Chapter 1.

Motion, Forces & Energy

1.1 Physical Quantities & Measurement Techniques

1.2 Motion

1.3 Mass, Weight & Density

1.4 Effects of Forces

1.5 Moments

1.6 Momentum

1.7 Energy, Work & Power

1.8 Energy Sources

1.9 Pressure

1.1.1 Measurement

Measuring Length & Volume

 Rulers can be used to measure small distances of a few centimetres (cm).

o They are able to measure to the nearest millimetre (mm)

A ruler can measure small distances to the nearest mm

 When measuring larger distances (of a few metres) a tape measure is more appropriate or,
when measuring even larger distances, a trundle
wheel

Trundle wheels can be used to measure large distances

 Measuring cylinders can be used to measure the volume of liquids

o By measuring the change in volume, a measuring cylinder can also be used to find the
volume of an irregular shape

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Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the volume of a liquid or an irregular shaped solid

Worked Example
The diagram shows four identical ball-bearings
placed between two blocks on a steel ruler.

Calculate the diameter of one ball-bearing.

Step 1: Measure the length of all four ball-

bearings

o The blocks mark the edges of the

first and last ball bearings
o The blocks make it easier to measure the length of all four ball-bearings

Total length = 12 cm − 4 cm = 8 cm

Step 2: Divide the total length by the number of ball-bearings

Diameter = total length ÷ number of ball-bearings

Diameter = 8 ÷ 4

Diameter = 2 cm

Measuring Time

 Stop-clocks and stopwatches can be used to measure time intervals

 An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time. This can have a
significant impact upon measurements when the measurements involved are very short (less
than a second)

Worked Example
A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken for
a runner to complete a lap of a 400 m track.

The images below give the readings on the

stopwatch at the start and the end of the lap.

Calculate how long it took the runner to complete

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the lap. Give your answer in seconds.

Step 1: Identify the start time for the lap


o The stopwatch was already at 0:55:10 when the runner started the lap
o Start time = 55.10 seconds (s)

Step 2: Identify the finish time for the lap


o The stopwatch reads 1:45:10 at the end of the lap
o Finish time = 1 minute and 45.10 s

Step 3: Convert the finish time into seconds

1 minute = 60 seconds

Finish time = 60 s + 45.10 s

Finish time = 105.10 s

Step 4: Calculate the time taken to complete the lap

The time taken to complete the lap = finish time − start time

Time taken to complete lap = 105.10 s − 55.10 s

Time taken to complete lap = 50 s

Exam Tip
You will sometimes find that information is given in the question that is not actually needed in the
calculation.

In this worked example, you were told that the track the runner is running on is 400 m. This had nothing
to do with the calculation the question asked you to perform.

This is a common method for making a question seem more difficult. Don't let it catch you out!

Multiple Readings

 Suppose you have to measure the

thickness of a sheet of paper
o The thing that you are trying
to measure is so small that
it would be very difficult to
get an accurate answer
 If, however, you measure the
thickness of 100 sheets of paper
you can do so much more
accurately
o Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate figure for the thickness of one
sheet

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  This process of taking a reading of a large number of values and then dividing by the number, is
a good way of getting accurate values for small figures, including (for example) the time period of
a pendulum
o Measure the time taken for 10 swings and then divide that time by 10 to find the average

1.1.2 Scalars & Vectors

Scalar & Vector Quantities

EXTENDED

 All quantities can be one of two types:

o A scalar
o A vector

Scalars

 Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude

o For example, mass is a scalar since it is a quantity that has magnitude without a direction
o Distance is also a scalar since it only contains a magnitude, not a direction

Vectors

 Vectors have both magnitude and direction

 Velocity, for instance, is a vector since it is described with both a magnitude and a direction
o When describing the velocity of a car it is necessary to mention both its speed and
the direction in which it is travelling
o For example, the velocity might be 60 km per hour (magnitude) due west (direction)
 Distance is a value describing only how long an object is or how far it is between two points - this
means it is a scalar quantity
 Displacement on the other hand also describes the direction in which the distance is measured
- this means it is a vector quantity
o For example, a displacement might be 100 km
north

Examples of Scalars & Vectors

EXTENDED

 The table lists some common examples of scalar and

vector quantities:

Scalars & Vectors Table

 Some vectors and scalars are similar to each other

o For example, the scalar
quantity distance corresponds to the vector
quantity displacement
 Corresponding vectors and their scalar counterparts
are aligned in the table where applicable

Using Scalars & Vectors

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EXTENDED

 The worked example below illustrates how to determine whether a quantity is a scalar or a vector

Worked Example

Blu is in charge of training junior astronauts. For one of his sessions, he would like to explain the
difference between mass and weight.

Suggest how Blu should explain the difference between mass and weight, using definitions of scalars
and vectors in your answer.

Step 1: Recall the definitions of a scalar and vector quantity


o Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude
o Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction

Step 2: Identify which quantity has magnitude only

o Mass is a quantity with magnitude only

o So mass is a scalar quantity
 Blu might explain to his junior astronauts that their mass will not change if they
travel to outer space

Step 3: Identify which quantity has magnitude and direction

o Weight is a quantity with magnitude and direction (it is a force)

o So weight is a vector quantity
 Blu might explain that to his junior astronauts that their weight - the force on them
due to gravity - will vary depending on their distance from the centre of the Earth

Exam Tip

Make sure you are comfortable with the differences between similar scalars and vectors, the most
commonly confused pairings tend to be:

 Distance and displacement

 Speed and velocity
 Weight and mass

1.1.3 Calculating with Vectors

Calculations with Vectors

EXTENDED

 Vectors are represented by an arrow

o The arrowhead indicates the direction of the
vector
o The length of the arrow represents
the magnitude

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 The two force vectors acting on the object have both a direction and a magnitude

 Component vectors are sometimes drawn with a dotted line and a subscript indicating horizontal
or vertical
o For example, Fv is the vertical component of the force F

Calculating Vectors Graphically

 Vectors at right angles to one another can be combined into one resultant vector

o The resultant vector will have the same effect as the two original ones

 To calculate vectors graphically means carefully producing a scale drawing with all lengths and
angles correct
o This should be done using a sharp pencil, ruler and protractor

 Follow these steps to carry out calculations with vectors on graphs

1.
1. Choose a scale which fits the page
 For example, use 1 cm = 10 m or 1 cm = 1 N, so that the diagram is around 10 cm
high
2. Draw the vectors at right angles to one another
3. Complete the rectangle
4. Draw the resultant vector diagonally from the origin
5. Carefully measure the length of the resultant vector
6. Use the scale factor to calculate
the magnitude
7. Use the protractor to measure the angle

Vectors can be measured or calculated graphically

if you are confident in using scales

Combining Vectors by Calculation

 In this method, a diagram is still essential but it

does not need to be exactly to scale
 The diagram can take the form of a sketch, as long as the resultant, component and sides are
clearly labelled

Resolving two force vectors F1 and F2 into a

resultant force vector FR

 Use Pythagoras' Theorem to find the resultant

vector

Pythagoras's Theorem makes calculating vectors at right

angles much simpler

 Use trigonometry to find the angle

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  The mnemonic 'soh-cah-toa' is used to remember how to apply sines and cosines to resolve the
sides of a triangle

Trigonometry and Pythagoras' Therom are essential in vector calculations

Worked Example

A hiker walks a distance of 6 km due east and 10 km due

north.

Calculate the magnitude of their displacement and its

direction from the horizontal.

Step 1: Draw a vector diagram

Step 2: Calculate the magnitude of the resultant vector

using Pythagoras' Theorem

Resultant vector = 11.66

Step 3: Calculate the direction of the resultant vector using

trigonometry

Step 4: State the final answer complete with direction

Resultant vector = 12 km 59° east and upwards from the

horizontal

Exam Tip

If the question specifically asks you to use the calculation or graphical method, you must solve the
problem as asked. However, if the choice is left up to you then any correct method will lead to the
correct answer.

The graphical method sometimes feels easier than calculating, but once you are confident with
trigonometry and Pythagoras you will find calculating quicker and more accurate.
Calculations with Vectors

1.2.1 Speed & Velocity

Speed

 The speed of an object is the distance it travels per unit time

 Speed is a scalar quantity

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 o This is because it only contains a magnitude (without a direction)
 For objects that are moving with a constant speed, use the equation below to calculate the
speed:

 Where:
o Speed is measured in metres per second (m/s)
o Distance travelled is measured in metres (m)
o Time taken is measured in seconds (s)

A hiker might have an average speed of 2.0 m/s, whereas

a particularly excited bumble bee can have average
speeds of up to 4.5 m/s

Average Speed

 In some cases, the speed of a moving object is not

constant
o For example, the object might be moving faster
or slower at certain moments in time
(accelerating and decelerating)
 The equation for calculating the average speed of an
object is:

 The formula for average speed (and the formula for speed) can be rearranged with the help of
the formula triangle below:

How to Use Formula Triangles

 Formula triangles are really useful for knowing how to

rearrange physics equations
 To use them:

1. Cover up the quantity to be calculated, this is known as the 'subject' of the equation
2. Look at the position of the other two quantities
o If they are on the same line, this means they are multiplied
o If one quantity is above the other, this means they are divided - make sure to keep the
order of which is on the top and bottom of the fraction!

 In the example below, to calculate speed, cover-up 'speed' and only distance and time are left
o This means it is equal to distance (on the top) ÷ time (on the bottom)

How to use formula triangles

Worked Example

Planes fly at typical speeds of around 250 m/s. Calculate the total distance travelled by a plane
moving at this average speed for 2 hours.
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 Step 1: List the known quantities

o Average speed = 250 m/s

o Time taken = 2 hours

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Rearrange for the total distance

total distance = average speed × time taken

Step 4: Convert any units

 The time given in the question is not in standard units

o Convert 2 hours into seconds:

2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200 s

Step 5: Substitute the values for average speed and time taken

total distance = 250 × 7200 = 1 800 000 m

Velocity

 The velocity of a moving object is similar to its speed, except it also describes the
object’s direction
o The speed of an object only contains a magnitude - it’s a scalar quantity
o The velocity of an object contains both magnitude and direction, e.g. ‘15 m/s south’ or ‘250
mph on a bearing of 030°’
 Velocity is therefore a vector quantity because it describes both magnitude and direction

 The equation for velocity is very similar to the equation for speed:

 Where:
o v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o s = displacement, measured in metres (m)
o t = time, measured in seconds (s)
 Velocity is a vector quantity, so it uses displacement, s, rather than distance which is scalar.

1.2.2 Acceleration
EXTENDED

 Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity

o In other words, it describes how much an object's velocity changes every second

 The equation below is used to calculate the average acceleration of an object:

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  Where:

o a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)

o Δv = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)

o Δt = time taken in seconds (s)

 The change in velocity is found by the difference between the initial and final velocity, as written
below:

change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Δv = v − u

 Where:

o v = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)

o u = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)

 The equation for acceleration can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle as shown
above:

Speeding Up & Slowing Down

 An object that speeds up is accelerating

 An object that slows down is decelerating

 The acceleration of an object can be positive or negative, depending on whether the object is
speeding up or slowing down

o If an object is speeding up, its acceleration is positive

o If an object is slowing down, its acceleration is negative (sometimes called deceleration)

A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car

slowing down (decelerating)

Worked Example

A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant

rate in a straight line. The velocity of the train
decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.

(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.

(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and

explain how your answer shows the train is

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slowing down.

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Initial velocity = 50 m/s

o Final velocity = 42 m/s

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity

change in velocity = 42 − 50 = −8 m/s

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Change in velocity, Δv = − 8 m/s

o Time taken, t = 30 s

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

a = −8 ÷ 30 = −0.27 m/s

Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration

o The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

Exam Tip

Remember the units for acceleration are metres per second squared, m/s2. In other words, acceleration
measures how much the velocity (in m/s) changes every second, m/s/s.

1.2.3 Distance-Time Graphs

Distance-Time Graphs

 A distance-time graph shows how

the distance of an object moving in a straight
line (from a starting position) varies over time:

This graph shows a moving object moving

further away from its origin

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 Constant Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

 Distance-time graphs also show the following information:

o If the object is moving at a constant speed
o How large or small the speed is

 A straight line represents constant speed

 The slope of the straight line represents the magnitude of the speed:
o A very steep slope means the object is moving at a large speed
o A shallow slope means the object is moving at a small speed
o A flat, horizontal line means the object is stationary (not moving)

This graph shows how the slope of a

line is used to interpret the speed of
moving objects. Both of these objects
are moving with a constant speed,
because the lines are straight.

Changing Speed on a Distance-Time

Graph

 Objects might be moving at a changing speed

o This is represented by a curve
 In this case, the slope of the line will be changing
o If the slope is increasing, the speed is increasing (accelerating)
o If the slope is decreasing, the speed is decreasing (decelerating)
 The image below shows two different objects
moving with changing speeds

Changing speeds are represented by

changing slopes. The red line represents an
object slowing down and the green line
represents an object speeding up.

Using Distance-Time Graphs

 The speed of a moving object can be

calculated from the gradient of the line on
a distance-time graph:

The speed of an object can be found by

calculating the gradient of a distance-time graph

 The rise is the change in y (distance) values

 The run is the change in x (time) values

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Worked Example

A distance-time graph is drawn below for part of a train journey. The

train is travelling at a constant speed.

Calculate the speed of the train.

Step 1: Draw a large gradient triangle on the graph and label the
magnitude of the rise and run

o The image below shows a large gradient

triangle drawn with dashed lines
o The rise and run magnitude is labelled, using
the units as stated on each axes

Step 2: Convert units for distance and time into standard units

o The distance travelled (rise) = 8 km = 8000 m

o The time taken (run) = 6 mins = 360 s

Step 3: State that speed is equal to the gradient of a distance-time

graph

o The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to

the speed of a moving object:

Step 4: Substitute values in to calculate the speed

speed = gradient = 8000 ÷ 360

speed = 22.2 m/s

Worked Example

Ose decides to take a stroll to the park. He finds a bench in a

quiet spot and takes a seat, picking up where he left off
reading his book on Black Holes. After some time reading,
Ose realises he lost track of time and runs home.

A distance-time graph for his trip is drawn below.

a) How long does Ose spend reading his book?

b) There are three sections labelled on the graph, A, B and C.

Which section represents Ose running home?

c) What is the total distance travelled by Ose?

Part (a)

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 o Ose spends 40 minutes reading his book
o The flat section of the line (section B) represents
an object which is stationary - so section B
represents Ose sitting on the bench reading
o This section lasts for 40 minutes - as shown in
the graph below

Part (b)

o Section C represents Ose running home

o The slope of the line in section C is steeper than
the slope in section A
o This means Ose was moving with a larger speed
(running) in section C

Part (c)

o The total distance travelled by Ose is 0.6 km

o The total distance travelled by an object is given
by the final point on the line - in this case, the line
ends at 0.6 km on the distance axis. This is
shown in the image below:

Exam Tip

Use the entire line, where possible, to calculate the gradient.

Examiners tend to award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used - so remember to draw these
directly on the graph itself!

Remember to check the units of variables measured on each axis. These may not always be in
standard units - in our example, the unit of distance was km and the unit of time was minutes. Double-
check which units to use in your answer.

1.2.4 Speed-Time Graphs

Speed-Time Graphs

 A speed-time graph shows how the speed of a

moving object varies with time
o The red line represents an object
with increasing speed
o The green line represents an object
with decreasing speed

Increasing and decreasing speed represented

on a speed-time graph

Acceleration on a Speed-Time Graph

 Speed-time graphs also show the following

information:

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 o If the object is moving with a constant acceleration or deceleration
o The magnitude of the acceleration or deceleration
 A straight line represents constant acceleration
 The slope of the line represents the magnitude of acceleration
o A steep slope means large acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's speed changes
very quickly
o A gentle slope means small acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's speed changes
very gradually
o A flat line means the acceleration is zero - i.e. the object is moving with a constant speed

This image shows how to interpret the slope of a speed-time graph

Using Speed-Time Graphs

 The distance travelled by an object can be found by

determining the area beneath the graph

The distance travelled can be found from the area

beneath the graph

 If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (the

object is accelerating or decelerating) then the area
can be determined using the formula:

 If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle (constant velocity) then the area can be determined
using the formula:

Worked Example

The speed-time graph below shows a car journey which lasts for 160 seconds.

Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this

journey.

Step 1: Recall that the area under a velocity-time graph

represents the distance travelled

o In order to calculate the total distance

travelled, the total area underneath the
line must be determined

Step 2: Identify each enclosed area

o In this example, there are five enclosed

areas under the line
o These can be labelled as areas 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5, as shown in the image below:

Step 3: Calculate the area of each enclosed shape

under the line

o Area 1 = area of a triangle = ½ × base ×

height = ½ × 40 × 17.5 = 350 m
o Area 2 = area of a rectangle = base ×
height = 30 × 17.5 = 525 m

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 o Area 3 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 20 × 7.5 = 75 m
o Area 4 = area of a rectangle = base × height = 20 × 17.5 = 350 m
o Area 5 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 70 × 25 = 875 m

Step 4: Calculate the total distance travelled by finding the total area under the line

o Add up each of the five areas enclosed:

total distance = 350 + 525 + 75 + 350 + 875

total distance = 2175 m.

1.2.5 Calculating Acceleration from Speed-Time Graphs

Interpreting Speed-Time graphs

EXTENDED

 If there is a change in an object's speed, then it is accelerating

 An object may accelerate at a steady rate, this is called constant acceleration

o On a speed-time graph this will be a non-horizontal straight line

Image: CIE 1.2.5 Constant acceleration graph

 An object may accelerate at an increasing rate

o On a speed-time graph this would be an upward curve

Image: CIE 1.2.5 Increasing acceleration graph

 An object may accelerate at a decreasing rate

o On a speed-time graph this would be an downward curve

Image: CIE 1.2.5 Decreasing acceleration graph

Calculating Acceleration

 The acceleration of an object can be calculated from

the gradient of a speed-time graph

How to find the gradient of a speed-time graph

Worked Example

Tora is training for a cycling tournament.

The speed-time graph below shows her motion as she cycles along a flat, straight road.

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(a) In which section (A, B, C, D, or E) of the speed-time
graph is Tora’s acceleration the largest?

(b) Calculate Tora’s acceleration between 5 and 10

seconds.

Part (a)

Step 1: Recall that the slope of a speed-time graph

represents the magnitude of acceleration

o The slope of a speed-time graph indicates the

magnitude of acceleration

Therefore, the only sections of the graph where Tora is

accelerating is section B and section D

o Sections A, C, and E are flat – in other words, Tora is moving at a constant speed (i.e. not
accelerating)

Step 2: Identify the section with the steepest slope

o Section D of the graph has the steepest slope

Hence, the largest acceleration is shown in section D

Part (b)

Step 1: Recall that the gradient of a speed-time graph gives the acceleration

o Calculating the gradient of a slope on a speed-time graph gives the acceleration for that time period

Step 2: Draw a large gradient triangle at the appropriate section of the graph

o A gradient triangle is drawn for the time

period between 5 and 10 seconds below:

Step 3: Calculate the size of the gradient and

state this as the acceleration

o The acceleration is given by the gradient,

which can be calculated using:

acceleration = gradient = 5 ÷ 5 = 1 m/s2

o Therefore, Tora accelerated at 1 m/s2 between 5 and 10 seconds

Exam Tip

Use the entire slope, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners tend to award credit if they
see a large gradient triangle used - so remember to draw 'rise' and 'run' lines directly on the graph itself!

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1.2.6 Freefall

Acceleration of Free Fall

 In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration
 This is called the acceleration of freefall (this is also sometimes
called acceleration due to gravity)

In the absence of air resistance, Galileo discovered that all objects (near
Earth's surface) fall with an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2

 This means that for every second an object falls, its velocity will
increase by 9.8 m/s
 The symbol g also stands for the gravitational field strength, and
can be used to calculate the weight of an object using its mass:

weight = mass × gravitational field strength

W = mg

Motion of Falling Objects

EXTENDED

Falling Objects without Air Resistance

 In the absence of air resistance, all objects falling in a uniform gravitational field, fall with
the same acceleration, regardless of their mass

 So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of a falling object will increase at
a steady rate, getting larger the
longer it falls for.

In the absence of air resistance objects fall

with constant acceleration

Falling Objects with Air Resistance

 Objects falling through fluids (fluids

are liquids or gases) in a uniform
gravitational field, experience two
forces:
o Weight (due to gravity)
o Friction (such as air resistance)
 A skydiver jumping from a plane will experience:
o A downward acting force of weight (mass × acceleration of freefall)
o An upward acting force of air resistance (frictional forces always oppose the direction of
motion)

 The force of air resistance increases with speed. This is illustrated in the image below:

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Debbie initially accelerates downwards due to her weight. The upwards air resistance increases as she
falls until it eventually grows big enough to balance the weight force

 Initially, the upwards air resistance is very small because the skydiver isn't falling very quickly
o Therefore, there are unbalanced forces on the skydiver initially
 As the skydiver speeds up, air resistance increases, eventually growing large enough to balance
the downwards weight force
 Once air resistance equals weight, the forces are balanced
o This means there is no longer any resultant force
 Therefore, the skydiver's acceleration is zero - they now travel at a constant speed
 This speed is called their terminal velocity

 When the skydiver opens the parachute, the air resistance increases
o This is due to the increased surface area of the parachute opening
 The upward force of air resistance on the skydiver increases, slowing the acceleration of the
skydivers fall
o The skydiver decelerates
 Eventually, the forces balance out again, and a new slower terminal velocity is reached

Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver

changes during the descent

Worked Example

A small object falls out of an aircraft. Choose

words from the list to complete the sentences
below:

Friction
Gravitational field strength
Air pressure
Accelerates
Falls at a steady speed
Slows down

(a) The weight of an object is the product of the

object's mass and the __________.

(b) When an object falls, initially it

____________.

(c) As the object falls faster, the force of ______________ acting upon the object increases.
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(d) Eventually the object ______________ when the force of friction equals the force of weight acting on
it.

Part (a)

The weight of an object is the product of the object's mass and the gravitational field strength.

o The weight force is due to the Earth's gravitational pull on the object's mass as it falls through a
uniform gravitational field

Part (b)

When an object falls, initially it accelerates.

o The resultant force on the object is very large initially, so it accelerates

o This is because there is a large unbalanced force downwards (its weight) - the upward force of
air resistance is very small to begin with

Part (c)

As the object falls faster, the force of friction acting upon the object increases.

o The force of air resistance is due to friction between the object's motion and collisions with air
particles
o Collisions with air particles slow the object down, so air itself produces a frictional force, called
air resistance (sometimes called drag)

Part (d)

Eventually the object falls at a steady speed when the force of friction equals the force of weight acting
on it.

o When the upwards air resistance increases enough to balance the downwards weight force, the
resultant force on the object is zero
o This means the object isn't accelerating - rather, it is moving at a steady (terminal) speed

Exam Tip

The force of gravity on an object with mass is called weight. If asked to name this force make sure you
use this word: Don’t refer to it as “gravity” as this term could also mean gravitational field strength and
so would probably be marked wrong.

Likewise, remember to identify air resistance as the upwards force on a falling object. This force gets
larger as the object speeds up, but the weight of the object stays constant. Don't confuse 'air resistance'
with 'air pressure' - these are two different concepts!

Exam questions about terminal velocity tend to involve the motion of skydivers as they fall

A common misconception is that skydivers move upwards when their parachutes are deployed -
however, this is not the case, they are in fact decelerating to a lower terminal velocity.

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1.3.1 Mass & Weight

Mass

 Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to the observer
o Mass is a scalar quantity
o The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg)

 Consequently, mass is the property of an object that resists change in motion

o The greater the mass of an object, the more difficult it is to speed it up, slow it down, or
change its direction

Weight

 Weight is a gravitational force on an object with mass

o Weight is a force, so it is a vector quantity
o The SI units for force are newtons (N)

EXTENDED

 Weight is the effect of a gravitational field on a mass

 The weight of a body is equal to the product of its mass (m) and the acceleration of free fall (g)

 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Gravitational Field Strength

 Gravitational field strength is defined as:

The force per unit mass acting on an object in a gravitational field

 On Earth, this is equal to 9.81 N/kg

 Gravitational field strength is also known as acceleration of free fall, or acceleration due to gravity
o In this context the units are m/s2

 The value of g (gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet depending on their mass
and radius
 A few examples of varying gravitational field strength are shown below:

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Mass v Weight

 An object’s mass always remains the same, however, its weight will differ depending on the
strength of the gravitational field on different planets
 For example, the gravitational field strength on the Moon is 1.63 N/kg, meaning an object’s
weight will be about 6 times less than on Earth

On the moon, your mass will stay the same but your weight will be much lower

Using a Balance

 The weight of two objects can be compared using a balance

o Because the gravitational field strength is constant everywhere on Earth, this also allows
us to measure the mass of an object

A balance can be used to compare two different weights.

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1.3.2 Density

Density

 Density is defined as:

The mass per unit volume of a material

 Objects made from low density materials typically have a low mass
 Similarly sized objects made from high density materials have a high mass
o For example, a bag full of feathers is far lighter compared to a similar bag full of metal
o Or another example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite occupying a
larger volume

 Density is related to mass and volume by the

following equation:

 Gases, for examples, are less dense than solids

because the molecules are more spread out
(same mass, over a larger volume)
Gases are less dense than solids

 This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:

Density, mass, volume formula triangle

 The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and
volume:
o If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g/cm3
o If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg/m3

 This table gives some examples of densities on common materials

o If a material is more dense than water (1000 kg/m3), then it will sink

Approximate Densities of Materials Table

 The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated with the
appropriate equation depending on the object’s shape

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Volumes of common 3D shapes

Worked Example

A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 0.04 m × 0.5

m × 0.85 m.

Calculate the density, in kg/m3, of the material from which the

paving slab is made.

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Mass of slab, m = 73 kg
o Volume of slab, V = 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85 m = 0.017 m3

Step 2: Write out the equation for density

Step 3: Substitute in values

ρ = 73 ÷ 0.017 = 4294 kg/m3

Step 4: Round the answer to two significant figures

ρ = 4300 kg/m3

Exam Tip

Make sure you are comfortable converting between units such as metres (m) and centimetres (cm) or
grams (g) and kilograms (kg).

 When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)

o E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm
 When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)
o E.g. 5 g = 5 ÷ 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg.

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1.3.3 Measuring Density

Equipment List

 Resolution of measuring equipment:

o 30 cm ruler = 1 mm
o Vernier calipers = 0.01 mm
o Micrometer = 0.001 mm
o Digital balance = 0.01 g

Experiment 1: Measuring the Density of Regularly

Shaped Objects

 The aim of this experiment is to determine the

densities of regular objects by using
measurements of their dimensions

Variables:

 Independent variable = Type of shape / volume

 Dependent variable = Mass of the object

Method

 Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
 Use either the ruler, Vernier calipers or micrometer to measure the object’s dimensions (width,
height, length, radius) – the apparatus will depend on the size of the object
 Repeat these measurements and take an average of these readings before calculating the
density

1. An example of a results table might look like this:

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Analysis of Results

 Calculate the volume of the object depending on whether it is a cube, sphere, cylinder (or
other regular shape)

Calculating the volume of an object depends on its shape

 Remember to convert from centimetres (cm) to metres

(m) by dividing by 100

1 cm = 0.01 m

50 cm = 0.5 m

 Using the mass and volume, the density of each can be calculated using the equation:

Where:

o ρ = density in kilogram per metres cubed (kg/m3)

o m = mass in kilograms (kg)
o V = volume in metres cubed (m3)

Experiment 2: Measuring the Density of Irregularly Shaped Objects

 The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of irregular objects using a
displacement technique

Variables:

 Independent variable = Different irregular shapes /

mass
 Dependent variable = Volume of displaced water

Method

Apparatus for measuring the density of irregular objects

 Place the object on a digital balance and note down

its mass
 Fill the eureka can with water up to a point just below the spout
 Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
 Carefully lower the object into the eureka can
 Measure the volume of the displaced water in the measuring cylinder
 Repeat these measurements and take an average before
calculating the density

Alternatively, the object can be placed in a measuring cylinder

containing a known volume of liquid, and the change in volume
then measured

When an irregular solid is placed in a measuring cylinder, the

level of the liquid will rise by an amount equal to the volume of
the solid

 Once the mass and volume of the shape is known, its

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 density can be calculated

 An example of a results table might look like this:

Analysis of Results

 The volume of the water displaced is equal to the volume of the object
 Once the mass and volume of the shape are known, the density can be
calculatedusing:

Experiment 3: Measuring Density of Liquids

 The aim of this experiment is to determine the density of a liquid by finding a difference in
its mass

Variables:

 Independent variable = Volume of water added

 Dependent variable = Mass of cylinder

Method

Apparatus for determining the density of a liquid

 Place an empty measuring cylinder on a digital balance and note

down the mass
 Fill the cylinder with the liquid and note down the volume
 Note down the new reading on the digital balance
 Repeat these measurements and take an average before
calculating the density

1. An example of a results table might look like this:

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Analysis of Results

 Find the mass of the liquid by subtracting the final reading from the original reading

Mass of liquid = Mass of cylinder with water – mass of cylinder

 Remember to convert between grams (g) and kilograms (kg) by dividing by 1000

1 g = 0.001 kg

78 g = 0.078 kg

 Once the mass and volume of the liquid are known, the density can be calculated using the
equation

Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic Errors:

 Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking measurements of mass
o This includes when measuring the density of the liquid – remove the measuring cylinder
and zero the balance before adding the liquid

Random Errors:

 A main cause of error in this experiment is in the measurements of length

o Ensure to take repeat readings and calculate an average to keep this error to a minimum
 Place the irregular object in the displacement can carefully, as dropping it from a height might
cause water to splash which will lead to an incorrect volume reading

Safety Considerations

 There is a lot of glassware in this experiment, ensure this is handled carefully

 Water should not be poured into the measuring cylinder when it is on the electric balance
o This could lead to electric shock
 Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react quickly to any spills

Exam Tip

There is a lot of information to take in here! When writing about experiments, a good sequence is as
follows:

 If you need to use an equation to calculate something, start off by giving it as this will give you
some hints about what you need to mention later
 List the apparatus that you need
 State what measurements you need to make (your equation will give you some hints) and how
you will measure them
 Finally, state that you will repeat each measurement several times and take averages.

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1.3.4 Floating

Floating Objects

Upthrust

 Upthrust is a force that pushes upwards on an object submerged in a fluid i.e. liquids and gases
 It is always in the opposite direction to the object's weight
o This is why boats, and objects that are less dense than water, float
 The size of the upthrust depends on the density of the fluid as well as the volume of fluid that is
displaced (which is equal to the volume of the object)
o The denser the liquid, the greater the upthrust it will exert on an object

Upthrust is in the opposite direction to the weight of the boat and the fisherman

Factors Affecting Floating & Sinking

 Whether an object sinks or floats depends on

the upthrust:
o If the upthrust on an object is equal to
(or greater than) the object’s weight,
then the object will float
o If the upthrust is smaller than the weight
then the object will sink

 The outcome also depends on the

object's density:
o If it has a density less than the density of the fluid it is immersed in, the object will float
o If it has a density more than the density of the fluid it is immersed in, the object will sink
 This is because if the density of the object is greater than the density of the fluid, the object can
never displace enough fluid to create an upthrust that will hold its weight up (and therefore sinks)

Objects which are less dense than water will float and which are more denser will sink

 A polystyrene block will float in water

o This is because polystyrene has a density of 0.05 g/cm3 which is much less than the
density of water (1.0 g/cm3)
 A wooden block will be partially submerged but will still float
o This is because the density of a wooden block (0.9 g/cm3) is slightly less than the density
of water
 An iron block will sink
o This is because iron has a density (7.9 g/cm3) that is much higher than water

Exam Tip

 The main thing to remember is that density is mass per unit volume
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  In Physics, mass is almost always measured in kg

Density is the only topic in which physicists sometimes use grams instead

Floating Liquids

EXTENDED

 A liquid with a lower density will float on a

liquid with a higher density if the liquids do
not mix

Lower density liquids float on higher density liquids

as long as the liquids do not mix

Worked Example

Liquid A has a density of 0.76 g/cm3 and liquid B has a density of 0.93 g/cm3.

If the two liquids do not mix, which liquid will float on top of the other?

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Liquid A = 0.76 g/cm3

o Liquid B = 0.93 g/cm3

Step 2: Determine which liquid has the lowest density

o The liquid with the lowest density will float on top of the liquid with the higher density
o 0.76 is less than 0.93
o Therefore, liquid A has the lowest density

Step 3: State your answer

o Liquid A will float on top of liquid B.

1.4.1 Resultant Forces

Forces - Basics

 A force is defined as:

A push or a pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object

Forces can affect bodies in a variety of ways:

o Changes in speed: forces can cause bodies to speed up or slow down

o Changes in direction: forces can cause bodies to change their direction of travel
o Changes in shape: forces can cause bodies to stretch, compress, or deform

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The effects of different forces on objects

Resultant Forces on a Straight Line

 A resultant force is a single force

that describes all of the forces
operating on a body
 When many forces are applied to
an object they can be combined
(added) to produce one final force
which describes the combined
action of all of the forces
 This single resultant force determines:
o The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the forces
o The magnitude of the final force experienced by the object
 The resultant force is sometimes called the net force

 Forces can combine to produce

o Balanced forces
o Unbalanced forces

 Balanced forces mean that the forces have combined in

such a way that they cancel each other out and no
resultant force acts on the body
o For example, the weight of a book on a desk is
balanced by the normal force of the desk
o As a result, no resultant force is experienced by the book, the book and the table
are equal and balanced

A book resting on a table is an example of

balanced forces

 Unbalanced forces mean that the

forces have combined in such a way
that they do not cancel out completely
and there is a resultant force on the
object
o For example, imagine two
people playing a game of tug-
of-war, working against each
other on opposite sides of the
rope
o If person A pulls with 80 N to the left and person B pulls with 100 N to the right, these
forces do not cancel each other out completely
o Since person B pulled with more force than person A the forces will be unbalanced and
the rope will experience a resultant force of 20 N to the right

A tug-of-war is an example of when forces can become unbalanced

 Resultant forces can be calculated by adding or subtracting all of the forces acting on the object
o Forces working in opposite directions are subtracted from each other
o Forces working in the same direction are added together
 If the forces acting in opposite directions are equal in size, then there will be no resultant force –
the forces are said to be balanced

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Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects

 Imagine the forces on the boxes as two people pushing on either side
o In the first scenario, the two people are evenly matched - the box doesn't move
o In the second scenario, the two people are pushing on the same side of the box, it moves
to the right with their combined strength
o In the third scenario, the two people are pushing against each other and are not evenly
matched, so there is a resultant force to the left

Worked Example

Calculate the magnitude and direction of

the resultant force in the diagram below.

Step 1: Add up all of the forces directed to the right

4 N + 8 N = 12 N

Step 2: Subtract the forces on the right from the forces on the left

14 N – 12 N = 2 N

Step 3: Evaluate the direction of the resultant force

o The force to the left is greater than the force to the right therefore the resultant force is directed
to the left

Step 4: State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force

o The resultant force is 2 N to the left

Exam Tip

Remember to always provide units for your answer and to state whether the force is to the left, to the
right, or maybe up or down

Always provide your final answer as a description of the magnitude and the direction, for example:

 Resultant Force = 4 N to the right.

1.4.2 Newton's First Law

Newton's First Law of Motion

 Newton's first law of motion states:

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Objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force

 This means if the resultant force acting on an object is zero:

o The object will remain stationary if it was stationary before
o The object will continue to move at the same velocity if it was moving
 When the resultant force is not zero
o The speed of the object can change
o The direction of the object can change

Applying Newton's First Law

 Newton's first law is used to explain why things move with a constant (or uniform) velocity
o If the forces acting on an object are balanced, then the resultant force is zero
o The velocity (i.e. speed and direction) can only change if a resultant force acts on the
object

 A few examples with uniform velocity are

shown below:

Constant velocity can only be achieved when

the forces on an object are balanced - in other
words, when the resultant force is zero

Worked Example

Lima did some online research and found out that

the Moon orbits the Earth at a constant speed of
around 2000 mph.She says that this is not an
example of Newton's first law of motion.Is Lima correct? Explain your answer.

Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion


o Newton's first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant
velocity, unless acted on by a resultant force

Step 2: Determine if the object in the question is at rest, or if it is moving with a constant velocity


o The Moon, in this case, is not at rest
o It is moving at a constant speed
o But it is not moving in a constant direction - it continually orbits the Earth
o Hence, it is not moving with a constant velocity, because velocity is a vector quantity

Step 3: State and explain whether Lima is correct


o Lima is correct
o The Moon moves with a constant speed, but always changes direction
o So it is not moving with a constant velocity, and is not an example of Newton's first law of
motion

Worked Example

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If there are no external forces acting on the car and it
is moving at a constant velocity, what is the value of
the frictional force, F?

Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion

o Newton's first law of motion states

that objects will remain at rest, or move
with a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force

Step 2: Relate Newton's first law to the scenario

o Since the car is moving at a constant velocity, there is no resultant force

o This means the driving and frictional forces are balanced

Step 3: State the value of the frictional force

o Frictional force, F = driving force = 3 kN.

1.4.3 Newton's Second Law

Newton's Second Law

 Newton's second law of motion states:

The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely
proportional to the object's mass

 Newton's second law explains the

following important principles:
o An object will accelerate (change its
velocity) in response to a resultant
force
o The bigger this resultant force,
the larger the acceleration
o For a given force, the greater the
object's mass, the smaller the
acceleration experienced

 The image below shows some examples of Newton's second law in action:

Objects like baseballs and lawnmowers accelerate when a resultant force is applied on them. The size
of the acceleration is proportional to the size of the resultant force

Calculations Using Newton's Second Law

EXTENDED

 Newton's second law can be expressed as an equation:

F = ma

 Where:
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 o F = resultant force on the object in Newtons (N)
o m = mass of the object in kilograms (kg)
o a = acceleration of the object in metres per second squared
(m/s2)

 The force and the acceleration act in the same direction

 This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:

Force, mass, acceleration formula triangle

Worked Example

A car salesman says that his best car has a mass of 900 kg and can accelerate from 0 to 27 m/s in 3
seconds.

Calculate:

a) The acceleration of the car in the first 3 seconds.

b) The force required to produce this acceleration.

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Initial velocity = 0 m/s

o Final velocity = 27 m/s
o Time, t = 3 s

Step 2: Calculate the change in velocity

change in velocity = Δv = final velocity − initial velocity

Δv = 27 − 0 = 27 m/s

Step 3: State the equation for acceleration

Step 4: Calculate the acceleration

a = 27 ÷ 3 = 9 m/s2

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Mass of the car, m = 900 kg

o Acceleration, a = 9 m/s2

Step 2: Identify which law of motion to apply

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 o The question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so Newton's second law
is required:

F = ma

Step 3: Calculate the force required to accelerate the car

F = 900 × 9 = 8100 N

Worked Example

Three shopping trolleys, A, B and C, are

being pushed using the same force. This
force causes each trolley to accelerate.

Which trolley will have the smallest acceleration? Explain your answer.

Step 1: Identify which law of motion to apply

o The question involves quantities of force and acceleration, and the image shows trolleys of
different masses, so Newton's second law is required:

F = ma

Step 2: Re-arrange the equation to make acceleration the subject

Step 3: Explain the inverse proportionality between acceleration and mass

o Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass

o This means for the same amount of force, a large mass will experience
a small acceleration
o Therefore, trolley C will have the smallest acceleration because it has the largest mass.

1.4.4 Investigating Force & Extension

Investigating Springs

 When forces are applied to materials,

the size and shape of the material can
change
 The method below describes a typical
procedure for carrying out an
investigation into the properties of a
material

An experiment to measure the extension of a

spring

 Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

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  A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to the bottom, and
the position of the spring is measured against the ruler
 The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table
 A further mass is added and the new position measured
 The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added
 The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again, until it has been carried
out a total of three times, and averages can then be taken

 Once measurements have been taken:

o The force on the spring can be found by multiplying
the mass on the spring (in kg) by 9.81 N/kg (the gravitational field
strength)
o The extension of the spring can be found by
subtracting the original position of the spring from each of the
subsequent positions
 Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force
(on the x-axis) should be plotted

A graph of force against extension for a metal spring

1.4.5 Hooke's Law

EXTENSION

 Hooke’s law states that:

o The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force

 Where:
o F is the force applied
o k is the spring constant
o x is the extension of the spring

 The spring constant is the force per unit extension

o The units are N/m
o The spring constant is a measure of how stiff the spring is

 Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law
 Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a
force-extension graph
 Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length
after being stretched
 If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past the limit
of proportionality (sometimes called the elastic limit). At this point the object will no longer obey
Hooke’s law and will not return to its original length

The spring on the right has been stretched beyond the limit of proportionality

Exam Tip

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A relationship is said to be proportional if the graph is a straight line going through the origin.If
a graph is a straight line but does not go through the origin the relationship is said to be linear.

Circular Motion

EXTENDED

 Velocity is a vector quantity, and the velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction
 When an object travels along a circular path, its velocity is always changing
o The speed of the object moving in a circle might be constant - that is, it is travelling the
same distance every second
o However, the direction of travel is always changing as the object moves along the circular
path
 This means that an object moving in circular motion travels at a constant speed but has
a changing velocity
 The image below shows an example of a famous object that moves in a circular path with a
constant speed but changing
direction:

The International Space Station’s velocity

is always changing - it whizzes around
the Earth at a constant speed of about
7660 m/s but is always changing
direction

 When a force acts at 90 degrees to

an object’s direction of travel, the
force will cause that object to change
direction
 When the two cars collide, the first car
changes its direction in the direction of the
force
 If the force continues to act at 90 degrees
to the motion, the object will keep
changing its direction (whilst remaining at
a constant speed) and travel in a circle

 This is what happens when a planet orbits a star (or satellite orbits a planet)

The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its

direction of travel). This causes it to travel in a circular path

 The force needed to make something follow a circular

path depends on a number of factors:
o The mass of the object

 A greater mass requires a greater force when the speed and radius are constant
o The speed of the object

 A faster-moving object requires a greater force when the mass and radius are constant
o The radius of the circle

 A smaller radius requires a greater force to keep the speed and radius constant.
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1.4.7 Friction

Friction in Solids

 Friction is a force that works in opposition to the

motion of an object
o This slows down the motion of the object
 When friction is present, energy is transferred in
the form of heat
o This raises the temperature (thermal
energy) of the object and its surroundings
o The work done against the frictional forces
causes this rise in the temperature

 Friction in solids is caused by imperfections in the surfaces of the objects moving over one
another
o Not only does this slow the object down but also causes an increase in thermal energy

The interface between the ground and the sledge is bumpy which the source of the frictional
force is

Friction in Fluids

 Gases and liquids are known as fluids

o Fluids are different to solids because the particles in
fluids can move around
 Friction acts on objects moving through gases and liquids as
the particles collide with the object
o This type of friction is called drag

 Air resistance is a type of friction that slows the motion of an

object
 Particles bump into the object as it moves through the air
o As a result, the object heats up due to the work done against the frictional forces

The return module of a rocket heats up due to the work done by air resistance as it travels a
distance through the atmosphere’

1.5.1 Moments

Moments

 As well as causing objects to speed up, slow down, change direction

and deform, forces can also cause objects to rotate
 An example of a rotation caused by a force is on one side of a pivot (a
fixed point that the object can rotate around)
o This rotation can be clockwise or anticlockwise

The force will cause the object to rotate clockwise about the pivot

 A moment is defined as:

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The turning effect of a force about a pivot

 The size of a moment is defined by the equation:

M=F×d

 Where:
o M = moment in newton metres (Nm)
o F = force in newtons (N)
o d = perpendicular distance of the force to the pivot in metres (m)

The moment depends on the force and perpendicular distance to the pivot

 This is why, for example, the door handle is placed on the opposite side to the hinge
o This means for a given force, the perpendicular distance from the pivot (the hinge) is
larger
o This creates a larger moment (turning effect) to make it easier to open the door
 Opening a door with a handle close to the pivot would be much harder, and would require a lot
more force

 Some other examples involving moments include:

o Using a crowbar to prize open something
o Turning a tap on or off
o A wheelbarrow
o Scissors

Principle of Moments (Core)

 The principle of moments states that:

If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise moment
about that pivot

 Remember that the moment = force × distance from a pivot

 The forces should be perpendicular to the distance from the pivot
o For example, on a horizontal beam, the forces which will cause a moment are those
directed upwards or downwards

Worked Example

A parent and child are at opposite ends of a playground see-saw.

The parent weighs 690 N and the child weighs 140 N. The adult sits
0.3 m from the pivot.

Calculate the distance the child must sit from the pivot for the see-
saw to be balanced.

Step 1: List the know quantities

o Clockwise force (child), Fchild = 140 N

o Anticlockwise force (adult), Fadult = 690 N
o Distance of adult from the pivot, dadult = 0.3 m

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

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 o Moments are calculated using:

Moment = force × distance from pivot

o For the see-saw to balance, the principle of moments states that

Total clockwise moments = Total anticlockwise moments

Step 3: Calculate the total clockwise moments


o The clockwise moment is from the child

Momentchild = Fchild × dchild = 140 × dchild

Step 4: Calculate the total anticlockwise moment

o The anticlockwise moment is from the adult

Momentadult = Fadult × dadult = 690 × 0.3 = 207 Nm

Step 5: Substitute into the principle of moments equation

140 × dchild = 207

Step 6: Rearrange for the distance of the child from the pivot

dchild = 207 ÷ 140 = 1.48 m

Exam Tip

Make sure that all the distances are in the

same units and you’re considering the correct
forces as clockwise or anticlockwise, as seen
in the diagram belowClockwise is defined as
the direction the hands of a clock move (and
anticlockwise as the opposite)

Principle of Moments (Extended)

EXTENDED

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Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

 In the above diagram:

o Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
o Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments
 Hence:

F2 x d2 = (F1 x d1) + (F3 x d3)

1.5.2 Equilibrium

Equilibrium

 The term equilibrium means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing, without any change
 Therefore:
o If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line)
o If it is stationary it will remain stationary
o The object will also not start or stop turning
 The above conditions require two things:
o The forces on the object must be balanced
 There must be no resultant force
o The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of anticlockwise
moments
 there must be no resultant moment

When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in equilibrium

 If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium

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Demonstrating Equilibrium

 A simple experiment to demonstrate that there is no net moment on an object in equilibrium

involves taking an object, such as a beam, and replacing the supports with newton (force)
meters:

Several forces act on a supported beam, including the mass of the beam and the mass of an object
suspended from it

 The beam in the above diagram is in equilibrium

 The various forces acting on the beam can be found either by taking readings from the newton
meters or by measuring the masses (and hence calculating the weights) of the beam and the
mass suspended from the beam
 The distance of each force from the end of the ruler can then be measured, allowing the moment
of each force about the end of the ruler to be calculated
 It can then be shown that the sum of clockwise moments (due to forces F2 and F3) equal the sum
of anticlockwise moments (due to forces F1 and F4)

1.5.3 Centre of Gravity

Centre of Gravity

 The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object may be considered
to act
 For example, for a person standing upright, their centre of gravity is roughly in the middle of the
body behind the navel, and for a sphere, it is at the centre
 For symmetrical objects with uniform density, the centre of gravity is located at the point of
symmetry

The centre of gravity of a shape can

be found by symmetry

Centre of gravity vs centre of mass

 In a uniform gravitational field, the

centre of gravity is identical to the
centre of mass
 The centre of mass does not depend
on the gravitational field
 Since weight = mass ✕ acceleration
due to gravity, the centre of gravity does depend on the gravitational field
 When an object is in space, its centre of gravity will be more towards the object with larger
gravitational field for example, the Earth’s gravitational field on the Moon

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 The Earth’s stronger gravitational field pushes the Moons centre of gravity closer to Earth

1.5.4 Investigating Centre of Gravity

Investigating the Centre of Gravity

 When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that its centre of
gravity comes to rest below the pivoting point
 This can be used to find the centre of gravity of an irregular shape:

Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of gravity of an irregular shape

 The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to settle
 A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and a pencil is used to draw a vertical line
from the pivot (the centre of gravity must be somewhere on this line)
 The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points
 The centre of gravity is located at the point where all three lines cross.

1.6.1 Momentum

Momentum

EXTENDED

 An object with mass that is in motion has momentum which is defined by the equation:

momentum = mass × velocity

p = mv

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  Where:
o p = momentum in kilogram metre per second (kg m/s)
o m = mass in kilograms (kg)
o v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)

 This means that an object at rest (i.e v = 0) has no momentum

 Momentum keeps an object moving in the same direction, making it difficult to change the
direction of an object with a large momentum

 Since velocity is a vector this means that the momentum of an object also depends on
its direction of travel
 This means that momentum can be either positive or negative
o If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling in the
opposite direction (to the left) will have negative momentum

The tennis ball's momentum is negative when it moves in the opposite direction to which it initially was
travelling in

 Therefore, the momentum of an object will change if:

o The object accelerates (speeds up) or decelerates (slows down)
o Changes direction
o Its mass changes

Worked Example

Which object has the most momentum?

 Both the tennis ball and the brick have the same momentum

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  Even though the brick is much heavier than the ball, the ball is travelling much faster than the
brick
 This means that on impact, they would both exert a similar force (depending on the time it takes
for each to come to rest)

Exam Tip

You can remember momentum as mass in motion. The units of momentum are kg m/s which is the
product of the units of mass (kg) and velocity (m/s).

Which direction is taken as positive is completely up to you in the exam. In general, the right and
upwards are taken as positive, and down or to the left as negative.

Conservation of Momentum

EXTENDED

 The principle of conservation of momentum states that:

In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event

 A closed system means the energy within the system is constant and there is an absence of
external forces (e.g. friction)
 In other words:

The total momentum before a collision = The total momentum after a collision

 A system is a certain number of objects under consideration

o This can be just one object or multiple objects

 Since momentum is a vector quantity, a system of objects moving in opposite directions (e.g.
towards each other) at the same speed will have an overall momentum of 0 since they will cancel
out
o Momentum is always conserved over time

 The diagram below shows two masses m with velocity u and M at rest (ie. zero velocity)

The momentum of a system before and after a collision

 Before the collision:

o The momentum is only of mass m which is moving
o If the right is taken as the positive direction, the total momentum of the system is m × u

 After the collision:

o Mass M also now has momentum
o The velocity of m is now -v (since it is now travelling to the left) and the velocity of M is V

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 o The total momentum is now the momentum of M + momentum of m
o This is (M × V) + (m × -v) or (M × V) – (m × v)

Worked Example

The diagram shows a car and a van, just before and just after the car collided with the van, which is
initially at rest.

Use
the idea of conservation of momentum to calculate the velocity of the van when it is pushed forward by
the collision.

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Exam Tip

If it is not given in the question already, drawing a diagram of before and after helps keep track of all the
masses and velocities (and directions) in the conversation of momentum questions.

1.6.2 Impulse

Impulse

EXTENDED

 When a resultant (unbalanced) force acts on a mass, the momentum of that mass will change
 The impulse of a force is equal to that force multiplied by the time for which it acts:

impulse = force × change in time

impulse = FΔt

 The change in momentum of a mass is equal to the impulse provided by the force:

impulse = change in momentum

impulse = FΔt = Δp

 Change in momentum can also be described as:

Δp = Δ(mv)

Δp = mv − mu

 Where:
o m = mass in kg
o v = final velocity in m/s
o u = initial velocity in m/s

 Therefore:

impulse = FΔt = Δp = mv − mu

 An example in everyday life of impulse is when standing under an umbrella when it is raining,
compared to hail (frozen water droplets)
o When rain hits an umbrella, the water droplets tend to splatter and fall off it and there is
only a very small change in momentum
o However, hailstones have a larger mass and tend to bounce back off the umbrella,
creating a greater change in momentum
o Therefore, the impulse on an umbrella is greater in hail than in rain
o This means that more force is required to hold an umbrella upright in hail compared to rain

Since hailstones bounce back off an umbrella, compared to water droplets from rain, there is a greater
impulse on an umbrella in hail than in rain

Worked Example

A 58 g tennis ball moving horizontally to the left at a speed of 30 m s–1 is struck by a tennis racket which
returns the ball back to the right at 20 m s–1.
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(i) Calculate the impulse delivered to the ball by the racket
(ii) State which direction the impulse is in

(i) Step 1: Write the known quantities

o Taking the initial direction of the ball as positive (the left)

o Initial velocity, u = 30 m s–1
o Final velocity, v = –20 m s–1
o Mass, m = 58 g = 58 × 10–3 kg

Step 2: Write down the impulse equation

Impulse I = Δp = m(v – u)

Step 3: Substitute in the values

I = (58 × 10–3) × (–20 – 30) = –2.9 N s

(ii) Direction of the impulse

o Since the impulse is negative, it must be in the opposite direction to which the tennis ball
was initial travelling (since the left is taken as positive)
o Therefore, the direction of the impulse is to the right

Exam Tip

Remember that if an object changes direction, then this must be reflected by the change in sign of the
velocity. As long as the magnitude is correct, the final sign for the impulse doesn't matter as long as it is
consistent with which way you have considered positive (and negative). For example, if the left is taken
as positive and therefore the right as negative, an
impulse of 20 N s to the right is equal to -20 N s

Force & Momentum

EXTENDED

 Force can also be defined as the rate of change

of momentum on a body
 The change in momentum is defined as the final
momentum minus the initial momentum
 These can be expressed as follows:

1.7.1 Energy Stores & Transfers

Energy Stores

 Energy is a property that must be transferred to an object in order to

perform work on or heat up that object
 It is measured in units of Joules (J)
 Energy will often be described as part of an energy system
 In physics, a system is defined as:

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An object or group of objects

 Therefore, when describing the changes within a system, only the objects or group of objects and
the surroundings need to be considered
 Energy can be stored in different ways, and there are changes in the way it is stored when a
system changes
 The principle of conservation of energy states that:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transferred from one store to another

 This means that for a closed system, the total amount of energy is constant
 There are many different ways that energy can be stored, these are shown in the table below:

Energy Stores Table

Energy Transfers

 Energy can be transferred between stores through different energy transfer pathways
 Examples of these are:
o Mechanical
o Electrical
o Heating
o Radiation
 These are described in the table below:

Energy Transfer Pathways Table

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Thermal energy is transferred by heating from the hot
coffee to the mug and to the cold hands

Worked Example

Describe the energy transfers in the following scenarios:

a) A falling object

b) A battery powering a torch

c) A mass on a spring

Part (a)

o For a falling object:

Energy is transferred from the gravitational store to the kinetic store of the object via
a mechanical transfer pathway

Part (b)

o For a battery powering a torch:

Energy is transferred from the chemical store of the battery to the thermal store of the surroundings via
a radiation transfer pathway

Part (c)

o For a mass on a spring:

Energy is transferred from the elastic store to the kinetic store of the system via a mechanical transfer
pathway

1.7.2 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy

 The kinetic energy, EK, of an object (also known as its kinetic store) is defined as:

The energy an object has as a result of its mass and speed

 This means that any object in motion has energy in its kinetic energy store

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  Kinetic energy can be calculated using the equation:

E K = ½ × m × v2

 Where:
o EK = kinetic energy in Joules (J)
o m = mass of the object in kilograms (kg)
o v = speed of the object in metres per second (m/s)

Worked Example

Calculate the kinetic energy stored in a vehicle of mass 1200 kg moving at a speed of 27 m/s.

Step 1: List the known quantities


o Mass of the vehicle, m = 1200 kg
o Speed of the vehicle, v = 27 m/s

Step 2: Write down the equation for kinetic energy

EK = ½ mv2

Step 3: Calculate the kinetic energy

EK = ½ × 1200 × (27)2 = 437 400 J

Step 4: Round the final answer to 2 significant figures

EK = 440 000 J

Exam Tip

When calculating kinetic energy, make sure you know that only the speed is squared – not the mass or
the ½

1.7.3 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy

EXTENDED

 The gravitational potential energy, EP, of an object (also known as its gravitational store) is
defined as:

The energy an object has due to its height in a gravitational field

 This means:
o If an object is lifted up, energy will be transferred to its gravitational store
o If an object falls, energy will be transferred away from its gravitational store

 The GPE of an object can be calculated using the equation:

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ΔEP = mgΔh

 Where:
o ΔEP = change in gravitational potential energy, in
Joules (J)
o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
o g = gravitational field strength in Newtons per
kilogram (N/kg)
o Δh = change in height in metres (m)

Energy is transferred to the mass's gravitational store as it is

lifted above the ground, therefore the ΔEP increases

Worked Example

A man of mass 70 kg climbs a flight of stairs that is 3 m higher than the floor. Gravitational field strength
is approximately 9.81 N/kg. Calculate the energy transferred to his gravitational potential energy store.

Step 1: List the known quantities


o Mass of the man, m = 70 kg
o Gravitational field strength, g = 9.81 N/kg
o Height, h = 3 m

Step 2: Write down the equation for gravitational potential energy

ΔEP = mgΔh

Step 3: Calculate the gravitational potential energy

ΔEP = 70 × 9.81 × 3 = 2060 J

1.7.4 Conservation of Energy

Conservation of Energy

 The law of conservation of energy states that:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transferred from one energy store to another

 This means the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant
 Therefore, energy cannot be ‘lost’, but it can be transferred to the thermal energy store of the
surroundings
o Energy can be dissipated to the surroundings by radiation (by heat, light or sound)
o This energy is often not useful energy, so it can be described as wasted energy

Energy Flow Diagrams

 Energy stores and transfers can be represented using a flow diagram

o This shows both the stores and the transfers

Energy flow diagram showing energy stores and transfers in a nuclear power plant.

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Note the colour difference of the labels (stores) and the arrows (transfer pathways)

Worked Example

The diagram shows a rollercoaster going down a track.

The rollercoaster takes the path A → B → C → D.

Which statement is true about the energy changes that occur for the rollercoaster down this track?

A. EK - ΔEP - ΔEP - EK

B. EK - ΔEP - EK - ΔEP

C. ΔEP - EK - EK - ΔEP

D. ΔEP - EK - ΔEP - EK

ANSWER: D

At point A:

 The rollercoaster is raised above the ground, therefore its gravitational potential energy store is
full
 As it travels down the track, energy is transferred to its kinetic energy store mechanically

At point B:

 Energy is transferred from the kinetic energy store to the gravitational potential energy
store mechanically
 As the kinetic energy store empties, the gravitational potential energy store fills

At point C:

 Energy is transferred from the gravitational potential energy store to the kinetic energy store

At point D:

 The flat terrain means the rollercoaster only has energy in its kinetic energy store
 The kinetic energy store is full

In reality, some energy will also be transferred to the thermal energy store of the tracks mechanically
due to friction, and also to the thermal energy store of the surroundings by radiation due to sound.

 The total amount of energy in the system will be constant

 Total energy in = total energy out

Exam Tip

It is helpful to think of energy stores as beakers and the total energy in the system as water. The water
can be poured from one beaker into another back and forth as energy is transferred between stores.

You may not always be given the energy transfers happening in the system in exam questions. By
familiarising yourself with the energy stores and transfer pathways, you will be able to relate these to the

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situation in the question. For example, a ball rolling down a hill is transferring energy from the ball's
gravitational potential energy store to its kinetic energy store mechanically, whilst a spring transfers
energy from its elastic potential energy store to its kinetic energy store mechanically.

Sankey Diagrams

EXTENDED

 Diagrams are used to represent energy transfers

o These are sometimes called Sankey diagrams

 The arrow in a Sankey diagram represents the transfer of

energy:
o The end of the arrow pointing to the right
represents the energy that ends up in the desired
store (the useful energy output)
o The end(s) that point(s) down
represents the wasted energy

Total energy in, wasted energy and useful energy

out shown on a Sankey diagram

 The width of each arrow is proportional to

the amount of energy going to each store
 As a result of the conversation of energy:

Total energy in = Useful energy out + Wasted

energy

 A Sankey diagram for a modern efficient

light bulb will look very different from that for
an old filament light bulb
 A more efficient light bulb has less wasted
energy
o This is shown by the smaller arrow downwards representing the heat energy

Sankey diagram for modern vs. old filament light bulb

Worked Example

An electric motor is used to lift a weight. The diagram represents the energy transfers in the motor.

How much energy is wasted?

Step 1: State the conservation of energy

o Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can

only be transferred from one store to
another
o This means that:

Total energy in = Useful energy out + Wasted energy

Step 2: Rearrange the equation for the wasted energy

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Wasted energy = Total energy in – Useful energy out

Step 3: Substitute the values from the diagram

500 – 120 = 380 J’

1.7.5 Work Done

Work Done

 Work is done when an object is moved over a distance by

a force applied in the direction of its displacement
o It is said that the force does work on the object
o If a force is applied to an object but doesn’t result in any
movement, no work is done

Work is done when a force is used to move an object

 The formula for work done is:

Work done = force × distance

W = fd

 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula
triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

 Multiplying force and distance produces units of newton-metres (N m)

o Work is measured in Joules (J)
 This leads to a simple conversion:

1J=1Nm

 Therefore, the number of Joules is equal to the number of newton-metres, making conversions
between the units very straightforward, for example:

1000 J = 1000 N m

 One Joule is equal to the work done by a force of one newton acting through one metre

 Whenever any work is done, energy is transferred mechanically from one store to another
 The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in joules)

energy transferred (J) = work done (J)

 If a force acts in the direction that an object is moving, then the object will gain energy (usually to
its kinetic energy store)
 If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object will lose
energy (usually to the thermal energy store of the surroundings ie dissipated as heat)

 Therefore:
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W = fd = ΔE

Examples of Work

 Work is done on a ball when it is lifted to a height

above the ground
o The energy is transferred mechanically from the
ball's kinetic energy store to its gravitational
potential energy store

The weight on the ball produced by the gravitational field does

work on the ball over a distance equal to the height of the ball

 Work is done when a bird flies through the air

o The bird must travel against air resistance, therefore energy transferred from the bird's
chemical energy store to its kinetic energy store and to the thermal energy store of the
surroundings as some energy is dissipated
as heat

Air resistance (drag) does work against the bird as it flies

through the air

Worked Example

A car moving at speed begins to apply the brakes. The

brakes of the car apply a force of 500 N which brings it to
a stop after 23 m.

Calculate
the work done by the brakes in stopping the car.

Step 1: List the known quantities


o Distance, d = 23 m
o Force, F = 500 N

Step 2: Write out the equation relating work, force and distance

W=F×d

Step 3: Calculate the work done on the car by the brakes

W = 500 × 23 = 11 500 J

Exam Tip

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Remember to always convert the distance into metres and force into Newtons for the work to be
in Joules in calculations.

1.7.6 Power
Power

 Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one energy store to another every second
o The rate of this energy transfer, or the rate of work done, is called power
 Since power is defined as

The rate of doing work

 It can be expressed in equation form as

or

 Note that these two equations may be written slightly differently, but are representing the same
thing - a transfer of energy store over time

Two identical cars accelerating to the same final speed will both gain the same amount of energy in
their kinetic store. But if one of them reaches that speed sooner, it will have a greater power

 Common power ratings are shown in the table below:

Power Ratings Table

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1.7.7 Efficiency

Efficiency of Energy Transfer

 The efficiency of a system is a measure of how well energy is transferred in a system

 Efficiency is defined as:

The ratio of the useful power or energy transfer output from a system to its total power or energy
transfer input

 If a system has high efficiency, this means most of the energy transferred is useful
 If a system has low efficiency, this means most of the energy transferred is wasted

 The overall efficiency of a typical thermal power station is approximately 30%

o This means that 70% of the energy produced is wasted energy
 Energy is used to heat water to produce steam, that turns a turbine which generates electricity
o At each stage of this process, energy is dissipated to the surroundings

Image: CIE 1.8.6 Sankey diagram of power station efficiency

Calculating Efficiency

EXTENDED

 Efficiency is represented as a percentage, and can be calculated using the equation:

 The energy can be of any form e.g. gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy
 The efficiency equation can also be written in terms of power:

 Where power is defined as the energy transferred per unit of time

Worked Example

An electric motor has an efficiency of 35 %. It lifts a 7.2 kg load through a height of 5 m in 3 s. Calculate
the power of the motor.

Step 1: Write down the efficiency equation

Step 2: Rearrange for the power input

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Step 3: Calculate the power output

o The power output is equal to energy ÷ time

o The electric motor transferred electric energy into gravitational potential energy to lift the
load

Gravitational potential energy = mgh = 7.2 × 9.81 × 5 = 353.16 J

Power = 353.16 ÷ 3 = 117.72 W

Step 4: Substitute values into power input

equation

Exam Tip

Efficiency can be given in a ratio (between 0 and 1) or percentage format (between 0 and 100 %)

If the question asks for efficiency as a ratio, give your answer as a fraction or decimal.

If the answer is required as a percentage, remember to multiply the ratio by 100 to convert it: if the ratio
= 0.25, percentage = 0.25 × 100 = 25 %

Remember that efficiency has no units.

1.8.1 Energy from the Sun

The Sun

 Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the Sun:
o The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and producing waves
o Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up reservoirs
o Plants grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels – both biofuels and fossil fuels
 Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun

These include:

o Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the Earth’s core

o Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up a small proportion of the Earth’s crust
o Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational attraction of the Moon

Solar Cells

 The energy from the Sun that falls on the Earth is transferred by radiation
o Mostly visible light and infrared radiation

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  The amount of energy transferred from the Sun to the Earth each hour is equal to the energy use
of the world for one year!
 Therefore, scientists are working hard to find methods of harnessing this energy
o Solar energy has a low energy density, which means large collecting devices are required
o Collecting solar energy is expensive (due to the equipment required) and inefficient

 Solar cells transfer energy from sunlight electrically producing a current, and therefore
generating electrical power
o Solar cells, sometimes called photovoltaic cells, are made of semiconducting materials
o A number of cells connected together can supply electricity to homes, small-scale
businesses, communication devices and satellites
o Energy generated can be stored in batteries for later use

Solar cells use energy from sunlight to produce electricity

Advantages

 Solar energy is a renewable resource

 In many places on Earth sunlight is a reliable energy resource (this means that the sun shines
most of the time)
 Solar farms produce no greenhouse gases or pollution
 Solar energy can be generated in remote places where they don't have electricity
o For example to power solar street signs in rural areas

Disadvantages

 Solar farms need to be large scale to produce large amounts of electricity

o This is expensive to set up
o People often don't like the appearance of large solar farms, this is known as visual
pollution
 In many places on Earth sunlight is not a reliable energy resource (there are not enough
sunshine-hours to justify the set-up costs)

Solar Panels

 Solar panels transfer energy from sunlight to the thermal store of the solar panels which is used
to heat water in the pipes
o Solar panels can be used to warm domestic water supplies
 This can reduce the cost of producing hot water since it is heated partially by the
solar panels

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 o Solar furnaces consist of large curved mirrors that focus the sun's rays on to a small area
 These can be used to boil water, generating enough steam to turn turbines and
generate electricity in a power station

Solar panels use energy from sunlight to heat water

Advantages

 Solar energy is a renewable resource

 In many places on Earth sunlight is a reliable energy resource (this means that the sun shines
most of the time)
 Solar panels produce no greenhouse gases or pollution once they are operating
 Solar panels can cut the cost of energy bills for households

Disadvantages

 Solar furnaces need to be large scale to produce high temperatures

 Energy is still needed to heat water to a higher temperature in domestic households
 In many places on Earth sunlight is not a reliable energy resource (the sun doesn't shine
regularly enough to justify the set-up costs).

1.8.2 Energy from Fuels

Fossil Fuels

 Fossil fuels are:

o Coal
o Natural gas (mostly methane) which is used in domestic boilers and cookers
o Crude oil which is refined into petrol, diesel, and other fuels

Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas

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  Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of plants and animals
 Chemical energy stored in fossil fuels originally came from sunlight
o Energy from the sun was transferred to the chemical energy store of plants by
photosynthesis (plants use energy from sunlight to make food)
o Animals ate the plants and the energy was transferred to their chemical store

Advantages

o The current systems of transport and electricity generation rely heavily on fossil fuels
which are generally readily available on a daily basis
o In the past fossil fuels have been reliable for large scale energy production although this is
changing as supplies deplete and prices rise

Disadvantages

 It takes millions of years for fossil fuels to form

o This is why they are considered to be a non-renewable energy resource
o The increasing demand for a decreasing supply causes prices to increase
o Fossil fuels are predicted to completely run out within the next 200 years
 Burning fossil fuels pollutes the atmosphere with harmful gases such as:
o Carbon dioxide which contributes to the greenhouse effect
o Sulphur dioxide which produces acid rain
o Both carbon and sulphur can be captured upon burning preventing it from being released
into the atmosphere but this is expensive to do

Uses of Fossil Fuels

 Fossil fuels are used for:

o Transport
o Generating electricity
o Heating

Transport

 The majority of vehicles in the world are powered by petroleum products such as petrol, diesel
and kerosene
o These resources all originate from crude oil, which is a fossil fuel
 A growing number of vehicles are now being powered by electricity
o The advantage of this is that while the vehicle is being driven, it produces zero carbon
emissions
o The disadvantage is that when the vehicle is being charged, it is connected to the National
Grid, which currently uses
a combination of renewable and
non-renewable energy sources

Electricity Generation

 Electricity plays a bigger role in

people's lives than ever before
o With almost 8 billion people in
the world, this means
the demand for electricity
is extremely high
o To keep up with this demand, a
combination of all the energy

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 resources available is needed
 On the downside, the majority (84%) of the world's energy is still produced by non-renewable,
carbon-emitting sources
o This has an enormous negative impact on the environment
o Currently, scientists are working hard to develop more and more efficient ways to produce
electricity using more carbon-neutral energy resources

Pie chart of global energy consumption

Heating

 Most homes in cold countries are fitted with central heating systems
o These utilise natural gas in order to heat up water which can be pumped around radiators
throughout the home

Bio Fuels

 Biofuels are made from plant matter

o Energy from sunlight is transferred to the chemical store of plants
 Ethanol or methane can be produced and used in place of fossil fuels
o However, they have only half the energy density of fossil fuels

Advantages

o Biofuel is a renewable resource

o Some vehicles can be powered
by biofuel rather than using fossil
fuels
o Biofuel is considered to be carbon
neutral
o No sulphur dioxide is produced

Disadvantages

 Crops of biofuel producing plants must be

grown which takes time
o Growing the crops takes a lot of land,
and takes resources needed for food production
 Burning biofuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
o It is considered carbon neutral because plants take in carbon dioxide when they
photosynthesise

Plants take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, but carbon dioxide is released back into the
atmosphere when biofuels are burned

Nuclear Fuel

 Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms

can be released when the nucleus is
broken in two
o This is known as nuclear fission

Nuclear Fission: when a large nucleus is broken

into two smaller nuclei energy is released

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  Nuclear power stations use fission reactions to heat water, to turn turbines to generate electricity

Advantages

o No pollution released into atmosphere

o Nuclear reactors are perfectly safe as long as they are functioning properly
 Stringent checks must be routinely carried out and rigorous safety procedures
followed
o Nuclear power stations can generate electricity reliably on a large
scale which is available as needed

Disadvantages


o Uranium ore found in the ground is used for fission reactions and since there is a finite
supply
 Nuclear power is a non-renewable resource
o Nuclear fuels produce radioactive waste
 Radioactive waste needs to be stored for thousands of years
 Safe ways of storing radioactive waste is expensive
o If an accident occurs at a nuclear reactor, radioactive waste can leak out and spread over
large areas.

1.8.3 Energy from Water

Wave & Tide Power

 The rise and fall of waves or the tide can be used

to turn a turbine and generate electricity

Underwater turbines generate electricity

Advantages

o No pollution
o Reliable and can produce a large amount of
electricity at short notice
o Renewable energy resource
o Small systems are being developed to provide electricity for small islands

Disadvantages

o Expensive to build
o Damages fragile habitats
o Very few suitable locations
o The technology is not advanced enough for large scale electricity production

Hydroelectric Dams

 When water is stored above ground level it has energy in its gravitational potential store
 This energy can be transferred to kinetic energy if the water is allowed to flow down the slope
 Flowing water turns the turbine to generate electricity

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 A hydroelectric dam converts energy from the gravitational potential energy store of the
water to its kinetic energy store mechanically to generate electricity

Advantages

o Can respond to demand so is reliable and available

o Can generate large scale amounts of electricity

Disadvantages

Disadvantages

o Need to flood valleys to build which destroys habitats, towns and villages
o The pumping systems can release large amounts of greenhouse gases

1.8.4 Geothermal Energy

Radioactive elements deep in the Earth release energy as they decay, this geothermal energy heats
up the rocks, sometimes to a high temperature

 Water can be poured into shafts below the Earth's surface which is heated by the rocks and
returned via another shaft as steam or hot water
 Steam can be used to turn a turbine and generate electricity, and hot water can be used to heat
homes

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Cold water is heated by the rocks and returned as hot water or steam which can be used to generate
electricity

Advantages

 Renewable resource
 Reliable source of energy
 Geothermal power stations are usually small compared to nuclear or fossil fuel power stations

Disadvantages

 Few suitable locations on Earth so small scale production of electricity

 Can result in the release of greenhouse gases from underground
 Expensive to build

1.8.5 Nuclear Fusion

EXTENDED

 The Sun’s energy is produced by through the process of nuclear fusion in its core
o Nuclear fusion involves the collision (and bonding) of hydrogen nuclei to form helium
nuclei, releasing nuclear energy in the process

Fusion is the process in which small nuclei, such as hydrogen, are fused together to form larger nuclei
releasing energy in the process

 It is theoretically possible to produce a fusion reactor that could be used to generate electricity

o This technology could potentially solve the world's energy crisis

 Fusion requires extremely high temperatures, like in the centre of a star
 Scientists are currently researching how to sustain a fusion reaction at lower temperatures
o International research projects funded by some of the worlds largest businesses are
making progress with some promising results
 Currently, the fusion reactions require nearly as much energy than they produce, but progress is
being made toward net energy production
o If they succeed, virtually limitless amounts of energy could be produced, with large scale,
carbon-free electricity generation

1.9.1 Pressure & Forces

Pressure

 Pressure is defined as

The concentration of a force or the force per unit area

 For example, when a drawing pin is pushed downwards:

o It is pushed into the surface, rather than up towards the finger

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 o This is because the sharp point is more concentrated (a small area) creating
a larger pressure

When you push a drawing pin, it goes into the surface

(rather than your finger)

 Example 1: Tractors
o Tractors have large tyres
o This spreads the weight (force) of the tractor over a
large area
o This reduces the pressure which prevents the heavy tractor from sinking into the mud

 Example 2: Nails
o Nails have sharp pointed ends with a very small area
o This concentrates the force, creating a large pressure over a small area
o This allows the nail to be hammered into a wall

 The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be

calculated using the equation:

 Pressure is measured in the units Pascals (Pa)

 The area should always be the cross-sectional
area of the object
o This means the area where the force is at right
angles to it

 This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:

Pressure, force, area formula triangle

 This equation tells us that:

o If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
o If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure

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High heels produce a higher pressure on the ground because of their smaller area, compared to flat
shoes

1.9.2 Pressure in a Liquid

Pressure in Liquids

 A fluid is either a liquid or a gas

When an object is immersed in a fluid, the fluid will exert

pressure, squeezing the object

 This pressure is exerted evenly across the whole

surface of the fluid and in all directions
 The pressure exerted on objects in fluids
creates forces against surfaces
 These forces act at 90 degrees (at right angles) to
the surface

The pressure of a fluid on an object creates a force

normal (at right angles) to the surface

 The pressure of a fluid on an object will increase

with:
o Depth within the fluid
o Increased density of the fluid

Calculating Pressure in Liquids

EXTENDED

 The pressure is more accurately the difference in pressure at different depths h in a liquid, since
the pressure changes with the depth

 The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated using the equation

Δp = ρgΔh

 Where:
o Δp = change in pressure in pascals (Pa)
 Where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
o ρ = density of the liquid in kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)
o g = gravitational field strength on Earth in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
o Δh = change in height of the column in
metres (m)

 The force from the pressure is exerted evenly

across the whole surface of an object in a liquid,
and in all directions

The force from the pressure of objects in a liquid is

exerted evenly across its whole surface

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Worked Example

Calculate the depth of water in a swimming pool where a pressure of 20 kPa is exerted. The density of
water is 1000 kg/m3 and the gravitational field strength on Earth is 9.8 N/kg.

Exam Tip

This pressure equation will be given on your formula sheet, however, make sure you are comfortable
with rearranging it for the variable required in the question!

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