LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY

• Microorganisms that cause disease or damage to the tissues of the body Lymphatic capillaries:
are considered pathogens. • tiny, closed-ended vessels of simple squamous epithelium
• In addition, foreign substances, such as toxins, may harm the body as • more permeable than blood capillaries because of lack of basement membrane
well. • fluid moves easily into capillaries
• The body has ways to resist or destroy these threats. • present in most tissues except the CNS, bone marrow,and tissues lacking blood
vessels like epidermis and cartilage.
FUNCTION OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM • join to form lymphatic vessels
1. Fluid Balance - about 30 liters of fluid pass from the blood capillaries • Overlapping squamous cells acts as valves that prevent back flow of fluids.
into the interstitial spaces each day, where only 27L pass back into the • Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to circulatory system
blood capillaries. • Fluid moves from blood capillaries into tissue spaces
EDEMA - will cause tissue damage and death because of the extra 3 L of Lymphatic vessels
interstitial fluid remained in the spaces. • join to form large lymphatic vessels and resemble small veins
LYMPH - the extra 3L of fluid that enters the lymphatic capillaries where it • small lv have beaded appearance
passes through lymphatic vessels and return to blood. • where lymphatic capillaries join
• One-way valves
2. Lipid Absorption - lymphatic system absorbs lipids and other substances
from the digestive tract through lymphatic vessels called lacteals located in Right lymphatic duct:
the lining of small intestines. • where lymphatic vessels from right upper limb and right head, neck, chest empty
CHYLE - lipid content that causes the lymph passing through lymphatic vessels • empties into right subclavian vein
to appear white.
Thoracic duct:
3. Defense - Pathogens, such as microorganisms and other foreign substances, • collects lymph from the from remaining lymphatic vessels which do not enter the
are filtered from lymph by lymph nodes and from blood by the spleen. right lymphatic duct.
• In addition, lymphocytes and other cells are capable of destroying • empties into left subclavian vein
pathogens. Because the lymphatic system is involved with fighting
infections, as well as filtering blood and lymph to remove pathogens, Lymphatic Organs
many infectious diseases produce symptoms associated with the
lymphatic system. Lymphatic Tissue
• houses many lymphocytes and other defense cells like macrophages.
Components of the Lymphatic System • Found within lymphatic organs as well as other organs
• Lymph - fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water and • Has very fine reticular fibers
some solutes
• Lymphocytes Lymphocytes
• Lymphatic vessels • originate from red bone marrow and are carried by blood to lymphatic organs.
• Lymph nodes • Divide and increase increase when the body is exposed to pathogens
• Tonsils
• Spleen Tonsils:
• Thymus gland • palatine tonsils on each side of oral cavity (the tonsils)
• pharyngeal tonsils near internal opening of nasal cavity (adenoid - when enlarged)
The lymphatic system, unlike the circulatory system does not circulate fluid to • lingual tonsils posterior surface of tongue
and from tissues. Instead, it carries fluid in one direction, from tissues to the • form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue around nasal and oral cavities and
circulatory system. pharynx
• protect against pathogens and harmful materials entering from the nose and
Lymphatic Capillaries mouth
• Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to circulatory system • Palatine (tonsillectomy) and pharyngeal tonsils(adenoidectomy) becomes
• Fluid moves from blood capillaries into tissue spaces infected and need to be removed
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Lymph Nodes Overview of lymphatic system

• rounded structures that vary in size • lymphatic capillaries remove fluid from tissues. The fluid becomes the
• located near lymphatic vessels lymph.
• superficial: groin (inguinal nodes), armpit ( axillary nodes), neck (cervical • Lymph flows through lymphatic vessels that has valves to prevent back
nodes) flow
• lymph passes through lymph nodes before entering blood • Lymph nodes filter lymph
• Lymph moves through and immune system • Lymph enters the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct
• activated (lymphocytes produced) if foreign substances are detected • Lymph enters the blood
• Removes microbes by macrophages • Lacteals in the small intestine absorbs lipids which enter that thoracic
Capsule - a dense connective tissue that surrounds each lymph nodes duct
Trabeculae - extension of the capsule, subdivide lymph nodes • Chyle, lymph containing vessels enters the blood.
Lymphatic Nodules - lymphatic tissues consisting lymphocytes and other cells • Spleen filters blood and a site where lymphocytes respond to infection
- area of tissue within lymph nodes and other organs
Lymphatic sinuses - spaces between the lymphatic tissue that contain macrophages Immunity
Immunity is the ability to resist damage from foreign substances.
Lymph lymph nodes through afferent vessels lymphatic tissue and sinuses Immunity can protect against microbes, toxins, and cancer cells.
exits through efferent vessels Types of immunity:
• innate (nonspecific resistance) - the body recognizes and destroys certain
As lymph moves through lymph nodes, Two functions are performed: pathogens but has the same response each time it’s exposed
1. Activate the immune system - present at birth
2. Remove pathogens from lymph through action of macrophages - defense against any pathogen
- accomplished by physical barriers, chemical mediators, cells,
The Spleen inflammatory response
• size of clenched fist • adaptive (specific immunity) - the body recognizes and destroy pathogens
• located in left superior corner of the abdomen but the response improves each time it is encountered
• filters blood Specificity - recognize a particular substance
• detects and responds to foreign substances Memory - remember previous encounters with particular substances
• destroys old red blood cells
• serves as a blood reservoir Physical Barriers
• prevent pathogens and chemicals from entering the body in 2 ways:
white pulp: lymphatic tissue surrounding arteries 1. Skin and mucous membranes form and act as barriers
red pulp: contains macrophages and red blood cells that connect to veins 2. Tears, urine, saliva wash away substances from body surfaces
Phagocytosis - macrophages in red pulp remove foreign substances and worn out rbc • First line of defense
Splenectomy - removal of spleen
Chemical Mediators 1
The Thymus Gland • Chemical mediators are chemicals that can kill microbes and prevent
• bilobed gland triangular in shape their entry into cells
• Located in superior mediastinum behind the sternum • Lysozyme: found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria
• stops growing at age 1 • Mucous membranes: prevent entry of microbes
• at age 60 decreases in size • Histamine: promote inflammation by causing vasodilation
• produces and matures lymphocytes • Interferons: proteins that protect against viral infections by stimulating
• Site of maturation of Tcells surrounding cells to produce antiviral proteins
Capsule- thin connective tissue that surrounds each lobe of the thymus
Trabeculae - divide each lobe into lobules Complement - group of more than 20 proteins found in plasma
Cortex -dark staining areas formed by numerous lymphocytes Interferons- proteins that protect the body against viral infections,
Medulla - lighter staining, central portion, fewer lymphocytes
Cells of the Immune System Lymphocytes
• White blood cells: produced in red bone marrow and lymphatic tissues fight Lymphocytes are:
foreign substances • type of white blood cell
• Phagocytic cells: ingest and destroy foreign substances • involved in adaptive immunity
Example—neutrophils and macrophages • develop from stem cells
• Neutrophils: first to respond to infection but die quickly • differentiate into specific lymphocytes such as B or T cells
• Eosinophils: produced in red bone marrow, B cells:
- release chemicals to reduce inflammation • type of lymphocytes
• Basophils: made in red bone marrow • involved in antibody-mediated immunity
- leave blood and enter infected tissues • originate from stem cells
- can release histamine • mature in red bone marrow
• Macrophages: initially were monocytes • move to lymphatic tissue after mature
- leave blood and enter tissues • lead to production of antibodies
- can ingest more than neutrophils T cells:
- protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in spleen and liver • type of lymphocyte
- given specific names for certain areas of body (Kupffer cells in liver) • involved primarily in cell-mediated immunity but also participate in antibody-mediated
• Mast cells: made in red bone marrow immunity
- found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract • mature in thymus gland
- can release leukotrienes • move to lymphatic tissue after mature
• Natural Killer Cells: type of lymphocyte • 4 types
- produce in red bone marrow
- recognize classes of cells such as tumor cells or virus infected cells Antigen Recognition
- release chemicals which lyse cells • Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on their surface
• Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-cell receptors on T cells
Inflammatory Response • Each receptor only binds with a specific antigen
• involves chemicals and cells produced due to injury • When antigen receptors combine with the antigen, the lymphocyte is activated and adaptive
• signaled by presence of foreign substance immunity begins
• stimulates release of chemical mediators
The MHC Molecule
Adaptive Immunity The major histocompatibility complex molecule (MHC):
Adaptive immunity is defense that involves specific recognition to a specific antigen. • contain binding sites for antigens
This immunity: • specific for certain antigens
• is acquired after birth • hold and present a processed antigen on the surface of the cell membrane
• reacts when innate defenses don’t work • bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells and stimulate response
• slower than innate immunity
• has memory Cytokines
• uses lymphocytes (B and T cells) Cytokines are:
• 2 types antibody-mediated and cell-mediated • proteins secreted by a cell that regulates neighboring cells
• Example—interleukin 1 released by macrophages stimulates helper T cells
Terms Related to Adaptive Immunity
Antigen: substance that stimulates an immune response Lymphocyte Proliferation
• Example—bacteria, virus, pollen, food, drugs 1. After antigen is processed and presented to helper T cells, helper T cells produce
Self-antigen: molecule produced by the person’s body that stimulates an immune interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors
system response 2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and stimulates more helper T cell production
Antibody: proteins the body produces in response to an antigen 3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B cells
4. B cells produce antibodies
Origin and Development of Lymphocytes
Stem cells: Live in red bone marrow Dual Nature of the Immune System
• give rise to all blood cells • Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of immune responses: antibody-mediated and cell-
• give rise to some pre-T cells and pre-B cells mediated
• Antigens can trigger both types of responses
• Both types are able to recognize self versus non-self, use specificity, and have memory
Antibody-Mediated Immunity Effects of Antibodies 1
Antibody-mediated immunity is: • Inactivate antigen
• effective against antigens in body fluids (blood and lymph) • Bind antigens together
• effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins • Active complement cascades
• uses B cells to produce antibodies • Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals
• Facilitate phagocytosis
Antibody Structure
Letter Y shape Antibody Production 1
Variable region: The primary response
• V of Y • 1st exposure of B cell to antigen
• bind to epitopes of antigen using antigen-binding site • B cell undergoes division and forms plasma cell and memory cells
Constant region: Plasma cells:
• stem of Y • produce antibodies
• each class of immunoglobulin has same structure • 3 to 14 days to produce enough antibody to be effective against antigen
• meanwhile person develops disease symptoms
• Antigen-binding site:
site on antibody where antigen binds The secondary response involves Memory cells:
• Valence: • occurs when immune system is exposed to antigen that has been seen before
number of antigen-binding sites on antibody • Memory B cells quickly divided to form plasma cells which produce antibodies
• 5 classes of immunoglobulins used to destroy antigens: • produces new memory cells
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD
Cell-Mediated Immunity
IgG • Cell-mediated immunity is used against antigens in cells and tissues.
• 80 to 85% in serum • It is effective against intracellular bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
• activates compliment and increases phagocytosis • It uses different types of T cells.
• can cross the placenta and provide protection to the fetus
• responsible for Rh reactions, such as hemolytic disease of the newborn Types of T Cells for Cell-Mediated Immunity 1
Helper T cells (TH):
IgM • activate macrophages
• 5 to 10% in serum • help form B cells
• activates compliment • promote production of Tc
• acts as an antigen binding receptor on the surface of B cells Cytotoxic T cells (Tc): precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
• responsible for transfusion reactions in the ABO blood system Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL): destroys antigen on contact
• often the first antibody produced in response to an antigen Regulatory T cells (Tr): turn off immune system response when antigen is gone

IgA Types of Adaptive Immunity

• 15% in serum Naturally Acquired Immunity
• secreted into saliva, into tears, and onto mucous membranes Active:
• protects body surfaces • natural exposure to antigens causes production of antibodies
• found in colostrum and milk to provide immune protection to the newborn • can be lifelong immunity
• Example—mononucleosis
IgE Passive:
• 0.002% in serum • transfer of antibodies from mother to child
• binds to mast cells and basophils and stimulates the inflammatory response • Example—breast milk or placenta

IgD Artificially Acquired Immunity

• 0.2% in serum Active:
• functions as an antigen-binding receptor on B cells • injection of antigens using vaccines which cause the production of antibodies
• immunization is a process of introducing killed, live, or inactivated pathogen
Passive:
• injection of antibodies from another person or animal