R and R The total current
flowing towards a junction point Fig. 1.9.1 Junction polnt
equal to the total curent
flowing away from that
(6) junction
(3) point.
Redundant branches
Fig. 1.8.3
Another way to slate the law is,
K3- The current always prefers low
there is short circuit
across
In Fig 1.8.3 (a),
short circuit and hence resistance The algebraic sum of all the current
hence entire current
I passes through meeting at a
junction point is always zero
rsistance path The word
becomes redundant
from the circuit point of view. algebraic means
considering the signs of various currents.
R,
is short circuit
(b), there
across R3 R. The entire
combinaion of and
In Fig. 1.8.3
short circuit acrOSs R3 and R
through
and no0 current can flow through atjuncionPO
current lows
combination of Rs and Rq
Thus that combination becomes meaningless from the circuit Sign convention : Currents flowing towards a junction
can be eliminated while analysing the
cirruit. point are assumed to be
point of view. Such combinations positive while currents flowing away from a junction point assumed to be
negative.
branch or combination, it can not carry any e.g. Refer to Fig. 1.9.1, currents I and I2 are positive while
Situation 2 : I there is open circuit in a
l3 and I4are negative.
curent and bacomes
redundant. Applying KCL, 2l at junction O = 0
there exists open ircuit in branch BC, the branch BC
and CD can not
In Fig. 1.8.4 as Itl2-l3-l4 = 0 ie. Itl2 =l3s tl4
and are become redundant from
ircuit point of view.
curent
cary any The law is very
Redundant helpful in network
simplification.
branches 1.9.2 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
A
0 "In any network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops across the circuit elements
of any closedpath (or loop or mesh) is equal to the algebraic sum of the e.m.f. s in the
I0
path
In other words, "The algebraic of all the branch
sum
voltages, around any closed path
or closed loop is always zero."
Fig. 1.8.4 Redundant branches due to open circuit
1.9 Kirchhoff's Laws ArOund acloedipath 2V
In 1847, a German Physicist, Kirchhoft, formulated two fundamental laws of The law states that if one starts at a certain point of a closed
path and goes on
electridty. These laws are of tremendous importance from network simplification point tracing and noting all the potential changes (either drops or rises), in any one particular
of view direction, ill the starting point is reached again, he must be at the same potential with
which he started tracing a closed path.
1.9.1 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) Sum of al the potential rises must be equal to sum of all the
potential drops while
Consider a juncion point in tracing any dosed path of the dircuit The total change in
potential along a losed path
a
complex network as shown in the Fig 19.1.
isalways zero.
TEOHNCL PBLICANONS- A1 9 r s r ioreage TECHNICAL FUBLICATIoNS An up us lor nowiodge
 Basie Concepts Netwok Analysia
1-21
Ba Cunoe
1.9.4 Appllcatlon of KVL to a Closod Path
analysis of the network
Ths law s ven uehal in lwy
Consider a closed path of a
cornplex network with
Applylng KVL various brarch cutats asured
Conventions to be Followod while as showo jn the Fig. 1.93 (a)
1.9.3 Sign across the
esistance, the voltage drop ocrurs
As the loop is assumed to be a
part of cornplex network, the branch cuTents
When cunent fons through a
on direction of the current.
assumed to be different from each other.
are

istanr The olann of this voltage drop always depends

to lower potential. Due to these currents the various voltage
from higher potential drops taken place
The c u r m t aways fos across various resistances
R are marked as shown in the Fig. 1.9.3 (b).
umnt I is flowing
in the Fig 192 (a R
Ao W8
fren ett hene point B s at higher
reht » A M-0 R
R
shown '
endial han point A, as (b)
I is flowing (a)
n the Fig 192 (6). cument
Flg. 1.9.2 R Drop Re
Ron
A is at higher
o n left nght hence point
pokential than point B, as shown. R
KVL to any
marked in the given crcuit, we can apply
are
Once al such polanties DiECion
cesed path in the circuit. tracing
ve
marked terminal to
go from
ve
path, if we
-

Now while tracing a dosed rise. ww-

This is called potential D
markad terminal, that voltage must be taken as positive. R
must be
then the drop across it
AB is traced from A to B Drop
For example, if the branch the equations. (a) (b)
taken IR while writing
considered as rise and must be
as
marked
marked terminal to - ve Fig. 1.9.3 Closed loop of a complex network
if we go from +ve
While traing a closed path,
This is called potential drop. The polarity of voltage drop along the current direction is to be marked as positive
be taken as negative.
teraninal, that voltage must then it
is traced from B to A (+) to negative (-).
in the Fig. 1.9.2 (a) only, if the branch
For example,
IR while writing the equations. Let us trace this closed path in clockwise direction ie. A-B-C-D-A
should be taken as negative, as
-

from A to B then there is voltage

a
Across R there is voltage drop I, R and as getting traced from +ve to -ve, it is
Similarly in the Fig.
1.9.2 (b), branch is traced
if
the equation. If the
as I R while writing while
be written negative drop and must be taken as negative applying KVL.
drop and tern must becomes a rise in voltage
and term must be written
branch traced from B to A, it Battery E is getting traced from negative to positive ie. it is a rise hence must be
+IR while writing the equation. considered as positive.
positive as

Across R2 there is a voltage drop 12 R2 and as getting traced fram +ve to -ve, it is
Key Point terimiig
ialmust.be
drop and must be taken negative.
1) Potentialrise1e-fravellingTOm neg
Across R3 there is a dropI3 R3 and as getting traced from +ve to -ve, it is drop and
Considerd as Poaitive
nustbe must be taken as negative.
D Potential drop ie traoeling fom positioet Across R there is drop 14 R4 and as getting traced from +ve to -ve, it is drop must
cOTsidered as Negatve or aticlockoiSe his
path,select+anysonedirection "olocaoise be taken as negative.
3) While traring closed
directionsof currents aa voltages of oarious Battery E2 is getting traced from -ve to +ve, it is rise and must be taken as positive
selcctionis fotally:tndependent of the
branches of.thaf closed path . We can write an equation by using KVL around this closed path ,

R+E1 -l2 R2 -I3 R3-14 R4 +E2 0 Required KVL equation

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS- An up thrust for knowledge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIO VS An v thust ior ignowiocge
 Bas Cuayis
arsAray 7 Bev Conces

What to do If current sourc ekists 7

! , k , *1,K;
1,Ry 1, K,
I
akng A-D-C-1A an
9Nai*
dirwtin ie
Key Point there is current sourar in the rtork thm compl b cummt distrbutio
kand ny in n1u tw sue as hat we have obtain.
ained
a v
e

s, t sutarg u a h . x i amidertng th currcnt scuru But uhilk 7rBpr; KVL h oop s h o r

amsidered intolvng curenl source Theloop equtios mt br r t a n ho i p
to b traced mot
dtion in i h leeT in
i do not include any current sourc. Tris s becauz do acrvs cTot
n 12 au s

to solve the problem For

s
fokowd m this book example, consider the ircuit shown in the Fig 194 The r a dzboin is
n ommbum completed interns of current source value. Then KVL u s t be
to Get Network
Equations appied to the loop
Kirchhots
Laws bcdeb, which does not include curent source. The loop a-befa should not be used
Appy
Stes to for KVL
3 curent method. application, as it includes curent source. Is effect is
already considced at t h
n thr branch
ar
t a n d basd time of current distribution
Tts valo
infomabon and insert all the
u daTam
man
he given Eec d curen
D a thr resistances
Ss and all the
fVanbes
This loop
D n2tt a p p a t e
assumed directions using KCL at can not bo
s-14) 12
with somc
branch urents considered
Mari al the minimum (5-
Sp 2 ACpt the numoer or unknown curents as
for application of KVL
n v o and
ndon pouns to solve them later on
rans

a pashe to hnut the

mathematical
calculabans required
answer of such curent will be
SA 10
in such case
may be WTon&
Assned dircdars of the current. A particular
the correct d i r e r i o n
w u h ndicates
s t e o e a a l y negatve then s a m e magnitude of current
sourde has s o n e magnihude, (5-
cant lervng a panuar various branches of the network. Fig. 1.9.4
hat souræ ater travelling through
shi at
Example 1.9.1 Apply Kirchhoff's curren: lrw and oliage
of voltage drops and rises as per directions of the 152
Mark al the polarities law to the circuit shown in the Fig. 1.95.
Sp 3: various branch resistances of the netwoTk.
asmed banch cuTens floing through Indicate the various brarnch curenis.
far application of KVL to
varous cdosed loops.
Teis is necessey Write down the equations relating he zrious bTarch
obtain the 100 V
4: Apply KVL to diferent closed paths in the network and Currents. s0 V 209
Stwp must contain some element which is not
equation Each Soloe these equations to find the values of these curTents.
coresponding equatsans
curnsidered in any previous equation Is the sigm of any of the calculated currents negatioe ?
that
Key Point KE s t be aPplied to suant zuniber of loops such
f yes, explain the significance of the negative sign. Flg. 1.9.5

etvorkE nduacatleast once in ay ofEthe equations Solution: Application of Kirchhoff's law

unknown curents. From these
Step 5 Solve the simultaneous equations for the Step 1 and 2 : Draw the circuit with all 1
and power consunption in different resistances can be the values which are same as the given
CITets rnown voltages sov T 20: 100V
cakuated network. Mark all the branch curents
starting from +ve of any of the source, say
+ve of 50 V source.
1 -12
Fig. 1.9.5 (a)
TECHIeCAL PUBLJCATIONS. An up hru for knowdodge TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knonodge
 Baslc Concopls Pesic Conots
Notwork Analys/s 1-25
Nanork Ana)sis 1-24 12 V
resistances. This is
across the Solution The wo curents are as
_
for different voltages
Mark all the polarities shown in the Fig. 1.9.6 (a)
Step 3 2 shown in the
network in Fig. 1.95 (a).
combined with step S102

KVL to different loops.

05 A
Step 4: APply
Loop 1: A-B-E-F-A, . (1)
h = 0.85714 A Fig. 1.9.6 (a)
2

+50 0
-

15 I - 20 I2 Trace the path ACDB with various 2

as showm in the
Loop 2: B-C-D-E-D, voltage drops ww. E
.
2) Fig. 1.9.6 ().
- 30 (1-1- 100
+ 20 1h =0 VAB 12+3.4285-2
4l 12 V 4 l2
3.4285 V
constants on one
side.
taking Flg. 1.9.6 (b)
Rewriting all the equations, 100 4) = 13.4285 V with A +ve
3)and 30 I + 50 l2 =

15 1 + 20 1h =50
15 20=1350 1.10 Review of A.C. Circuits
Apply Cramer's rule,
D -30 50
which changes periodically both in magnitude and
A quantity (voltage or current)
50 20500 direction is called an alternating quantity.
Calculating D D100 50 T h e standard waveform of an altermating quantity is purely sinusoidal waveform.

important terminologies related to an

The Fig. 1.10.1 shows waveform and various
E0.37 A alternating quantity.
15 50 3000
Calculating D D-30 100 Votage (e)/ cument 0
Maximum value (amplrtude)|

3 5 222A
is positive, assumed direction is
correct. adn
as a n s w e r
For I and Iy
is 2.22 A
For I answer is 0.37 A. For I2 answer

Tme (t)
1.85 A
0.37 2.22
-
=

-I2 =
Instantane or 0in rad
alue
direction is wrong.
Indicates assumed
Negative sign direction.
1.85 A flowing in opposite direction to that of the assumed
ie. -h =
12V
6
across A
Example 1.9.2 Find the voltageshoren in 12V One cycle wrin
ime period T in sec
B in the circuit
and
4Q 4 102
Fig. 1.9.6. 5VT
Fig. 1.10.1 Wavefom of an alter nating quantty
Fig. 1.9.6

TECHNICAL PUBLUCATIoNS An p hu ust for knoedg

An up hrst for knowledge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS
 Basic Concepls Network Analysis 1-27 Besr Concept
1.26
Quantity Case 3 Nogatlve phase
Altemating

of an When phase of
Equation is purely sinusoidal hence its
an
alternating quantity is negative it means that quantity has some
.101
of an nating quanity
altemat
negative instantaneous value at t =0. This is shown in the
wavefonn
Fig. 1102 ().
standand
he
The phase is measured with respect to teference cirectiom
yuabon i s
sin 2 t Yoltage direcfion
Ei in0
=
EmSinotEm
e
in 2tf
2n- Current 2he phase measured n anticlockise diretion
sin ot msin
ie l sin are amplitude or
peak values measuredin clockwise direction is negative
vaues hile
while Em and Im
instantaneous

and i ae respectively. Voltage

curent
and of voltage and current are Votage
of volage mean square) values Curent Votage
alculations,
t.ms (root
For ac CuTent Curet

used.It isgiven by, +Ve

denoted by capital
lefters. Ihe iven values
RM.S. values

are always r.m.s.

.S
t 0
A
are
.RMS values Phase 0 Positive phase o Negatve phase
vaues

and Phasor Diagram

1.10.2 Phase travelled by the Phasor
at any instant is the angle o diagram
of an altermating quantity
The phase upto the instant
of consideration,
Phasor
that altermating quanäty
phasor representing The reference is positive X-axis. Phasor diagram
measured from the reference. diagram
to the amplitude of an alternating quantity
A phasor is a line having length equal 2nf rad/sec. The Y-axis
direction with a speed w =
(a) Zero phase (b) Positive phase (c) Negative phase
and it rotates in anticlockwise value of that
at any instant gives instantaneous Fig. 1.10.2 Concept of phase
intercept of such
a phasor
altemating quantity. The difference between the phases of the two alternating quantities is called the
can be modified as,
of an alternating quantity phase difference which is nothing but the angle difference between the two
I n terms of phase, the equation phasors representing the two alternating quantities.
here hase oEsarerta qu ya
1.10.3 Mathematical Representation of Phasor
L e t us consider Bhree casesS
Mathematically a phasor is represented in two ways,i) Polar and i) Rectangular
Case 1:=0°: representation.
is it is standard pure sinusoidal
When phase of an alternating quantity zero, I n polar form, it is represented as where r is r.m.s. value and ) is the phase
instantaneous value zero at t
= 0. This is shown in the
quantity having of
Fig 1.102 (a).
an alternating quantity
Thus from the equation of an alternating quantity, its polar form can be directly
Case 2: Posltive phase 0:
that has obtained
When phase of ar1 altermating quantity is positive it means quantity some

positive instantarreous value at t =0. This is shown in the Fig. 1.10.2 (6).
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledg TECHNICAL PUBLUCATIONS An up thvst for knowlodgu
 Ratant 1NO'(KS)

F1.1
and th a a
11t impedance in AC. Cireuits
alNTURKY dzis akrgntt te a s a n s turtans snd a t a n s as
lay an iyNtant ub
 30 Basic Concepts
Network Analysis 1 31
Basic Concepis
AatsaaXAS

V
ags Vby 90 =
= 100 V and phase =
0° hence V =
10020° V

c 27fC C 314x318x10 10s92

Z
Tlead by0 R-jXc =
8-j 102 I251.34°

=
12.8062
100 Z-51.34
I z2B062 2 0°
2-51.34° 2
I leads Vv
by 51.34
1
51.34
= 7.8087 L51.34°A V 20°
Table 1.11.1 Flg. 1.11.2
The
phasor diagram is shown in the
sign+XL in the impedance while ig. 1.11.2.
Inductive reactances
are represented by positive Example 1.11.2 In the circuit
represented by negaive sign
-

Xc in the impedance. shown in Fig. 1.11.3 VR and

capacitive reactances are
be 10 V each.
Vz were measured and found to

Tns for ttegies druit he

pes
100 S 0.1 H

In such circuit, current lags voltage by angle6.

Fig. 1.11.3
For R-series cicaitthe impédanceepress
Assuming i(t) as the reference waveform, find
pe9grCut
1) The frequency f and current iet)
wheree2 and
2) ZT, the total impedance and eft).
. Solution: IVRl=|VLl = 10 V, R = 100 2, L = 0.1 H
In this case 0 is negative and current leads voltage by angle
Find the current in the circuit shown in the 8 1) IV= ||R i.e. 10 | I | x 100 i.e. |I| = 0.1 A
Example 1.11.1 318 uF

Fig. 1.11.1 and draw the phasor diagram VLI= |1| XL i.e. 10 0.1 i.e.
=
xXL XL = 100 2

But XL = 2nfL i.e. 100 = 2nf x 0.1 L = 0.1 H

100
= 159.155 Hz
v() = 100V2 sin 314 tV 271x 0.1 . Frequency

Fig. 1.11.1
Let i(t) is reference hence i(t) =
Im sin(wt)
Solution: R 8 , C=318 uF = 2 I = /2x0.1 =0.1414 A, a = 27í = 1000
Comparing voltage with Vm sin ut Vm = 100/2 V, o = 314 rad/s i(t) = 0.1414 sin (1000 t) A

TECHNCAL PUBUCATIONS. An up thrust tor knowted TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS- An up trusl for knododoe
 Network Analysis 1-33 Basic Concepts
Basic Concepts
1-32
Netwark Analysis It is the ratio of true power to apparent power.
R+j XL = 100 +j 1002 = 141.421 245 Tue power NLcosO
2) ZT =

PoweTtacton ARPEK C0s

0.1 20°x 141.421 2 45 APRarent power,
el) i() Z7 =
14.1421 L45° V The numerical value of cosine of the phase angle between the applied voltage and
the current drawn from the supply voltage gives the power factor. It cannot be greater
V2x14.1421 = 20 V
In equation form, Em =

than 1.
45°) V
20 sin (1000t+
EmSin(ot+0) It is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance.
=

e
1.12 Power in A.C. Circuits

The power in a.c. ircuit is given by,

Key Point

Power factor of the circuit If current lags voltage power factor

is said to be lagging. f current leads voltage
where cos = 0 for
c o n s u m e any power
as cos is said to be leading.
and capacitance does not power factor
Now pure inductance also can be obtained as, lagging while for pure
c o n s u m e s power.
Hence power
So, for pure inductance, the power factor is cos (90) i.e. zero
such circuits. Only resistance factor is (90) ie. zero but leading. For purely
cos
resistive ircuit
capacitance, the power 1. Such
1R and current are in phase ie. o 0. Therefore, power factor is cos (0)
=
=

of the crcuit. voltage

where R = Resistive part of the equivalent impedance circuit is called unity power factor circuit.
PShold beoed th
Key Point hilkcalulatiag tieuoaen angula
Eheipedanceszit and current.
uliplicationtndd
pcsst i s the angle between supply voltage

is called apparent power

and Key Point u
and current ()
voltage (V)
r.ms.
The product of r.m.s

denoted by S. 1.13 Series R-L-C Circuit VU: Aug.96, July-13

The series R-LC circuit is shown in the
Fig 1.13.1.
It is measured in Volt-Amperes (VA). The impedance is given by,
reactive component of
current (I sin ¢) is
The product of applied voltage and the in reactve
called reactive power and is denoted by Q. It is measured Z
R+ L -c
volt-amperes (VAR). R+j(-X
v= V,sin »t

or real power. Fig. 1.13.1 R-L-C series circuit

P VI cos ¢ is called active power, true power If X > Xc impedance
then resultant is
While the wer =

inductive and current I lags voltage V. If

and current I leads voltage V.
1.12.1 Power Factor (cos o) KL<Xc then resultant impedance is capacitive
must be multiplied in order to resistive and I is un phase with V.
It is defined as factor by which the apparent power If XL =
Xc then circuit becomes purely
obtain the true power. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS. An up thnust for knowedge

PUBLICATONS A n up thrus forkoweoge

TECHNICAL
 Notwork Analysis 1 35 Basc Conoepts
Basic Concopls
34
Now R 5Q, L 20 mH, C =100F
and Vc. The
elements are denoted as VR« VL
20
vanous
the and
IN NaNr drops
axtoss
X wL =10
are given by,
ot these dnps
nntades
and Z = R+j X -X) =5+j (10-20) 5-j 102 =
11183 4-63.43°Q
R1R
are not in
7.071 290 0.6524 2 153.43 A
three voltages
sum of VR Lard Vc is
notas these 11.18032-63.43
Note that algebraic supply voltage V
of VNi and Vis the
h But &he rechor addition Hence voltages across the various
elements
are,
R-L-C cirmuits,
the results for x R
=0.6324 x 5 3.162 T
Lts
sumnanire
VR l
Iapedance { pcos VL =
li| XL
x 0.6324
= x 10 6.324 V =

Crut 12.648 V
c =lil x Xc 0.6324 x
20

60 watts and takes a current of 10-j8 A

Rectangular Example 1.13.2 An impedance conisumes powET of
a

5'
j V. Fnd 'a' and circuit elements.
when connected to a source of 'a +

Pure VTU: Aug-96, Marks6

circuit is shown in the Fig. 1.13.3.
Solution: The given
10-j8 A

Cos-
Senes RL a+j5
00S R+ 10-j8 a-j5 V

Rationalising right hand side,

(a +j5(10+j8
Ties R-LC R+x (10-18)(10+j8)
Fig. 1.13.3

(a+j5(10+j8 (10a-40)+j(50+8a)
Summary of R, L and C circuits 164
Table 1.13.1 (100)-G 64)
20 mH 100 uF
Exampie 1.13.1 The netrwork shorum in ww- R+jx =
a-4050+8a . (1)
the Fig. 113.2 s operating in a 164
simusoidal stenty state. Find voltage Equating real and imaginary parts,
capacitor, Tesistor 10 cos 5001 10a-40
aruss
R (2)
rductor. 164
50+8a
Fig. 1.13.2 and X (3)
164
Solution: The applied voltage is 10 cos (500 t). Expressing it as, The power consumed by impedance Z is,
. a s sin (90 + 8) = cos 6
V 10sin (500 t+909 P 1)xR ie.
60 y102+8xR
Conpare with, V Vn =
sin (ut+8) ie. o= 500 rad/sec, Vm = 10 V, 0 =90°
60= 164R ie. R = 0.366 2 ..
(4)
VRMS) =
m = 7.071 V hence V = 7.071490° V
Substituting in equation (2),

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thnust for krowledge

TFUCAL PUELICATIONS An up thrus! lor knowiedge
 Circut P e s s o n s
114 C e Dirisicn in Paralel

F i 1.42

e zale
Fi 141 Cnet alsicr

Hezce te ere
(-512-D -22
=14-91L

=i-
- - 9.8944L- 63442

94-02 2 Faale
T7 LY

i eal fe z psite breá

t e cret i ry bech = 055L 1245

y cztet divsin rile

1p-j2-10)
05594104AL-I
22%L-26F
=0.254-45*A Fie 1.142
 138 Bosic Concepts Network Analysis 1- 39
Basic Concepts

netuvrk of Fig. 1.14.3.

mw V» n the The current delivered in above case by voltage source
Examle 1.14.2 VTU: July-13, Marks 6 is,
Rse and R; in series
1.15.1)
1RRL)
If it is to be
replaced by current source then load
Z20 V
a
**Fig. 1.15.1
curent must be (b) Current source
(RR
Consider an
equivalernt current source shown in the Fig. 1.15.1 (b).
The total current is 'I'.
Both the resistances will take curent
Flg. 1.14.3 proportional to their values
From the current division in parallel crcuit
division nule,
we can write,
Sadudon: By c u n n t
Rgh
22
1A 3j4+2-j2"7S102 450.19
282844
A
2
R+RL) V
.(1.15.2)
Now this IL and must be same,
0621-5.19° A 2 R
so
equating equations (1.15.1) and (1.15.2),
5453.19
3+j4 V
1AN4+2412 7S102 250.19 IxRgh
Flg. 1.14.3 (a) Rge +RLRsh +RL
The internal resistance,
shown in the Fig. 1.14.3 (b). R R| .. Equating denominator
Tracing puth from 2 to 3 as
30 20
Then, V IxRsh IxRe
212-31 with 2 positive 314 2l2
1.2802 4294°-1.0863 2-5.19 Fig. 1.14.3 (b) I =

K sh
12785+j0.06567-1.0818+j0.09626
= 0.1967 +j0.1609 = 0.2541 2 39.28° V
K . Rgh Rse

1.15 Source Transformation VTU:Aug.05, Jan-08.17. July-14

Key PointJolayeuurce s ooeoerted io ciu
Consider a practical voltage source shown in the R
Fig. 1.151 (a) having intemal resistance Rse Connected
to the load having resistance R. Key Point erreu sources orait otax
Now we can replace voltage source by equivalent The direction of curent of equivalent current source is
Cuent source always from -ve to +ve,
internal to the source. While
converting current source to
Key Point Fig. 1.15.1 (a) Voltage source of voltage source, polarities
voltage is always as +ve terminal at top of arrow and -ve
terminal at bottom of arrow,
as direction of current is from -ve to +ve, internal to the source.
This ensures that
current flows from positive to
negative terminal in the extemal circuit.
TEC-NICAL PUBUCATIONS An p tnst tr bowedge
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS. An up thrus for
knowledg
 ww-

Fig 1.1544

Thus if the polarites of tte wo vozn n ddee t e t r r i e s e

surce is the diference between te tap voitage vorm The p t ezs

seTe that of he Eeaer d the two vora

Kay Point
()VR be used reda te rs szrar é zcre se e
The technique can
o r e s cornected Ta.
1.152 Source transforma5on
Fig
115.1 Combinations of Sources Sources in Paralle
1.15.3 Voltage
paralel combinations of
sources
nd
carsistg d ay souroes, sens
aneork Consider the two voltage sources n pane
source then te
network
E sh a a b a b o s e e rplaed by te equivalent
eis conside such series and parallel s shorwn in the Fig 1.15.5.
becoos i nore ez2sy. Let us
iasion
The equivalent single
sane as V and Vz
source has a rae
=
1.152 Voltage Sources in Seriess It must be noted that at the terrias pea
æasis then the equivalent is dependent on the polarities ircuit voltage provided by eacà soure t
wo ro2ge sores be equal as the sources are in par2lel
R1.155

Consde he two sours a shon in the Fig 1.153. Key Point

1.15.4 Curent Sources in Series

Consider the two aurent sourcas in series s = L
shown in the Fig. 1.15.6.
(b) The equivalent single source has a value same as
Fig. 1.153
Fig1.15.6s
is
and
Thuzs if the polarities of the two sources are same then the equrvalent single
source

the addition of the tvwo sources vrith polarities same as that of the two
sources. Key Point
Consider the two sources as shown in the Fig 1.154.

TECHNCAL FUBLICATIONS. An trstimde