UNIT-1

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND MOTIVATION

OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit carefully you will be able to:

1. Understand the meaning and Nature of Psychology and Educational Psychology, Scope of
Educational Psychology Relationship between psychology and Education

2. Understand the contributions of the Psychoanalytic and Gestalt Schools of Psychology of

psychology to education

3. Understand the meaning & types of Motivation Theories

 Maslow's Theory of Self-actualization and

 Murray's Theory of Motivation.

INTRODUCTION

Today’s educational system is highly complex. There is no single learning approach that works
for everyone. That’s why psychologists working in the field of education are focused on
identifying and studying learning methods to better understand how people absorb and retain
new information. Educational psychologists apply theories of human development to understand
individual learning and inform the instructional process. While interaction with teachers and
students in school settings is an important part of their work, it isn’t the only facet of the job.
Learning is a lifelong endeavor. People don’t only learn at school, they learn at work, in social
situations and even doing simple tasks like household chores or running errands. Psychologists
working in this subfield examine how people learn in a variety of settings to identify approaches
and strategies to make learning more effective.

MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY

The human behavior is the most complex thing in the universe and to explore and understand
that the philosophers like Socrates (470 BC – 399 BC) influencing Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347
BC), who in turn influenced Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC) came into the picture. So, it won’t be
wrong to say that psychology was wrenched out of the bosom of philosophy.

Psychology can also be seen as a bridge between philosophy and physiology. Where physiology
describes and explains a simple make-up of the brain and nervous system, psychology examines
the mental processes that take place within them and how these are manifested in our thoughts,
speech and behavior. Where philosophy is concerned with thoughts and ideas, psychology
studies how we come to have them and what they tell us about the workings of our mind.
As per the American Psychological Association psychology is the scientific study of the mind
and behavior. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such
areas as human development, education, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive
processes.

The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means
‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.

According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature, origin
and destiny of the human soul. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed
and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.

In the 18th century, psychology was understood as the ‘Science of Mind’. William James (1892)
defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind ‘ is also quite
ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.

Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully

(1884) defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined
psychology as the science which studies the “internal experiences’. But there are three levels of
consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was not
accepted by some.

Thus psychology first lost its soul, then its mind and then its consciousness. At present only its
behaviour exists. William McDugall (1905) defined psychology as the “Science of Behaviour”,
W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and J.B. Watson (1912) also defined psychology as the science of
behavior.

Behaviour generally means overt activities which can observe and measured scientifically. But
one’s behaviour is always influenced by his experiences. So when we study one’s behaviour we
must also study his experiences.

B.F. Skinner, stated that psychology should, therefore, be defined as a “science of behaviour and
experiences on human beings”.

According to Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human
relationship”.

 The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the soul: The earliest attempts at
defining Psychology owe their origin to the most mysterious and philosophical concept,
namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be studied? The inability to find clear
answers to such questions led some ancient Greek philosophers to define psychology as
the study of the mind.
  In terms of the study of the mind: Although the word mind was less mysterious and
vague than soul, yet it also faced the same questions, namely what is mind? How can it
be studied, etc. This definition was also rejected.
 In terms of the study of consciousness: The description and explanation of the states of
consciousness is the task of Psychology which is usually done by the instrument
introspection—process of looking within. This definition was also rejected on the
grounds that:
a) It could not include the study of the consciousness of animals.
b) It would not include subconscious and unconscious activities of mind.
c) The introspection method for the study proved that it is most subjective and unscientific
method.

 In terms of the study of behaviour: The most modern and widely accepted definition of
psychology even today, is the study of behaviour, both humans and animals.
 William McDougall: In his book An Outline of Psychology, “Psychology is a science
which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism
as a whole”.
 JB Watson: Psychology is “the science of behaviour” (taking into account the human as
well as animal behaviour).
 NL Munn: “Psychology is the science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist,
or at least a practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from
scientific investigations”.

Science is the body of systematized knowledge that is gathered by carefully observing and
measuring events. The observation of events are systematized in various ways but mainly
classifying them into categories and establishing general laws and principles to describe and
predict events as accurately as possible. Psychology has these characteristics; it clearly belongs
within the province of science.

Thus it is not simply enough to describe behaviour. Like any other science, psychology attempts
to explain, predict, modify and ultimately improve the lives of people in the world in which they
live.

By using scientific methods psychologists are able to find answers to questions about the nature
of human behaviour that are far more valid and legitimate than those resulting from mere
intention and speculation. The experiments and observations which are made can be repeated and
verified by others because of its objectivity, reliability, validity and predictability which are the
characteristics of basic science.

Nature of Psychology
It is an accepted reality that the nature of the subject psychology is quite scientific. This fact has
been properly recognized by the eminent psychologists and thinkers as may be inferred out of the
definitions of psychology (in terms of scientific study or science of behavior).

In general, we may call the nature of a subject scientific if it fulfills the following criteria;

a) Possesses a body of facts and is able to support it through universal laws and principles.
b) Doesn't believe in hearsay, stereotype, or superstitions.
c) Believe in cause and effect relationship.
d) Is capable to turn its theory into practice by having its applied aspect.
e) Adopts the method of objective investigation, systematic and controlled observation, and
scientific approach.
f) Stands for generalization, verifiability, and modification of the observed results.
g) Helps in predicting future developments.
h) Psychology possesses a well-organized theory that is supported by relevant psychological
laws & principles.
i) It has its applied aspects in the form of various branches of applied psychology like
industrial, legal, clinical, and educational psychology.
j) It believes that behavior has its roots, factors of its cause, and influence.
k) It emphasizes the search for truth by advocating objectivity, reliability, and validity in the
assessment of behavior.
l) The methods and techniques employed in the study of the behavior in psychology are quite
scientific.

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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are
applied in the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behaviour in educational
setting.

According to Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human
beings in educational situations”.

Thus educational psychology is a behavioural science with two main references– human
behaviour and education.

In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational Psychology is the science of Education”.

Education by all means is an attempt to mould and shape the behaviour of the pupil. It aims to
produce desirable changes in him for the all-round development of his personality.

The essential knowledge and skill to do this job satisfactorily is supplied by Educational
Psychology. In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand
the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which
they learn and their social relationships.”

In this way, the work of the Educational Psychologists resembles with that of an Engineer, who
is a technical expert. The Engineer supplies all the knowledge and skill essential for the
accomplishment of the job satisfactorily… for example, construction of a bridge.

In the same way Educational Psychologists, who is a technical expert in the field of Education,
supplies all the information, principles and techniques essential for understanding the behaviour
of the pupil in response to educational environment and desired modification of his behaviour to
bring an all-round development of his personality.

In this way, it is quite reasonable to call Educational Psychology as a science and technology of
Education.

Thus, Educational Psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching
and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those
methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation;
cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.

In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students learn
more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?”

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can
summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways:

a) Educational Psychology is a science. (Science is a branch of study concerned with

observation of facts and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs certain
objective methods for the collection of data. It has its objectives of understanding,
explaining, predicting and control of facts.) Like any other science, educational
psychology has also developed objective methods of collection of data. It also aims at
understanding, predicting and controlling human behaviour.
b) Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his
investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner as
physicist or the biologist.
c) Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist,
economist or political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and
their sociability.
d) Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics
deals with facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as
they operate. Educational psychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it
ought to be. So it is a positive science.
e) Educational psychology is an applied science. It is the application of psychological
principles in the field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of
psychology, it tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of
psychology it is parallel to any other applied psychology. For example, educational
psychology draws heavily facts from such areas as developmental psychology, clinical
psychology, abnormal psychology and social psychology.
f) Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. It is concerned with new
and ever new researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists get
better insight into the child’s nature and behaviour.

As per W.A. Kelly (1941) the nature of Educational Psychology is :

a) To give a knowledge of the nature of the child.

b) To give understanding of the nature, aims and purposes of education
c) To give understanding of the scientific methods and procedures which have been used in
arriving at the facts and principles of educational psychology
d) To present the principles and techniques of learning and teaching
e) To give training in methods of measuring abilities and achievement in school subjects
f) To give a knowledge of the growth and development of children
g) To assist in the better adjustment of children and to help them to prevent maladjustment
h) To study the educational significance and control of emotions and
i) To give an understanding of the principles and techniques of correct training.
Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While
general science deals with behaviour of the individuals in various spheres, educational
psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in educational sphere only.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field.
The following factors will indicate the scope of educational psychology:

A. LEARNER: The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner.

Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The
topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual
differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious
behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each
stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.
B. TEACHER: The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning
process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’
for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts,
motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential
personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as to
inspire him for becoming a successful teacher.
C. LEARNING EXPERIENCE: Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning
experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so
that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.
D. LEARNING PROCESS: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning
experiences are to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles
and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and
forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving,
transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.
E. LEARNING ENVIRONMENT. Here we deal with the environmental factors and
learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like
classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and
evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth
functioning of the teaching-learning process.

Though the entire scope of Educational Psychology is included in the above mentioned five
key-factors, it may be further expanded by adding the following:
  It studies Human Behaviour in educational situations. Psychology is the study of
behaviour, and education deals with the modification of behaviour; hence, educational
psychology pervades the whole field of education.
 It studies the Growth and Development of the child. How a child passes through the
various stages of growth and what are the characteristics of each stage are included in the
study of educational psychology.
 To what extent Heredity and Environment contribute towards the growth of the
individual, and how this knowledge can be made use of for bringing about the optimum
development of the child; form a salient feature of the scope of educational psychology.
 Educational psychology deals with the Nature and Development of the Personality of an
individual. In fact, education has been defined as the all-round development of the
personality of an individual; personality development also implies a well-adjusted
personality.
 It studies Individual Difference: Every individual differs from every other individual. It is
one of the fundamental facts of human nature which have been brought to light by
educational psychology. This one fact has revolutionalised the concept and process of
education.
 It studies the nature Intelligence and its Measurement. This is of utmost importance for a
teacher.
 It Provides Guidance and Counselling: Education is nothing but providing guidance to
the growing child.

We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is narrower in scope than

general psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of the individual
in a general way, educational psychology in concerned with the behaviour of the learner
in an educational setting.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Education and Psychology are correlated subjects. Psychology is a broader area in which
education searches to give a practical shape of the psychology findings in the teaching-learning
situation. For a detail study of both the subject, we first know the meaning of psychology and
education.

Psychology is closely related to education. Education is the modification of behaviour in a

desirable direction or in a controlled environment and psychology is the study of behaviour or
science of behaviour. To modify the behaviour or to bring about some changes in the behaviour
it is necessary to study the science of behaviour. Thus, education and psychology are logically
related.

The developmental stages of children and characteristics are very essential factors which the
teacher must know in order to be a successful teacher. The traditional education was subject
centered and teacher dominated. But the modern concept of education has been changed into
learning centered to learner centered.

a) Psychology and aims of education: The aims of education can be fixed by taking the
help of psychology changes of the child. So the needs, interest, aptitude and attitude are
the indicators for planning any activity for education.
b) Psychology and curriculum: At the time of curriculum planning and construction,
proper care should be taken for the development rate of the child. So they are
complementary in the process of education.
c) Psychology and methods: A teacher has to give instructions through different methods,
which should be linked with psychological problems, needs and development of the
child.
d) Psychology and evaluation: The total process of evaluation and examination should be
linked with psychological principles. Questions should be prepared taking the normal
development of the children.
e) Psychology and discipline: The problems of discipline can be checked through proper
psychological techniques. It also helps to check different behavioral problems of the
children.
f) Psychology and administration: The process of administration should be based on the
psychological techniques. In administration, proper care should be given on the basis of
individual differences.
g) Psychology and teacher: Teacher should be a master of psychology to deal with a
complex educational situation. Teaching is an art and so he should know different
techniques of psychology in order to solve different problems of the children.
h) Psychology and timetable, textbook preparation: On the basis of psychological
process the curriculum workers, teachers, administrators prepare suitable timetable
according to the interest, time, suitability, local condition of the learners. Similarly while
preparing textbooks he must consider the value of psychological needs, capacities and
development of the learner.

Therefore, both psychology and education have close link with each other. Pestalozzi also
said that, psychologies education. Every teacher should learn the child psychology before
teaching.

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PSYCHOANALYTIC AND GESTALT SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychoanalysis was founded by the famous psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, in Vienna, Austria.
Psychoanalysis has had a significant impact on the thinking and theorising of many
psychologists. Therefore, many authors have included psychoanalysis in the early schools of
psychology, even if, strictly speaking, it is not a school of psychology. Freud developed a
theory of behaviour and mind (the psychoanalytic theory), on the basis of his practice with
neurotic patients, which held that much of what we think and do is due to our urges, drives ,
and desires, which seek expressions in our thought and behaviour. It is important to note that,
according to psychoanalytic theory, these urges and drives are unconscious, i.e., they are
hidden from our awareness. What is seen in behaviour and thought of people is the
expression of these unconscious drives, urges, wishes, and desires. Thus, the concept of
unconscious motivation is the key idea of psychoanalysis, which is still being utilised, as one
of the explanations of behaviour.

Gestalt Psychology school of Psychology was founded in Germany about 1912 by Max
Wertheimer and his colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. These pioneer
psychologists felt that structuralists were wrong in thinking of the mind as being made up of
elements. They maintained that the mind is not made up of a combination of simple
elements. The German word Gestalt means “form” or “configuration” and the Gestalt
psychologists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole
pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organisations within this pattern. For
instance, we recognise a tune when it is transposed to another key; the elements have
changed, but the pattern of relationships has stayed the same. Or, to take yet another
example, when you look at the dots in figure below, your mental experience is not just the
dots, or elements, but of a square and a triangle sitting on a line.

It is the organisation of the dots and their relationships that determine the mental experience
you have. Thus, the point made by the Gestalt psychologists in their opposition to
structuralism was, mental experience depends on the patterning and organisation of elements
and is not due simply to the compounding of elements. In simpler words, according to the
Gestalt psychologists, the mind is best understood in terms of the ways elements are
organised. Gestaltists were mainly concerned about the element of form or organisation
which unifies behaviour, particularly perceptual behaviour.
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MOTIVATION

Motivation is an internal process. Whether we define it as a drive or a need, motivation is a

condition inside us that desires a change, either in the self or the environment. When we tap into
this well of energy, motivation endows the person with the drive and direction needed to engage
with the environment in an adaptive, open-ended, and problem-solving sort of way (Reeve,
2018).

Motivation is derived from the word ‘Movere’ which means ‘to move’. It is basically the process
of arousing action, sustaining activity in progress, regulating and directing pattern of activity
through energy transformations within the tissues of the organism. It is an art of inculcating and
stimulating interest in studies and in other such activities.

The essence of motivation is energized and persistent goal-directed behavior. When we are
motivated, we move and take action.

The study of motivation in psychology revolves around providing the best possible answers to
two fundamental questions: what causes behavior, and why does behavior vary in its intensity?

Motivational science is a behavioral science that seeks to construct theories about what
constitutes human motivation and how motivational processes work.

Motivation, when seen in the real world, and when measured by science, becomes visible and
detectable through behavior, level of engagement, neural activation, and psychophysiology.
Some would also include self-report in this list, but studies show that self-reports have proven to
be highly unreliable sources of information (Reeve, 2018).

According to B.F. Skinner, “Motivation in school learning involves arousing, persisting,

sustaining and directing desirable behavior.”

According to Woodworth, “Motivation is the state of the individual which disposes him to
certain behavior for seeking goal.”
Characteristics of Motivation:

 Personal and internal feeling.

 Art of stimulating someone.
 Produces goal.
 Motivation can be either positive or negative.
 It is system oriented.
 It is a sort of bargaining.

Importance of motivation

Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned
responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The major question
among psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or secondary influence on
behavior. That is, are changes in behavior better explained by principles of
environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitive development, emotion,
explanatory style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation more pertinent.

Classification of Motivation:

Primary, Basic or Physiological Needs:

It includes food, water, sleep, sex, etc. These needs arise out of the basic physiology of life and
these are important for survival and preservation of species.

Secondary Needs:
They represent needs of the mind and spirit. For example, self-esteem, sense of duty, self-
assertion, etc.
Conscious action arises from the needs. Needs create tensions that are modified.

Sources of Motivation to Learn:

a) Curiosity: It is a strong motivator of learning. Since, people adapt rather quickly to
surprising events, curiosity must be sustained in order to be a continuing source of
motivation. To keep the learners alert, instructors can employ such strategies as varying
their tone of voice, using relevant humour occasionally, etc.
b) Learning Task Relevance: Students are more motivated to learn things that are relevant
to their interest.
c) Goal Setting: It is an important source of motivation. When individuals set goals, they
determine an external standard, to which they will internally evaluate their present level
of performance. Setting goals improves self-motivation and performance to a greater
extent. When learners set goals, they seek to gain favorable judgments of their
competence or avoid negative judgments of their competence. The recommendation to
 foster a learning goal orientation runs counter to much current educational practice,
which attempts to instill learner confidence within a performance goal orientation.
d) Motive Matching: It is the degree to which learning tasks meet particular students needs
or align with students values. A need can be defined as “any type of deficiency in the
human organism or the absence of anything the person requires or thinks he requires for
his overall well-being.” The instructor should be sensitive to individual’s needs for
achievement and for affiliation.
e) Self-Efficacy: Motivation also comes from learner’s beliefs about themselves. According
to Bandura, self-efficacy involves a belief that one can produce some behavior,
independent of whether one actually can or not. Learners can be sure that certain
activities will produce a particular set of outcomes. These expectations are referred as
outcome expectations.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION THEORIES

Behavioral

Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory posits a primary factor in
motivation. Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize
and direct behavior (Huitt & Hummel, 1997a). Operant learning states the primary factor is
consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the
application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in behavior (Huitt &
Hummel, 1997b).

Cognitive

There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the information processing
approach to learning (Huitt, 2003b). These approaches focus on the categories and labels people
use to help identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and behaviors.

One cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes
that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain
"attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or
not under control. The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination
of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.

In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a self-

attribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the person has an attribution of ability
(internal, no control) as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the learning
process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior (e.g., I'm not good at this). If the
person has an external attribution, then the person will have a believe that nothing the person can
do will help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has
been learned is completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be done by the
individual when learning problems occur.

A second cognitive approach is expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) which proposes the following
equation:

Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy)*Connection of Success and Reward

(Instrumentality)*Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valance or
Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of
motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in relatively high levels in order for motivation
to occur. That is, if an individual does not believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the
individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success OR the individual
does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the individual will
engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all three variables
must be high in order for motivation and the resulting behavior to be high.

The third cognitive approach is cognitive dissonance theory which is in some respects similar to
disequilibrium in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (Huitt & Hummel, 2003). This
theory was developed by Leon Festinger (1957), as social psychologist, and states that when
there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action,
individuals will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if an
appropriate amount of disequilibrium is created, this will in turn lead to the individual changing
his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in thought patterns which in turn leads to
more change in behavior.

MASLOW'S THEORY OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower
level needs for survival and safety to higher level needs for intellectual achievement and self-
actualization.

Maslow called four lower level needs-for survival, then safer; followed by belonging, then self-
esteem. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled
the three higher level needs, intellectual achievement, then aesthetic appreciation and finally,
self-actualization being needs.

When they are met, a person’s motivation does not cease, instead it increases to further
fulfillment. Unlike the deficiency needs, there being needs can never be completely filled.
The strive for improvement is always there in the individual. Maslow’s theory has been criticized
because the people do not always appear to behave as the theory would predict. Sometimes,
people get motivated by many different needs; at the same time. All the needs are inter-related.

SELF-ACTUALIZTION

ESTEEM NEEDS

SOCIAL NEEDS

SAFETY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and
growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the
next higher level. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a
deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. The first four levels are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;

2) Safety/security: out of danger;
3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and
4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.

According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the
deficiency needs are met. Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth need-
self-actualization. Self-actualized people are characterized by: 1) being problem-focused; 2)
incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life; 3) a concern about personal growth;
and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow later differentiated the growth need of self-
actualization, specifically naming two lower-level growth needs prior to general level of self-
actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). The growth
needs in this revised formulation are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;

6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
 7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and
8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self-
fulfillment and realize their potential.
Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-transcendent, one
becomes more wise (develops the ability to efficiently and effectively make decisions and solve
problems based on personal experience) and becomes fluid in interacting with the environment
in a wide variety of situations. Maslow's ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of self-
actualization are transcendent in nature is especially important as it comes from someone who
spent most of his professional life investigating the topic.

MURRAY'S THEORY OF MOTIVATION

In 1938 Henry Murray developed a system describing personality in terms of needs; the system
organized personality in terms of motives, presses and needs. Murray defined a need as a
"potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances".
Environmental factors also play a role in how these psychogenic needs are expressed in
behaviour, these are what Murray called "presses".

Theories of personality based on needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a reflection
of behaviors controlled by needs. While some needs are temporary and changing, other needs are
more deeply seated in our nature. According to Murray, these psychogenic needs function mostly
on the unconscious level but play a major role in our personality.

Murray's Types of Needs

Murray identified needs as one of two types:

Primary Needs: Primary needs are basic needs that are based upon biological demands, such as
the need for oxygen, food, and water.

Secondary Needs: Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as the need for nurturing,
independence, and achievement. While these needs might not be fundamental for basic survival,
they are essential for psychological well-being.

Psychogenic Needs:

The following is a partial list of 24 needs identified by Murray and his colleagues. According to
Murray, all people have these needs, but each individual tends to have a certain level of each
need. Each person's unique levels of needs play a role in shaping his or her individual
personality.

a) Ambition Needs
Ambition needs are related to the need for achievement and recognition. The need for
achievement is often expressed by succeeding, achieving goals, and overcoming obstacles. The
need for recognition is met by gaining social status and displaying achievements. Sometimes the
ambition needs even involve a need for exhibition, or the desire to shock and thrill other people.

b) Materialistic Needs

The materialistic needs center on the acquisition, construction, order, and retention. These needs
often involve obtaining items, such as buying material objects that we desire. In other instances,
these needs compel us to create new things. Obtaining and creating items are an important part of
the materialistic needs, but keeping objects and organizing them is also important.

c) Power Needs

The power needs tend to center on our own independence as well as our need to control others.
Murray believed that autonomy was a powerful need involving the desire for independence and
resistance. Other key power needs that he identified include abasement (confessing and
apologizing), aggression (attacking or ridiculing others), blame avoidance (following the rules
and avoiding blame), deference (obeying and cooperating with others), and dominance
(controlling others).

d) Affection Needs

The affection needs are centered on our desire to love and be loved. We have a need for
affiliation and seek out the company of other people. Nurturance, or taking care of other people,
is also important for psychological well-being. The need for succorance involves being helped or
protected by others. Murray also suggested that play and having fun with other people was also a
critical affection need.

While most of the affection needs a center on building relationships and connections, Murray
also recognized that rejection could also be a need. Sometimes, turning people away is an
important part of maintaining mental wellness. Unhealthy relationships can be a major detriment
to an individual's well-being, so sometimes knowing when to walk away can be important.

e) Information Needs

The information needs center around both gaining knowledge and sharing it with others.
According to Murray, people have an innate need to learn more about the world around them. He
referred to cognizance as the need to seek knowledge and ask questions. In addition to gaining
knowledge, he also believed that people have a need for what he referred to as exposition, or the
desire to share what they have learned with other people.

Influences on Psychogenic Needs

Each need is important in and of itself, but Murray also believed that needs can be interrelated,
can support other needs, and can conflict with other needs. For example, the need for dominance
may conflict with the need for affiliation when overly controlling behavior drives away friends,
family, and romantic partners. Murray also believed that environmental factors play a role in
how these psychogenic needs are displayed in behavior. Murray called these environmental
forces "presses."

Murray believed human nature involved a set of universal basic needs, however, he said that
individual differences on these needs lead to the unique personalities that each person has.
Murray said that everyone has the same basic set of needs but that individuals differ in their
priority of those needs. According to him, some needs are temporary and transient, whereas
others are deeply seated in our nature. These psychogenic needs function mostly on the
unconscious level, but play a major role in our personality. Frustration of these psychogenic
needs plays a central role in the origin of psychological pain. (Shneidman ES. The Suicidal
Mind. Oxford University Press; 1996) Murray distinguished each need as unique, but recognised
shared attributes among the needs. Needs can also conflict, for example, the need for
achievement may conflict with the need for nurturance.

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SUMMARY

To conclude, we can say that psychology plays an important role in what we do on a day-to-day
basis, and this is especially true for students. Educational psychology, broadly described, focuses
on the application of psychology to the understanding of learners and the learning environment.
However, such a broad generalization of the field does not do justice to the myriad of domains
and applications represented by this field of psychology. As this content to the field illustrates,
the field of educational psychology represents an important area of psychological research,
theory, and practice. How we learn and incorporate information is directly influenced by
psychology, whether we know it or not. Educational psychology is the study of how humans
learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of
teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. It is concerned with how
students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject
to specific disabilities. Understanding the various theories of learning as well as your personal
learning style can help you better understand information and develop positive study habits.
SELF- ASSESSMENT:

1. General Psychology and Educational Psychology are dissimilar, discuss in your

own words.

ANSWER: General psychology are the same except that educational psychology has all the
general psychological aspects applied to educational settings. For example when looking at
memory, it is discussed in relation to how students remember/forget materials learned in the
classroom/ educational setting. Similarly, when looking at human development, you may look
at how conception takes place, how what the child inherits from conception influences how the
child develops , physically, cognitively , emotionally, and how what can be learned in each
developmental stage, can be enhanced through nurturing among others.

So the main difference between psychology and educational psychology stems from the fact
that while psychology in general possesses a broader view which entails all aspects of human
life, educational psychology pays specific attention to the learning process.

2. What is the function of educational psychology?

ANSWER:

a) To afford a thorough knowledge of the nature of the child

b) To provide an understanding of the nature aims and purposes of education.
c) To acquire familiarity with the technical vocabulary and to further an
understanding and an appreciation of the scientific procedures by which the data
of educational psychology are obtained.
d) To provide a significant knowledge of developmental process with particular
emphasis upon the promotion, guidance and control of mental and moral
aspects.
e) To provide an understanding of the principles governing learning, together with
a knowledge of the techniques for guiding improvement in learning and their
application to the practical problems in the classroom.
f) To present the theories underlying the measurement and evaluation of mental
abilities, aptitudes, achievements, interest and personality organization.
g) To present the principles and conclusions regarding the prevention of all types
of maladjustments together with the approved practices for achieving
satisfactory adjustments.
h) To inculcate prospective teacher the realization that the most essential purpose.

3. Elaborate with appropriate examples nature and scope of educational psychology.

ANSWER: The Nature of Educational Psychology:

 The nature of educational psychology is regarded as scientific because it is organized,
systematic and universally accepted body, wherein the facts remain constantly in search of
truth through research and experimentation. Employs scientific methods in its study and its
results are subjected to further verification and modification.

The following points further confirm the nature of educational psychology as scientific:

a) Laws of educational psychology are universal: Educational psychology possesses a

well-organized, systematic and universally accepted body of facts supported by the
relevant psychological laws and principles.
b) Scientific methods: Educational psychology employs scientific methods and adopts a
scientific approach for studying the learner’s behaviour such as observation,
experimentation, clinical investigation and generalization, etc.
c) Constant search of the truth: The results of any study in educational psychology can be
challenged and are modified or altered in terms of the latest explanations and findings. So
the findings of any study are never taken as absolute and permanent.
d) Reliability: Educational psychology does not accept hearsay and not take anything for
granted. It emphasizes that essentially there is some definite causes linked with a
behaviour and the causes of this behaviour are not related to supernatural phenomena.
e) Positive science: Educational psychology is a positive science rather than a normative
science.
f) Applied behavioural science: Educational psychology is an applied/behavioural science.
g) Developing positive science: Educational psychology cannot claim the status of a
developed positive science like other natural or applied sciences. It is considered as one
of the developing positive sciences of the learner’s behaviour.

Scope of Educational Psychology:

Scope of educational psychology tells us the areas of application. In other words, it can be called
the subject matter of educational psychology.

The main areas covered by educational psychology are:

a) Learner:

When we talk about learning learner takes the central role. The process of learning depends
on the learner and the teacher. While learning, he might face many problems, which can be
resolved by understanding the developmental characteristics and abilities of the student.

Educational psychology as an applied branch deals with the study of the problems a learner
can face and how it can be dealt with it throws light on the developmental characteristics of
the learner and individual differences like in intelligence and personalities, their attitudes and
interest.
 It also tries to explain the causes for these individual differences which affect the learner and
learning process. Educational psychology gives us information about What is learning? How
learning takes place? What are the characteristics of a learner that come in the way of
learning? etc.

b) Learning process:
Educational psychology provides knowledge about learning, factors that affect the
process of learning such as maturation, motivation, attention, interest and may other
internal and external factors. Role of a teacher in learning process is also significant.

The effectiveness of learning not only depends on the learner but also on the teacher.
Educational psychology gives us information about how the learning process can be
made interesting by motivating the learner with the help of reinforcement.

This branch of psychology also deals with the problems of exceptional, gifted and
backward children, thereby guiding the teacher to have her own strategy of making the
learning process effective.
c) Evaluation of learning process:
Some forms of evaluation inevitable in teaching. Also in all fields of activity when
judgments used to be made, evaluation plays an important role. Even when we want to
cross a road we make a judgment whether it is safe to cross the road. Effectiveness of
learning process always depends on the evaluation as it gives the knowledge of result
which helps the learner as well as the teacher to modify or correct oneself.

Educational psychology guides are by explaining the different methods of assessment

contributing to the effectiveness of learning process. Knowing the learner, acquiring the
essential skill in teaching and evaluation are the focal points in the study of educational
psychology.
But, as the learning process is dynamic with the changing world, we come across
challenging problems in this field. This shows that we cannot limit our study to a
particular domain. Thus the scope of psychology is wide-spread, even if it looks like
limited to certain areas.
4. When does intrinsic motivation occur?

ANSWER: Intrinsic motivation is the act of doing something without any obvious external
rewards. You do it because it’s enjoyable and interesting, rather than because of an outside
incentive or pressure to do it, such as a reward or deadline. An example of intrinsic motivation
would be reading a book because one enjoy reading and have an interest in the story or subject,
rather than reading because they have to write a report on it to pass a class.
There have been a number of different proposed theories to explain intrinsic motivation and how
it works. Some experts believe that all behavior is driven by external reward, such as money,
status, or food. In intrinsically motivated behaviors, the reward is the activity itself.

The most recognized theory of intrinsic motivation was first based on people’s needs and drives.
Hunger, thirst, and sex are biological needs that we’re driven to pursue in order to live and be
healthy.

Just like these biological needs, people also have psychological needs that must be satisfied in
order to develop and thrive. These include the need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Along with satisfying these underlying psychological needs, intrinsic motivation also involves
seeking out and engaging in activities that we find challenging, interesting, and internally
rewarding without the prospect of any external reward.

5. A group of employees from a local bakery are hard workers and are able to make
delicious food quickly. They hear a rumor that the owner of the store is going to
sell the business and that the bakery will close. Since hearing the rumor, the
quality of the food and efficiency of the baking process has decreased, and the
employees often spend time discussing what they would do if the rumor were true.
According to Maslow’s hierarchy, what are these workers currently motivated by?
Elaborate in your words.

ANSWER: The workers in the above examples will be motivated by the sense of security i.e.
in their case job security.

Safety is one of our basic, evolutionary needs. Most of our decisions and actions are based on
sustaining or improving our circumstances. While we may not be in constant danger like early
man, we are no less driven by the need for safety for us and our loved ones. This drive is
carried over into user and consumer behavior. For this reason, products must not only be sold
to us with strong indications that they will protect us from potential threats, but they must back
these claims up with clear evidence that they do, in fact, offer some protection and/or 'shelter',
too.

The need for safety was acknowledged as a basic human need by Abraham Maslow in his
'Hierarchy of Needs'. Safety needs represent the second tier in Maslow's hierarchy and these
needs include the security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality of family, and of
health. The need for safety is present in all animals, but unlike other animals and early man, we
no longer seek shelter from predators hunting us down for food; however, safety is still
essential, and our actions are no less engineered to ensuring our survival. For example, when
we are buying a car, if we read reviews that the air bag fails to deploy during a crash or that the
seatbelts are faulty, we will steer clear (pardon the pun).
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1) An Educational Psychologist works

a. Only within the classroom, focusing on children’s behaviour
b. At multiple levels – with individual children, groups of children, parents/carers
and at the organisational level
c. Exclusively with individual children who have a statement of special educational
need
d. In a reactive rather than preventive manner

ANSWER: OPTION b

2) A key role of an Educational Psychologist is to

a. Link academic psychology and education by translating and disseminating
research to practitioners
b. Carry out ‘basic research’ which will inform ‘applied research’
c. Administer medication for children
d. Provide a counseling role to children who have had traumatic experiences

ANSWER: OPTION a

3) Applied psychology professions including Educational Psychologists are

a. Problem-solving professions
b. Not based on scientific research
c. Adult-centered professions
d. Outdated professions

ANSWER: OPTION a

4) In educational psychology ‘evidence-based practice’ is considered to be

a. Necessary and sufficient
b. Inappropriate
c. Necessary but not sufficient
d. Unnecessary

ANSWER: OPTION c

5) The primary aim of educational psychology is

a. To contribute to an understanding of sound educational practices.
b. To provide the teacher with a greater appreciation of his role in the education of
the child.
 c. To provide the academic background essential for effective teaching.
d. To provide a theoretical framework for educational research.

ANSWER: OPTION a

6) Motivation is
a. a component of ability, personal traits and desire.
b. an individual’s, intensity, direction and persistence.
c. An effort towards creating goals
d. a constant intensity.

ANSWER: OPTION b

7) Shyam is a strong employee, who is committed to the objectives of his department and
goals of his company. Which of the following will be likely applicable to him?
a. Dislikes work
b. Needs to be controlled
c. Avoids responsibility
d. Exercises self-direction

ANSWER: OPTION d

8) Which of the following statements would most likely be made by a manager who has a
Theory X approach to human beings?
a. focus on the organization and people will take care of themselves.
b. I treat people differently in different ways based on the situation we are facing.
c. The only way to get people to work hard is to push them hard
d. people work best if left alone.
e. people will generally seek greater responsibility and accountability when given
the opportunity.

ANSWER: OPTION c

9) Which of the following needs creates the strongest drive to act immediately?
a. The need for respect
b. The need to make friends
c. The need to eat
d. The need of job security

ANSWER: OPTION c

10) Maslow's hierarchy of needs explains:

a. That the motivation for shelter is stronger than the motivation for creativity
 b. That the motivation to eat is stronger than the motivation to be with friends
c. That the motivation for health is stronger than the motivation for respect by others
d. All of the answers are correct

ANSWER: OPTION d

REFERENCES

https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/2012/03/09/meaning-nature-and-scope-of-educational-
psychology/

https://www.learningclassesonline.com/2020/03/what-is-psychology.html

https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/notes/psychology-notes/notes-on-psychology-definition-
scope-and-methods/1945

Thomas Fetsco, Northern Arizona University John McClure, Northern Arizona University
(2005) Educational Psychology: An Integrated Approach to Classroom Decisions

William M. Reynolds Gloria E. Miller, Irving B. Weiner, Educational Psychology, Handbook of

Psychology, VOLUME 7.

Kevin Crochetière, Nealy Vicker, James Parker, D. Brett King and Michael Wertheimer, Gestalt
Theory And Psychopathology.

Citation: Huitt, W. (2011). Motivation to learn: An overview. Educational Psychology

Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved
from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/motivation/motivate.html

https://positivepsychology.com/what-is-motivation/

Andrew Johnson, Introduction to Educational Psychology: Philosophy, Psychology, Research,

and Theories.

https://www.academia.edu/14966904/INTRODUCTION_TO_EDUCATIONAL_PSYCHOLOG
Y_PHILOSOPHY_PSYCHOLOGY_RESEARCH_AND_THEORIES