Module 3 : Physics of Photonic Devices

CONTENTS

1. Introduction to lasers

2. Energy density using Einstein coefficients

3. Condition for laser action

4. Requisites of a laser system

5. Construction and working of semiconductor diode laser

6. Application of lasers in Bar code scanner & Laser Printer

7. Numerical problems on lasers

8. Introduction to optical fibers

9. Propagation mechanism

10. Angle of acceptance. numerical aperture & Condition for ray propagation

11. Modes of propagation and types of optical fibers

12. Normalization frequency parameter

13. Attenuation

14. Applications of optical fiber in point to point communication system*

15. Numerical problems optical fibers

16. Question Bank

MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

Books Referred:
1. Laser & Non-linear Optics By B B Laud

2. Laser Fundamental By Silfvast & William T

3. Lasers & Optical Instruments By Nagabhushan S & Sathyanarayana N

4. Atom, Laser & Spectroscopy By S N Thakar & D K Pai

5. Lasers & its Applications By L Tasasov

6. Engineering Physics By Malik and Singh

7. Engineering Physics By Naidu

8. Engineering Physics By S P Basavaraju

9. Engineering Physics By M N Avadhanulu & P G Kshirsagar

10. Engineering Physics By Gaur & Gupta

11. Optoelectronics & Photonics By Safa O Kasap

12. Devices For Optoelectronics By W B Leigh

13. IBM Red Book-Optical Fiber Communications

14. Optical Fiber Communications By John M Senior

15. Optical Fiber Communications By G Keisser

16. Introduction to Fiber Optics By Ajoy Ghatak & K Thyagarajan

17. Optical Fibres and Fibre Communication Systems By Dr. S K Sarkar

18. Fiber Optics By David Bailey & Edwin wright

19. A Text Book of Optics By Avadhanulu

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

Physics of Photonic Devices

1. Introduction to Lasers

 The Term ”LASER” is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation. Lasers are devices that produce intense beams of light which are,

(a) Monochromatic: The wavelength (color) of laser light is extremely pure

(monochromatic) when compared to other sources of light.
(b) Coherent: All of the photons (energy) that make up the laser beam have a
fixed phase relationship (coherence) with respect to one another or The light
from a laser is said to be coherent, which means that the wavelengths of
the laser light are in phase in space and time.
(c) Highly Collimated: Light from a laser typically has very low divergence. It can
travel over great distances or can be focused to a very small spot with a
brightness which exceeds that of the sun.
(a) Directional: Lasers emit light that is highly directional, that is, laser light is
emitted as a relatively narrow beam in a specific direction.

 History on LASER

(a) In 1954, Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow invented the Maser (microwave
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), using ammonia gas and
microwave radiation - the maser was invented before the (optical) laser.

(b) The basic operating principles of the laser were put forth by Charles Townes and
Arthur Schalow from the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1958.

(c) In 1960, Theodore Maiman invented the Ruby Laser considered to be the first
successful optical or light laser.

(d) The first gas laser (helium neon) was invented by Ali Javan in 1960. The gas laser
was the first continuous-light laser and the first to operate "on the principle of
converting electrical energy to a laser light output.

(e) In 1962, Robert Hall created a revolutionary type of laser that is still used in many of
the electronic appliances and communications systems that we use every day
(Semiconductor injection Laser).

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

 Interaction of Radiation with Matter

a) Induced Absorption

 Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by a system is elevated

from a lower energy state to a higher energy state are called induced absorption.

E2

E1

 Consider an atom present in the ground state (E1) absorbs the energy from an
incident photon and elevated to excited state (E2).

b) Spontaneous Emission

 Spontaneous emission is the emission of a photon, when a system transits from a

higher energy state to a lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.

 Consider an atom in the excited state (E2) comes to ground state (E1) by emitting
a photon of energy ∆E = E2 - E1 without being aided by any external energy.

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c) Stimulated Emission

 Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system when a system,

under the influence of a passing photon of right energy, due to which the system
transits from a higher energy state to a lower energy state. The photon thus
emitted is called the stimulated photon and will have same phase, energy and
direction of movement as that of passing photon (incident photon) called the
stimulated emission.

 Consider an atom in the excited state (E2) comes to ground state (E1) by emitting
a two photon (Stimulated & incident photon) travelling in same direction and with
exactly the same energy (∆E = E2 - E1) with the aid of any external energy
(incident photon having the energy precisely equal to (∆E = E2 - E1).

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2. Energy Density Using Einstein’s Coefficients

 Consider two energy level system E1 & E2 (E2>E1) and there be N1 atoms with energy E1
and N2 atoms with the energy E2 per unit volume. N1 and N2 are called number density
and be the energy density per unit volume of the system of frequency range ν and
ν+dν and be the energy density.

 Consider the absorption and also the two emission process

a) Induced Absorption

N2 The number of absorption per unit time per unit volume is

called rate of absorption.

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛼 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈

N1 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 (1)

b) Spontaneous emission

N2 The number of emission per unit time per unit volume is

called rate of spontaneous emission.

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛼 𝑁2

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴21 𝑁2 (2)

N1

c) Stimulated Emission

N2 The number of emission per unit time per unit volume is

called rate of stimulated emission.

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛼 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 (3)

N1

 At the thermal equilibrium condition, the rate of absorption is equal to the sum of
rate of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

12 1 21 2 21 2
12 1 21 2 21 2
12 1 21 2 21 2
21 2

12 1 21 2

21 2
[ ]
21 ( 12
) 1 2
21

21
[ ]
12 1
21 ( )( )
21 2
From Boltzmann’s Law,

2 1

2 1
1

21
[ ]
21 12
( )( )
21
From Planck’s law,

3
[ ]

Comparing equ. (6) & equ. (7),

3
21 12
3
21 21
12 21 21

Equ. (7) becomes,

𝐴
𝑈𝜈 [ 𝜈 ]
𝐵
𝑒 𝑘𝑇

This is the equation for energy density at thermal equilibrium using Einsteins’ Coefficients.

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

3. Condition for LASER Action

a) Population Inversion

Excited State, E3, N3

-8
10 s Radiationless transition due to lattice vibration
-3
10 s
Metastable State, E2, N2

Ground State, E1, N1

 Consider three energy level E1, E2 and E3 of a system (E3>E2>E1). Let E2 be a

metastable state of a system.
 Let the atom be excited from E1 to E3 by the supply of appropriate energy from an
external source.
 From the E3, the atoms undergo spontaneous downward transitions rapidly to E2
and E1 states. But E2 is a metastable state, those atoms which get into that state stay
over long duration (10-3s) because of which the population of E2 state increases
steadily. Since the atoms are being excited continuously from E1 level its population
goes on decreasing. The population of E2 state overtakes that of E1 which condition
is known as population inversion.
 Once the population of E2 exceeds that of E1, the stimulated emissions outnumber
the spontaneous emissions and soon stimulated photon, all identical in respect of
phase, wavelength and direction, grow to a very large number which build up the
laser light. Hence the condition for laser action is achieved by means of population
inversion.
 Population Inversion is the state of a system, at which the population of a particular
higher energy state is more than that of a specified lower energy state ‘N2>N1’.

b) Pumping: The method of producing population inversion is known as pumping.

c) Lasing: The process which leads to emission of stimulated photon due to population
inversion is often referred to as lasing.

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

4. Requisites of a LASER System

The requisites of a laser system are,

 An excitation source for pumping action

The excitation source providing energy in an appropriate form for pumping the
atoms to higher energy levels.
Example : Optical pumping (Ruby laser) and Electrical pumping (He-Ne Laser)

 An active medium which supports population inversion

 A part of the input energy is absorbed by the active medium in which
population occurs at a certain stage
 An active medium is the heart of the laser. It contains atoms, ions or
molecules capable of decaying from their high energy state by emitting
electromagnetic waves.

 A laser cavity or resonance cavity

Active Medium

 A resonant cavity consists of an active medium bound between two mirrors,

one fully silvered and the other partially silvered.
 The separation between the mirrors allows only selected wavelength of
radiation to bounce back and forth. The direction of the travel of the photon
is parallel to the axis of resonant cavity and the repeated bouncing of light
back and forth increases the chances of more stimulated emissions.

 Two types of waves exist in an active medium.

(i) The two waves interfere constructively if there is no phase difference
between the two.
(ii) But their interference became destructive if the phase difference is

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

Constructive Interference

Destructive Interference

 For construction interference, the distance between the two mirror should be
equal to integral multiple of λ/2.
(2)

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

5. Construction and Working of Homo Junction Semiconductor LASER

[or Gallium Arsenide(GaAs) Laser]

a) Construction of GaAs semiconductor laser

 Gallium Arsenide laser diode is a single crystal of GaAs and consists of heavily
doped n and p type sections. .The n section is formed by doping with tellurium
and p section is obtained by doping with Zinc.
 A junction is connected to DC supply in a forward bias and junction acts like the
active medium.
 Resonance cavity required for energy amplification is obtained by cleaving the
front and back of the semiconductor material. The cleaved surface must be
perfectly flat and parallel. The back face is made fully reflecting and front face is
made partially reflecting for laser beam exit.

The other two remaining sides perpendicular to the junction are roughened to
avoid refraction of the photons.

b) Working of GaAs semiconductor laser

 The energy band diagram shows a pn-junction with valence band (V),
conduction band (C) and separated by a energy gap (Eg). At T = 0K, the
conduction band is completely empty and the valence band is completely filled
energy state.

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C Conduction Band

Energy Gap (Eg)

V Valence Band

 When the pn junction is heavily forward bias with a large current. The electrons
from the valence band raises to conduction band but this is an unstable state and
with a short time (10-13s), electrons in the conduction band drops to the lower
level in that band. The lowest level of conduction band is filled with electrons
and the top of valence band is filled is full of holes.

← Electrons

← Holes

 There is a significant increase in the concentration of electron in the conduction

band near the junction on the n side and also the concentration of holes in the
valence band on the p side.
i.e. In conduction band, more number of electrons moves from n-type to p-type
and In valence band, more number of holes moves from p-type to n-type. As a
result, large number of electrons confined in pn junction of conduction band and
also large number of holes confined in pn junction of valence band.

p-Type pn Junction n-type

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

 This indicates the population inversion at the pn junction. Now one of the
electron from the conduction band drops to valence band to recombine with a
hole and energy is associated with this recombination is emitted as a photon of
light. This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

At this stage, a photon released by a spontaneous emission may trigger

stimulated emissions over a large number of recombination. i.e. photons emitted
from the recombination interns give its energy to the electrons in conduction
band for more recombination of electron and holes to takes place. As a result
large numbers of photons are released and these photons are in phase with each
other and have same wavelength, thus travel together and reflected at the end
face. As a result energy amplification will takes place which is leading to buildup
of laser radiation of high power.

 As the current is being passed continuously, more electron get excited, rise to
conduction band, new holes generated in the valence band. This maintains the
population inversion. While the recombination of the electron-hole pairs
continues with generation of laser beam.

 The energy gap of GaAs is 1.4 eV, the wavelength of the emitted light is,

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

6. Application of lasers in Bar code scanner & Laser Printer

(a) Bar code scanner

 A barcode scanner, or barcode reader, is a device with lights, lenses, and a sensor that
decodes and captures the information contained in barcodes.
 Laser scanners use a laser beam as a light source and typically employ oscillating
mirrors or rotating prisms to scan the laser beam back and forth across the barcode.
 A photodiode then measures the reflected light from the barcode. An analog signal is
created from the photodiode and is then converted into a digital signal.
 Laser scanners do not require an image processor. They are also fast, capable of
conducting up to 1,300 scans per second.

(b) Laser printer

 A laser printer typically works on the basic principle of conversion of an image from
digital format to electrostatic format and finally to physical format.
 Initially, the digital image received by the printer gets converted into an electrical
signal.
 The light energy further helps in the formation of an invisible electrostatic image.
 Finally, pressure and fusing operation lead to the development of a permanent image.
 Laser printers are more efficient, economical, printing pages more quickly than
comparable inkjet printers perform.

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 MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

7. Numerical Problems on Lasers

 Formulas at a glance

 =
1
 * +
1

 ( )

 12 1
 21 2
 21 2

 (2) and 2

 1 2

01 A laser medium at thermal equilibrium temperature 300K has two energy level with a
wavelength separation of 1µm. Find the ratio of population densities of the upper and lower
levels. 𝑐
𝑁
Sol :
𝑁
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑇 00𝐾
λ = 10-6m
6 6 5 𝑋 0 34 𝑋 3 𝑋 08
𝑁2 𝑁 𝑒 48 04
? 0 6 𝑋 38 𝑋 0 3 𝑋 300
𝑁1 𝑒 𝟏 𝟒𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟏
𝑁

02 The ratio of population of two energy levels is 1.059 x 10-30. Find the wavelength of light emitted
at 300K.
Sol : 𝑐
𝑁
λ=? 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁2 𝑁
𝑁1
0 9𝑋 0 30
𝑁2 𝑐
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑇 00𝐾 𝑁1
𝑁2 𝑐
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑒
𝑁1 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑐 𝑋 0 𝑋 𝑋 0
𝜆 𝟔𝟗𝟔𝒏𝒎
𝑁 𝑋 0 23 𝑋 00𝑋 ln 0 9𝑋 0 0
𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 2
𝑁1

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 MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

03 The ratio of population between the upper and lower levels of an atomic system is 10-6. If the
radiation emitted by a transition between these levels is 1500nm then what must be the
temperature of an atoms.
Sol : 𝑐
𝑁
λ = 1500nm 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁2 𝑁
0 6 𝑁2 𝑐
𝑁1 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑇 ? 𝑁1
𝑁2 𝑐
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑒
𝑁1 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑐 𝑋 0 𝑋 𝑋 0
𝑇 𝟔𝟗𝟓𝑲
𝑁 𝑋 0 23 𝑋 00 𝑋 0 9 ln 0
𝑘𝜆𝑙𝑛 2
𝑁1
04 Atomic transitions between two specific levels give rise to light of wavelength 550nm. What is the
ratio of Einstein’s coefficients for spontaneous and stimulated emissions.
Sol : 𝐴 8𝜋 𝜗3 8𝜋 𝐶3 8𝜋 8 𝑋 𝜋 𝑋 6 625 𝑋 10 34
λ = 550nm ( 3)
𝐵 𝐶3 𝐶3 𝜆 𝜆3 550 𝑋 10 9 3
𝐴21
? 𝐴21
𝐵21 𝟏𝟑
𝟏 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
𝐵21
05 Show that the ratio of rate of spontaneous emission and absorption is given by [1 – e-hγ/KT].
Sol : 𝛄
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴
𝐵 𝑁 𝑈𝜈
𝑁 𝐴
𝐵
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝐴
[ ]
𝐵 𝛄
𝑒𝑘𝑇
𝛄 𝛄 𝛄
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 * 𝑘𝑇𝑒 + * 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 +

06 Show that the ratio of rate of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission is given by [ehγ/KT-1].
Sol : 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑁 𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑁 𝑈𝜈 𝐵
𝐴
[ ]
𝐵 𝛄
𝑒𝑘𝑇
𝛄
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
*𝑒𝑘𝑇 +
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

07 A pulsed laser emits photons of wavelength 780nm with 20mW average power per pulse.
Calculate the number of photons contains in each pulse. If the pulse duration is 10ns.
Sol : 𝐸 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡𝜆 20 𝑋 10 3 𝑋 10 𝑋 10 9 𝑋 780 𝑋 10 9
λ = 780nm 𝑁 𝑐 𝟕 𝟖𝟔 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟖 /𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆
P=20mW 𝐸 (𝜆) 𝑐 6 625 𝑋 10 34 𝑋 3 𝑋 108
N = ? t = 10ns

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 MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

08 A pulse from laser with 1mW lasts for 10ns. If the number of photons emitted per second is 3.491
x 107. Calculate the wavelength of laser.
Sol : 𝐸 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡𝜆 20 𝑋 10 3 𝑋 10 𝑋 10 9 𝑋 780 𝑋 10 9
𝑁 𝑐
λ=? 𝐸 ( ) 𝑐 6 625 𝑋 10 34 𝑋 3 𝑋 108
𝜆
P=1mW
𝑐𝑁 6 625 𝑋 10 34 𝑋 3 𝑋 108 𝑋 3 491 X 107
N =3.491 X 107 𝜆 =694.4nm
𝑃𝑡 1 𝑋 10 3 𝑋 10 𝑋 10 9
t = 10ns
09 A He-Ne laser is emitting a laser beam with an average power of 45mW. Find the number of
photons emitted per second by the laser. The wavelength of emitted radiation is 6328Å.
Sol :
λ = 6328Å 𝐸 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡𝜆 45 𝑋 10 3 𝑋 1𝑋 6328 𝑋 10 0
P=45mW 𝑁 𝑐
N =? 𝐸 ( ) 𝑐 6 625 𝑋 10 34 𝑋 3 𝑋 108
t = 1s 𝜆

𝑁 1.43 X1017 /second

10 The transition to the ground state from the upper and lower energy state in a Ruby laser results
in emission of photons of wavelength 6298Å and 6943Å respectively. Estimate the energy values
of the two energy levels in eV and also their ratio of populations.
Sol : 𝑐 6 625 𝑋 10 34 𝑋 3 𝑋 108 𝟏𝟗
𝐸1 𝟐 𝟖𝟔𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝑱
𝜆1 = 6943Å 𝜆 6943 𝑋 10 0

𝜆2 = 6298Å 𝐸2
𝑐 6 625 𝑋 10 34 𝑋 3 𝑋 108
𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗
𝑱
𝑁2 𝜆 6298 𝑋 10 0
?
𝑁1 3 156 𝑋 10 9 2 863 𝑋 10 9
𝑁2 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟒
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 1 38 𝑋 10 3 𝑋 300
𝑁1
11 Find the number of modes of standing waves and their frequency separation in the resonant
cavity of 1m of He-Ne operating at a wavelength of 632.8nm.
Sol : 𝜆 𝐿 𝑋
𝐿 ( )𝑚 ⇒ 𝑚 10
𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟔
𝜆 𝑋 0
𝜆 = 632.8nm
𝜆 𝐿 𝐶 𝐿 𝑚𝐶 𝑚 𝐶
L=1m 𝐿 ( )𝑚 ⇒ 𝜆 ⇒ ⇒ 𝜗𝑚 & 𝜗𝑚 1
𝑚 𝜗 𝑚 𝐿 𝐿
M=?
8
𝜗𝑚 𝜗𝑚 1 ? 𝐶 𝑋 0
𝜗𝑚 𝜗𝑚 1 𝟏 𝟓 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑯𝒛
𝐿 𝑋

12 A laser operating at 632.8nm emits 3.182 x 1016 photons per second. Calculate the output power
of the laser if the input power is 100W. Also find the percentage power converted into coherent
light energy. 𝐸 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡𝜆
𝑁 𝑐 ⇒
Sol : 𝐸 ( ) 𝑐
𝜆
𝜆 = 632.8nm 𝑁 𝑐 𝑋 016 𝑋 𝑋 0 34
𝑋 𝑋 08
N=3.182 X 1016/s 𝑃 9
𝟎 𝟎𝟏𝑾
𝑡𝜆 𝑋 𝑋 0
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ?
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 00
𝑃𝑖𝑛 00𝑊 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑋 00 𝑋 00 𝟎 𝟎𝟏
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ? 𝑃𝑖𝑛 00

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13 A semiconductor laser has a peak emission radiation of wavelength of 1.24nm. What is its band
gap value in eV.
34
Sol : 𝑐 𝑋 0 𝑋 𝑋 08 𝟏𝟔
𝐸𝑔 𝜗 𝟏 𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝑱 𝟏𝑲𝒆𝑽
𝜆 = 1.24nm 𝜆 𝑋 0 9
𝐸𝑔 ?
14 Calculate the ration of (i) Einstein’s Coefficients and (ii) Rate of stimulated emission to rate of
spontaneous emissions, for a system in thermal equilibrium at 300K in which radiation of
wavelength 1.39µm are emitted.
Sol :
𝐴 𝐴 𝜋 𝜗 𝜋 𝐶 𝜋 ( 𝑋𝜋𝑋 𝑋 0 )
? ( )
𝐵 𝐵 𝐶 𝐶 𝜆 𝜆
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( 9𝑋 0 )
?
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴21 𝟏𝟓
T=300K 𝟔 𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
𝜆 9𝜇𝑚 𝐵21

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑁 𝑈𝜈 𝐵 𝐴

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑁 ⬚ 𝐴 𝐵
[ 𝛄
]
𝑒𝑘𝑇
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 1
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛄 𝑐
𝑒𝑘𝑇 𝑒𝜆𝑘𝑇

1 𝟏𝟔
𝑋 0 𝑋 𝑋 0
= 𝟗 𝟕𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
𝑒 9𝑋 0 𝑋 𝑋 0 𝑋 00

15 Calculate the wavelength of Laser emitted from an extrinsic semiconductor laser if the band gap
is 1.5eV. To which region of EM spectrum does it belong.
Sol : 𝑐 𝑐 𝑋 0 34 𝑋 𝑋 08
𝐸𝑔 𝜗 ⇒𝜆 𝑛𝑚
𝜆=? 𝜆 𝐸𝑔 𝑋 0 𝑋 0 19
𝐸𝑔 𝑒𝑉
This EM Spectrum belongs to IR Region

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8. Introduction to Optical Fibers

 Optical fiber is an one of the type of communications of light rays by means of

the total internal reflections.
 Properties
(a) Optical fibers are transparent
(b) Dielectric
(c) They are able to guide visible and infrared light over long distances
(d) They exhibit total internal reflections
 Construction

(a) An optical fiber is mainly made of two parts, namely core and cladding.
(b) The core in an inner cylindrical material made of glass or plastic and the
other part, cladding which envelops the inner core as a concentric cylinder.
The cladding is also made up of similar material but of lesser refractive
index.
(c) The cladding is enclosed in a polyurethane jacket which safe guard the fiber
against chemical reaction, abrasion and crushing.
 Total internal Reflections

Consider a ray AO, travelling in a medium of refractive index n1 and be the

boundary of separation of two medium and n2 be the refractive index of the
lower medium.

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(i) Let the incident ray AO make an angle θ1 with the normal in the medium
of refractive index n1. As this ray refracted away from the normal since
n1>n2.
(ii) If θ2 be the angle made by refracted ray with the normal, then θ2>θ1. If θ1
is increased then for certain value of θ1= θC called the critical angle,
θ2=900 i.e. refracted ray just grazes along the boundary of separation
along while incident ray along BO.
(iii) For any angle of incidence θ1or θ2 which is greater than θC, the incident
ray OC always gets reflected back into the medium in which it is incident
on the boundary.

For Snell’s Law

1 1 2 2
For total internal reflection 1 2 900
1 2 900
⇒ ( )

9. Propagation Mechanism

(i) The cladding in an optical fiber always has a lower refractive index than that
of the core. The light signal which enters into the core can strike the interface
of the core and cladding only at large angles of incidence because of ray
geometry. The light signal undergoes reflection, after reflection within the
fiber core since each reflection is a total internal reflection, the signal
sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the core during
propagation.
(ii) Thus the optical fibers function as a wave guide. The propagation of light
continues as long as fiber is not bent too sharply. Since for sharp bends, the
light fails to undergo total internal reflection because of which the signal
strength comes down drastically.

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10. Angle of Acceptance, Numerical Aperture and Condition for Ray Propagation

(i) Consider the special case of ray AO, entering into the core at an angle 0 to
the fiber axis. Let it be refracting along OB at an angle 1 in the core and
further proceed to fall at critical angle of incidence 90 1 at B on
the interface between core and cladding and the ray is refracted at 900 i.e. it
graces along BC.

[ 0 1 ⇒ 90 1 ]

(ii) If the angle of incidence ray is less than 0 have angle of refraction less than
1 , because of which angle of incidence 90 1 at the interface will
become greater than the critical angle of incidence and thus undergoes total
internal reflections.
[ 0 1 ⇒ 90 1 ]

(iii) If the angle of incidence ray is greater than 0 have angle of refraction
greater than 1 , because of which angle of incidence 90 1 at the
interface will become less than the critical angle of incidence and thus the ray
is refracted into cladding region.
[ 0 1 ⇒ 90 1 ]

(iv) Now if OA is rotated around the fiber axis keeping 0 same, then it describes
a conical surface. The angle 0 is called the wave guide acceptance angle or
acceptance cone half angle and 0 is called Numerical Aperture (It
represents light gathering capability of the optical fiber).

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Condition for propagation

Let 0 1 2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core medium and
cladding medium respectively.
From Snell’s Law ( 0 1 ),
0 0 1 1
1
0 1
0
[ 2 1/2
0 1] (1)
0
From Snell’s Law ( 1 2 ),
1 90 1 2 900
2
1
1
Substitute Equ. (2) in Equ. (1),
2 1/2
1 2
0 * ( ) +
0 1
2 2 1/2
1 2
0 * 2
( 2
)+
0 1
2 2 1/2
1 2
0 * 2 2
+
0 0

√ 2 2
1 2

0
If the medium surrounding the fiber is air then 0 ,
√
The total internal reflection occurs only when 0 0

This is the condition for ray propagation.

Note : (i) Fractional Index Change (Δ)
It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and
cladding to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber.

(ii) Relation between NA and Δ

1 2
⇒ 1 1 2
1

0 √ 1
2
2
2 √ 1 2 1 2 √ 1 1 2
1 2 ⇒ 1 2 1
√ 1 1 √

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11. Modes of Propagation and Types of Optical Fibers

Depending on the refractive index profile and the number of modes that the fiber can
guide, the optical fiber is classified into three categories.
(a) Single Mode Fiber
 A single mode fiber has a core
diameter of 8 to 10μm and cladding
has 60 to 70μm. Refractive index of
core and cladding are uniform and
n1>n2.
 The curve which represents the
variation of refractive index with
respect to radial distance from the
fiber axis is called refractive index
profile. There is an increase in value of
refractive index from cladding to core.
Thus, its R. I. profile takes a shape of a
(b) step.
(c)  Single mode fiber is characterized by
its narrow core size. This is done to
ensure that, only one mode can
propagate.

 They need laser as the source of light through less expensive and it is very
difficult to splice.
 Application: Used in Submarine cable system
(b) Step Index Multimode Fiber
 The step index multimode fiber has a
core diameter of 50 to 200μm and
cladding has 100 to 250μm. Refractive
index of core and cladding are uniform
and n1>n2.
 The refractive index profile is similar
to single mode fiber but with large
plane region of core. Thus, its R. I.
profile takes a shape of a step.
 The core has larger diameter by the
virtue of which it will be able to
support propagation of large number
of modes.
 They need laser or LED as light source
 Application: Data Links

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(c) Graded Index Multimode Fiber (GRIN)

 The graded index fiber has same
dimension as that of step index
multimode fiber (The core diameter of
50 to 200μm and cladding has 100 to
250μm). Its core material has a special
feature that its refractive index value
decreases in the radially outward
direction from the axis becomes equal
to that of the cladding at the interface.
But the refractive index of the
cladding remains uniform.
 This is achieved by using a various
level of dopant across the core
diameter and R. I. profile is not linear.
They follow a parabolic index profile.
 Light travel down the center of the
fiber experience a higher refractive
index than light that travels further out
towards the cladding 𝑖 𝑒 𝑣 𝛼 /𝑛 .
 Thus, the light on physically shorter paths travels more slowly than light on
physically longer path. Hence light follows curved trajectory.
 They need laser or LED as light source
 Application: Telephone trunk between central offices

12. Normalization Frequency Parameter (V-Parameter)

The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter
called V-number.

√ 1
2
2
2

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13. Attenuation: Causes of Attenuation

 The loss of light intensity as it travels in an optical fiber is called attenuation.
 Expression for attenuation coefficient (α),
0
10 [ ] /
 Attenuation is due to,
(i) Absorption losses
(ii) Scattering losses
(iii) Radiation losses
(a) Absorption losses
The photons are absorbed by (i) Impurities in silica glass of which the fiber is made
and (ii) Intrinsic absorption by the glass material itself.
(i) Absorption by impurities
 The types of impurities that are generally present in fiber glass are the
transition metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper.
 During the signal propagation, the electrons (impurities) absorb the
photons and get excited to higher energy level. Later these electrons give
up their absorbed energy as heat or light energy. This energy is no use
since it will usually be in a different wavelength or phase. Hence it is
loss.
 The impurities such as Si-O, etc. which removes energy from the
propagation beam.
(ii) Intrinsic Absorption
 The fiber itself as a material has a tendency to absorb light energy.

(b) Scattering losses

(i) Rayleigh Scattering
 During signal propagation in an optical fiber, the photon may be scattered
because of sharp changes in refractive index values (structural in-
homogeneity) inside the glass over distances that are small compared to
wavelength of light. This type of scattering is called same as Rayleigh
scattering.
 Rayleigh scattering occurs whenever a light waves travels through a
medium having scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than a
wavelength. Thus becomes loss.
4
 The Rayleigh scattering has a characterized by , it increases
enormously with decreasing wavelength.
(ii) Mie scattering
 The scattering losses also takes place due to defects in the fibers
(crystalized region and trapped gas bubbles).

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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

(c) Radiation losses

(i) Macroscopic bends

 They are bends with radii much larger compared to the fiber diameter.
These bends occurs while wrapping the fiber or turning it around a corner
(No TIR).
 When the fiber is bent too much, the light escapes but the reflections only
works if the angle of incidence is relatively low .
 The amount of allowable bending is specified to particular cables. The
bigger the difference is refractive index between core and cladding,
tighter the allowable bend radius.

(ii) Microscopic bends

 They occur due to non-uniformity in the manufacturing of the fiber or by

non-uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber and
the microbends cause irregular reflections.

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14. Application of Optical Fibers in Point to Point Communication System

 The point to point communication system has analog information (Voice of

telephone user) give rise to electrical signals in analog form coming out of the
transmitter section of the telephone.

 With the help of electronic system called coder, the analog signal is converted to
binary data. The binary data comes out as a stream of electrical pulses from the
coder.

 These electrical pulses are converted into pulses of optical power. This unit is
called an optical transmitter (optical sources – LED or LASER diode) from which
the optical power is fed into the fiber.

 The propagation of ray by means of total internal reflections takes place in a fiber.
As it propagates, the signal is subjected to two types of degradation-attenuation
and delay distortion.

 Optical repeater consists of a receiver and a transmitter arranged adjacently. The

receiver section converts the optical signal into electrical signal. This takes place
when the optical signal is fed into a photodetector.

 The pulses of the electrical current from photodetector is then fed to decoder
which converts binary electrical signal into an analog signal which will be same
information such as voice which was there at the transmitting end.

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15. Numerical Problems on Optical Fibers

 Formulas at a glance

 ( )
√

 and
 √
 √
 * +

01 Calculate the numerical aperture, angle of acceptance and fractional index change for an optical
fiber having refractive indices 1.563 and 1.498 for the core and cladding respectively.
Sol :
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 √ 2 9 2 𝟎 𝟒𝟒𝟔
𝑛1
𝑛2 9 𝜃0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1
𝑁𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1
0 𝟐𝟔 𝟓𝟎
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 ?
𝑛1 𝑛2 9
𝜃0 ? 𝟎 𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟔
𝛥 ? 𝑛1

02 An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.2 and a cladding refractive index of 1.59.
Determine the acceptance angle for the fiber in water which has a refractive index of 1.33. Find
refractive index of core
1
Sol : 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 0 ⇒ 𝜃0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0 𝟏𝟏 𝟓𝟒𝟎
𝑛2 9
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 0 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 ⇒ 𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
𝑛0 𝑛0
𝑛1 ?
𝜃0 ? ⇒ 𝑛1 [𝑛0 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃0 𝑛2 2 ]1/2 [ 2
𝑋 0 2
9 2 ]1/2 =1.612
𝜽𝟎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 𝑁𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 0 𝟐𝟔 𝟓𝟎
03 A glass clad fiber is made with core glass refractive index 1.50 and cladding is doped to give a
𝑛1 of
fractional index difference 𝑛20.0005. Determine
9 (a) the cladding index, (b) the critical internal
𝟎 𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟔
𝑛
reflection angle, (c) the external critical acceptance angle and (d) the NA.
Sol : 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
⇒ 𝑛2 𝑛1 0 000 𝑋 0 𝟏 𝟒𝟗𝟗
𝑛1 0 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛1
0 000
𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 √ 0 2 99 2 𝟎 𝟎𝟓𝟒
𝑛2 ? 𝜃0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 𝑁𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 0 0 𝟑 𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝜃𝐶 ?
𝜃0 ? 𝑛2 99
𝜃𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 ( ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 ( ) 𝟖𝟕 𝟗𝟏𝟎
NA=? 𝑛1 0

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 MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

04 An optical fiber of refractive index 1.45 is to be clad with another glass to ensure internal
reflections that will contain light travelling within 50 of the fiber axis. What maximum index of
refraction is allowed for the cladding.
Sol : Max. refractive index for the cladding (From Snell’s Law)
𝑛1
𝜃𝐶 90 𝜃1 𝒏𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝑪 𝟏 𝟒𝟓 𝑿 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟖𝟓
0 𝒏𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝑪 ≤ 𝒏𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟐 ⇒ 𝒏𝟐 ≥
𝜃𝐶 90 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎
𝑛2 ?
𝜃2 900 𝒏𝟐 ≥ 𝟏 𝟒𝟒𝟓
05 The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300 when kept in air. What will be the angle of
acceptance when the same is kept in a medium of R.I. 1.33.
Sol : 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑺𝒏𝒆𝒍𝒍′ 𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘
𝑛0
𝜃0 00 1
𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 𝑋 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0
𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 ⇒ 𝜃1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 [ ] 𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝑛1 𝑛1
𝜃1 ?
06 The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when surrounded by air. Determine the
refractive index of its core (ncladding = 1.59). Also find the acceptance angle when the fiber is kept
in water.
√𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
Sol : 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑁𝐴 ⇒ 𝑛0 𝑁𝐴 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
𝑛0
NA=0.2
𝑛0 ⇒ 𝑛1 [𝑛0 2 𝑁𝐴2 𝑛2 2 ]1/2 [ 2 𝑋 0 2 9 2 ]1/2 =1.602
𝑛2 9
𝑛1 ? √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 √ 2 9 2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟒
𝜃0 ? 𝑛0
𝑛0 𝜃 0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 0 0 0 𝟖 𝟔𝟓𝟎
07 Calculate the number of modes that can be propagated inside an optical fiber. Given; n core =
1.53, nclad = 1.50, core radius = 50µm and wavelength of radiation = 1µm.
Sol :
𝜋𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜋 𝑋 100 𝑋 10 6
𝑛1 𝑉 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 √ 2 0 2 𝟗𝟒 𝟕𝟐
𝜆 1 𝑋 10 6
𝑛2 0
𝑟 0𝜇𝑚 𝑉2 9 2
d=100μm 𝑉 𝑡 𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟔
λ=1 μm, n=?

08 Consider a slab waveguide made of AlGaAs having RI for core is 3.6 and cladding is 3.55. Find
how many modes can propagate in this waveguide. If d=5λ.
Sol : 𝜋𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑛1 𝑉 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 𝜋𝑋 𝑋√ 2 2 𝟗 𝟑𝟗
𝜆
𝑛2
d=5λ, n=? 𝑉2 9 9 2
𝑉 𝑡 𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝟒𝟒

Dr. Divakara S, Prof. & HOD, Dept. of PHY, VVCE, MYSURU ([email protected]) Page 29
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 MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

09 A single mode step index optical fiber used in communication has a n core = 1.45, refractive index
change of 5 x 10-3, dcore of 6µm and wavelength is 1.2µm. Find the V-parameter for the cable.
Sol :
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
⇒ 𝑛2 𝑛1 0 00 𝑋 𝟏 𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟕𝟓
𝛥 𝑋 0 3 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛1
𝑑 𝜇𝑚 𝜋𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜋𝑋 𝑋 0 6
λ=1.2μm, V=? 𝑉 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 𝑋√ 𝟐 𝟐𝟕𝟒
𝜆 𝑋 0 6

10 A step index multimode fiber of diameter 100µm operates at a wavelength of 135nm. If the
number of modes supported by the fiber is 1623 then calculate the ncore (nclad=1.49).
Sol : 2
𝜋𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑛1 ? 𝑉 2 [ √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 ] 𝜋 2 𝑑2 𝑛𝜆2
𝜆
𝑛2 9 𝑛 ⇒𝑛 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 ⇒ 𝑛 𝑛2 2
𝜆2 𝜋 𝑑
𝑛
𝑑 00𝜇𝑚 𝑋 𝑋𝜋 𝑋 𝑋 0 9
λ=135nm, V=? 𝑛1 [ ] 9 90
𝜋 𝑋 00 𝑋 0

11 A graded index fiber allows 1000 modes to propagate. If the refractive index of core and
cladding are 1.51 and 1.49 respectively, then what is the ratio of the diameter of core to the
wavelength.
2
Sol : 𝜋𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑉 2 [ √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 ] 𝜋 2 𝑑2
n=1000 𝜆
𝑛 ⇒𝑛 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
𝑛1 𝜆2
𝑛2 9 / /
𝑑 𝑑 𝑛 𝑋 000
? ⇒ * ( )+ * ( )+ 𝟓𝟖 𝟏𝟒
𝜆 𝜆 𝜋 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 𝜋 2 92

12 Find the attenuation in an𝑋 optical 0 9length 500m, when the light signal of power 100mW
𝑋 𝜋 𝑋fiber𝑋 of
𝑛1 [ ] 9 90
emerges out of the fiber with𝜋90mW.
𝑋 00 𝑋 0

Sol :
L=0.5Km 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 90
𝑃𝑖𝑛 00𝑚𝑊 𝜶 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝟎 𝟗𝟏𝟓 𝒅𝑩/𝑲𝒎
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 0 00
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 90𝑚𝑊
𝛼 ?
13 An optical fiber lost 85% of its power after traversing 500m in an optical fiber. Calculate the
attenuation coefficient of the fiber.
Sol :
L=0.5Km 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0
𝜶 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝟏𝟔 𝟒𝟖 𝒅𝑩/𝑲𝒎
𝑃𝑖𝑛 00% 𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 0 00
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 %
𝛼 ?

Dr. Divakara S, Prof. & HOD, Dept. of PHY, VVCE, MYSURU ([email protected]) Page 30
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 MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

14 Given a fused silica glass with an attenuation of 0.2dB/Km. How for can a signal travel along it
before the power level drops by half.
Sol : 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜶 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ]⇒𝐿 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ]
𝛼 0 𝑑𝐵/𝐾𝑚 𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝜶 𝑃𝑖𝑛
L=?
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0
/ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝟏𝟓 𝟎𝟓 𝑲𝒎
𝑃𝑖𝑛 0

15 Calculate the input power of an optical fiber with an attenuation coefficient of 0.01dB/Km. if the
output power has to be 100mW.
Sol : 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜶𝑳 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜶𝑳
𝛼 0 0 𝑑𝐵/𝐾𝑚 𝜶 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] ⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] ⇒ 0 10
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛 0 𝑃𝑖𝑛
L=1Km
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 00𝑚𝑊 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 00 𝑋 0 3

𝑃𝑖𝑛 ? ⇒ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝜶𝑳 0 01 𝑋 1 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟑𝒎𝑾

0 10 0 10

16 The attenuation of an optical fiber is 3.6dB/Km. What is the fraction of light intensity that
remains after 1km.
Sol : 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜶𝑳 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜶𝑳
𝛼 𝑑𝐵/𝐾𝑚 𝜶 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] ⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] ⇒ 0 10
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛 0 𝑃𝑖𝑛
L=1Km
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝟑𝟔𝑿𝟏
?
𝑃𝑖𝑛 0 10 𝟎 𝟒𝟑𝟔 𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝟑 𝟔%
𝑃𝑖𝑛

17 An optical fiber of length 2km has an attenuation coefficient of 2dB/km. How many such fibers
need to be connected end to end so that the output intensity is 1% of input intensity.
Sol :
𝛼 𝑑𝐵/𝐾𝑚
L=2Km 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0
𝛼 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ]⇒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [0 0 ] 𝟓
n=? 𝑛𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑋
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
00
𝑃𝑖𝑛

18 If the sum of the refractive indices of core and cladding is 3.015 and their difference is 0.015.
What is the angle of acceptance of the fiber if it is kept in air. Also calculate the numerical
aperture if the fiber is immersed in alcohol of refractive index = 1.361.
Sol : √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 1
√𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 1
√ 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 ⇒ 𝜃0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 [ ] 𝑆𝑖𝑛 [ ]
𝑛1 𝑛2 0 𝑛0 𝑛0 𝑛0
𝑛1 𝑛2 0 0
𝑛0 1 √ 0 𝑋0 0
𝑆𝑖𝑛 * + 𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝜃0 ?
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 ?
√𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 √ 0 𝑋0 0
𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍
𝑛0
⇒ 𝑛1 [𝑛0 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃0 𝑛2 2 ]1/2 [ 2
𝑋 0 2
9 2 ]1/2
Dr. Divakara S, Prof. & HOD, Dept. of PHY, VVCE, MYSURU ([email protected]) Page 31
([email protected]) 𝜽 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 𝑁𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1 0 𝟐𝟔 𝟓𝟎
 MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

19 A signal with input power 200mW loses 10% of its power after travelling 3km. Find the
attenuation coefficient of the fiber.
Sol :
L=3Km
0 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 0
𝑃𝑖𝑛 00𝑚𝑊 𝜶 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ] 𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟓 𝒅𝑩/𝑲𝒎
90 𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 00
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 00 𝑋
00
0𝑚𝑊
𝛼 ?
20 An optical fiber has core refractive index 1.5 and refractive index of cladding is 3% less than the
core index. Calculate the numerical aperture, angle of acceptance and internal critical
acceptance angle.
Sol : 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 √ 0 2 2 𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟓
𝑛1
1 1
𝑛2 % 𝑜𝑓 𝜃0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0 𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝟏𝟎

1
𝑛2 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 ? 𝜃𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝟕𝟓 𝟗𝟑𝟎
𝑛1 0
𝜃0 ?
𝜃𝐶 ?
21 Calculate the Numerical Aperture, V-number and number of modes in an optical fiber of core
diameter 50μm, refractive indices are 1.41 and 1.40 respectively for core and cladding at a
wavelength of 820nm.
Sol : 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 √ 2 0 2 𝟎 𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟔
𝑛1 𝜋𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜋 𝑋 50 𝑋 10 6
𝑛2 0 𝑉 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 𝑋√ 2 0 2 𝟑𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟓
𝜆 820 𝑋 10 9
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 ?
𝑉 ?𝑛 ? 𝑉2 0 2
𝑉 𝑡 𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝟓𝟏𝟓
𝜆 0𝑛𝑚
d=50μm
}}}
22 Calculate the V-number for a fiber of core diameter 40μm and the refractive indices of 1.55 and
1.50 respectivelyfor core and cladding. When the wavelength of the propagating wave is 1400nm.
Also calculate the number of modes that the fiber can support for propagation. Assume that
fiber is in air.
Sol : 𝜋𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜋 𝑋 40 𝑋 10 6
𝑛1 𝑉 √𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2 𝑋√ 2 0 2 𝟑𝟓 𝟎𝟑
𝜆 1400 𝑋 10 9
𝑛2 0
𝑑𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 0μm 𝑉2 0 2
𝑉 𝑡 𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝟔𝟏𝟒
𝑉 ?𝑛 ?
𝜆 00𝑛𝑚
𝑛0

Dr. Divakara S, Prof. & HOD, Dept. of PHY, VVCE, MYSURU ([email protected]) Page 32
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MODULE - 3 Physics of Photonic Devices

16. Question Bank

Module 1: Physics of Photonic Devices

Q. No. Question Bank

Derive an expression for energy density of radiation under thermal equilibrium condition in
01
terms of Einstein coefficients.
02 Explain the condition for laser action.
03 Explain the requisites of a laser system.
Explain the construction and working of semiconductor Laser with the help of suitable
04
diagrams.
05 Write a note on Laser Printer.
06 Write a note on Bar code scanner.
07 Numerical Problem on Lasers

08 Explain the principle in an optical fiber (propagation mechanism & Total internal reflection).
09 Explain the propagation mechanism in an optical fiber.
With a neat diagram derive an expression for numerical aperture in an optical fiber and also
10
mention the condition for ray propagation.
11 Explain the different types of optical fibers with the help of suitable diagrams.
12 Explain the normalization frequency parameter.
Write a note on attenuation and also mention the factors contributing to the fiber loss or
13
attenuation.
Explain point to point communication system in an optical fiber with the help of neat
14
diagram.
15 Numerical Problems on Optical Fibers

Dr. Divakara S, Prof. & HOD, Dept. of PHY, VVCE, MYSURU ([email protected]) Page 33
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