Introduction to Media and Communication

Syllabus

Unit I Media and Everyday Life

Mobile phones, Television, Ring tones, Twitter The Internet‐ discussion around
media and everyday life, Discussions around mediated and non mediated
communication

Unit II Communication and Mass Communication

Communication, Types of Communication, Barriers to effectiveness,

Unit III Mass Communication and Effects Paradigm

Direct Effects; Mass Society Theory, Propaganda, Limited Effects; Individual
Difference Theory, Personal Influence Theory

Unit IV Cultural Effects and the Emergence of an Alternative Paradigm

Cultural Effects: Agenda Setting, Spiral of Silence, Cultivation Analysis, Critique
of the effects Paradigm and emergence of alternative paradigm

Unit V Four Models of Communication

Transmission models, Ritual or Expressive models, Publicity Model, Reception
Model

Introduction to Media and Communication

Tutorial

Unit I Media and Everyday Life

Discussion around media and everyday life

From the wealth of theoretical aspects of action and experience, which Schütz
develops, two concepts which offer immediate help in understanding television
are picked out: the ordinariness and familiarity of everyday life; action and its
constituting process in everyday life. Ordinariness and familiarity For the present
generation of researchers, one aspect of everyday life in relation to children's,
young people's and families' use of television is hard to understand: television as
"the unquestioned reality" of current everyday life, as television only became
apart of everyday life for the researchers when they were older. Only the present
generation of children, teenagers or young adults grew up with television as a
quite normal and ordinary matter. Children and young people take for granted
this their everyday world, that is in the ubiquitous media and consumer network,
as their parents' generation structured and organised their lives around the car.
This everyday world of media and consumption as "unquestioned reality"
conveys the idea, as it always has, of one's own world being a universal valid
constant as it always was: Schütz speaks of the ordinariness of the everyday
world as a universal constant: the "structures of the world ", the "validity of our
experiences of the world" and our chances for influencing the world - all this is
accepted as something valid and constant. This constancy of experience and
action - which includes present day television and the way people respond to it -
confront the media educationalist with considerable problems: how to handle and
reflect something as a problem of special meaning and "relevance" although its
everyday occurrence does not give cause to do so. The researcher must equally
take fundamental account in his research plan of the constancy of television and
its ordinariness in everyday life, This goes beyond questions of research
methods, e.g, that television taken for granted as an element of everyday life
excludes simple questioning techniques: you do not really know the point at
issue. That means that questions about everyday life can only offer superficial
explanations, by providing information about watching patterns, e.g. switching on
times. Of decisive importance for research, on the other hand, is to take a close
look at action and at what people tell researchers, seeing this information as a
representation of their complex everyday world. In terms of research strategy,
this means using research observation and informative documents to uncover
the very varied layers of everyday life and of the mediation process of experience
and action in relation to the ordinary everyday reality of mass communication.
This leads to interpretation methods in which texts which at first sight appear
simple and insignificant (they are after all understandable in an everyday sense)
are analysed from very abstract and theoretical perspectives, which make
everyday life seem questionable. One question, for instance, then to be asked is,
to what extent well-known television genres and young people's patterns of
action relate to each other. Patterns of action and interpretation In order to get
closer to the symbolic quallty of television and its integration into everyday life, it
is appropriate to consider Schütz's argument that patterns of "expression and
interpretation" structure everyday life: although it is an unquestionable reality, we
organise the "social world" of everyday life by means of the "socially conditioned
schemata of expression and interpretation prevailing in the group to which we
belong." These schemata' 'also co-determine what within our culture is accepted
as unquestionable, what can become questionable and what appears as worthy
of questioning". These schemata of expression and interpretation have, over and
above this reflective significance for everyday life, the general function of a
"common schema of interpretation of the common world." They are "a means of
mutual agreement and understanding". In the relationship of a subject to the
world and to other people, which is always mediated via interpretative schemata,
television today also plays an interpretative role. The status of television's
interpretative role can now be empirically characterized. This in terpretative.role
results from the common origins of interpretative schemata which bring action
and experience together in a reflexive fashion. Thus nowadays television
watching and those experiences linked with it (e.g. the everyday life of the family)
enter into structuring interpretative schemata, while this relationship, because it is
part of an unquestioned reality, is not reflected upon. One cannot reflect about
how and why television experiences, family life, action, other experiences and
interpretation should aIl be linked in a coherent process. These interpretative
schemata arise because experiences are integrated in the prescribed "total
context of experience. In this reflexive process of interpretation and experience in
the given framework of a personal biography, television in various sequences
has its own role for example as an experience which is integrated, or for example
as an interpretative scheme which integrates experiences. Furthermore,
television might weIl structure complex areas of experiences by providing
particular patterns of order Television has, therefore, the cultural function of
integrating and developing everyday patterns of action and interpretation in terms
of classifying schemes. It is not easy, from a methodological point of view, to
work using this complex structure of interpretations, experiences, interpretative
schemes and patterns of order as a research object, for these processes relate
reflexively the one to the other and do have the quality of ambiguous events and
thus are not to be described definitely, This complex relationship is not only
dependent on the respective individual and cultural situations but also, as it is a
reflexive process, it is always new and also uniquely in a state of flux.

Mobile phones,

A mobile phone, known as a cell phone in North America, is a

portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link
while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link
establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator,
which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern
mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture, and, therefore,
mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones, in North
America. In addition to telephony, 2000s-era mobile phones support a variety of
other services, such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-
range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business
applications, video games, and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only
those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer
greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.
The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F.
Mitchel and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.
2 kilograms (4.4 lbs) In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched
the world's first cellular network in Japan. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the
first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014,
worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion, penetrating
virtually 100% of the global population and reaching even the bottom of the
economic pyramid. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers
worldwide were Samsung, Apple, and Huawei (and "[smartphone sales
represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales"). For feature phones (or
"dumbphones") as of 2016, the largest were Samsung, Nokia, and Alcatel.

Television,

Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving

images in monochrome (black and white), or in colour, and in two or three
dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a television set, a television
program ("TV show"), or the medium of television transmission. Television is
a mass medium for advertising, entertainment and news.
Television became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but it
would still be several years before the new technology would be marketed to
consumers. After World War II, an improved form of black-and-white TV
broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television
sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During the
1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion. In the
mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US and most other
developed countries. The availability of multiple types of archival storage media
such as Betamax, VHS tape, local disks, DVDs, flash drives, high-definition Blu-
ray Discs, and cloud digital video recorders have enabled viewers to watch pre-
recorded material—such as movies— at home on their own time schedule. For
many reasons, especially the convenience of remote retrieval, the storage of
television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first
decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in
popularity. Another development was the move from standard-definition
television (SDTV) (576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution and 480i) to high-
definition television (HDTV), which provides a resolution that is substantially
higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats: 1080p, 1080i and 720p.
Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has
increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet
through streaming video services such as Netflix, Amazon
Video, iPlayer, Hulu, Roku and Chromecast.
In 2013, 79% of the world's households owned a television set. The replacement
of early bulky, high-voltage cathode ray tube (CRT) screen displays with
compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such
as LCDs (bothfluorescent-backlit and LED), OLED displays, and plasma
displays was a hardware revolution that began with computer monitors in the late
1990s. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major
manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even
fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are
expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs. Also, major manufacturers have
announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart
TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of
television by the late 2010s.
Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using
high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual
television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by coaxial
cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and, since the 2000s via the Internet. Until
the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, but a transition to
digital television is expected to be completed worldwide by the late 2010s. A
standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits,
including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display
device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a
television.

Ring tones,

A ringtone or ring tone is the sound made by a telephone to indicate an

incoming call or text message. Not literally a tone nor an actual (bell-like) ring any
more, the term is most often used today to refer to customizable sounds used
on mobile phones.

Twitter

Twitter is an online news and social networking service on which users post and
interact with messages known as "tweets". Tweets were originally restricted to
140 characters, but on November 7, 2017, this limit was doubled for all
languages except Japanese, Korean, and Chinese. Registered users can post
tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them. Users access Twitter
through its website interface, through Short Message Service (SMS) or mobile-
device application software ("app").Twitter, Inc. is based in San Francisco,
California, and has more than 25 offices around the world.
Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and
Evan Williams and launched in July of that year. The service rapidly gained
worldwide popularity. In 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million
tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search
queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has
been described as "the SMS of the Internet". As of 2016, Twitter had more
than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U.S. presidential
election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, with 40 million
election-related tweets sent by 10 p.m. (Eastern Time) that day.

The Internet

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use
the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of
networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless,
and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents
and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony,
and file sharing.
The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the federal
government of the United States in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant
communication with computer networks. The primary precursor network, the
ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional
academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of the National
Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private
funding for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the
development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many
networks. The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s
marks the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a
sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal,
and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was
widely used by academia since the 1980s, the commercialization incorporated its
services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.
Most traditional communications media, including telephony, radio, television,
paper mail and newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the
Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephony, Internet
television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites.
Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology,
or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The
Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions
through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking.Online
shopping has grown exponentially both for major retailers and small
businesses and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their "brick and
mortar" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services
entirely online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet
affect supply chains across entire industries.
The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological
implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets
its own policies. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name
spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and
the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization,
the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The
technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely
affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing
technical expertise.

Discussions around mediated and non mediated communication

Mediated communication or mediated interaction (less often, mediated

discourse) refers to communication carried out by the use of information
communication technology and can be contrasted to face-to-face
communication. While nowadays the technology we use is often related to
computers, giving rise to the popular term computer-mediated communication,
mediated technology need not be computerized as writing a letter using a pen
and a piece of paper is also using mediated communication. Thus, Davis defines
mediated communication as the use of any technical medium for transmission
across time and space.
Historically, mediated communication was much rarer than the face-to-face
method. Even though humans possessed the technology to communicate in
space and time for millennia, the majority of the world's population lacked skills
such as literacy to use them. This began to change in Europe with the invention
of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg that led to the spread of printed
texts and rising literacy from the 15th century. Separately, the first print
culture was Chinese in origin. Whatever the tradition, face-to-face interaction has
begun to steadily lose ground to mediated communication.
Compared to face-to-face communication, mediated communication engages
fewer senses, transmits fewer symbolic cues (most mediated communication
does not transmit facial expressions) and is seen as more private. Parties usually
require some technical expertise to operate the mediating technologies. New
computerized media, such as mobile telephones orinstant messaging, allow
mediated communication to transmit more oral and nonverbal symbols than the
older generation of tools.
The type of mediated technology used can also influence its meaning. This is
most famously rendered in Marshall McLuhan's maxim "the medium is the
message".
Lundby (2009) distinguished between three forms of mediated communication:
mediated interpersonal communication,interactive communication, and mass
communication. Thompson (1995), however, treated mass communication not as
a part of mediated communication, but on par with mediated and face-to-face
communication, terming it "mediated quasi-interaction"

Differences from face-to-face communication

There are only a few ways that mediated communication and face-to-face
communication function similarly. One of them is that interpersonal
coordination is present in both face-to-face and mediated
communication. However, mediated communication has vast differences and
limitations compared with face-to-face communication. Writing in communication
media and speech in face-to-face communication are different in terms of
their lexical density, range of grammatical structures, varied connectivity between
sentences, syntax, permanence, etc. These differences in each type of
communication can change the message. Texting and e-mail, for example,
contain combined forms of writing and speech, which is evident
by slang and shorthand. Also, no nonverbal cues can be sent through mediated
communication, so received information can be harder to understand.[12] Verbal
(or textual) cues are used instead of nonverbal ones to convey the same
messages.
Individuals send more information at a time through computer media than any
other form of communication, including face-to-face communication. This
increased rate of information transfer allows abusive forms of communication like
cyber bullying and phishing to
occur. The disassociation and disinhibition associated with mediated
communication can cause people who are being deceived to have trouble
interpreting the reactions of the deceiver since information sent through media
instead of face-to-face can lose or have change the nonverbal cues within it, and,
with that, signs of deception. The decreased availability of these nonverbal cues
increases disassociation and anonymity. It is easier to trust someone else
through mediated communication, but people with less trust can detect deception
better online.
Because of the limitations of mediated communication, Nardi and Whittaker
(2002) note, "Many theorists imply that face-to-face communication is the gold
standard of communication. Mediated communication has been, however,
described as more preferable in some situations, particularly where time and
geographical distance are an issue. For example, in maintaining long-distance
friendship, face-to-face communication was only the fourth most common way of
maintaining ties, after mediated communication tools of telephone, email
and instant messaging.

Uses
Individuals will use different types of media depending on their
motivations, communication purpose, institutional factors, and situational
factors. Also, people will be more inclined to use a particular medium of
communication if others associated with them use that medium; this is called
the network effect. Motivations for using certain media are divided into strong-
and weak-tie communication. There are five communication purposes:
coordination, knowledge-sharing, information gathering, relationship
development, and conflict resolution. Institutional factors include the physical
structure of work units, social structure, and incentives. Situational factors include
task characteristics, message content, and urgency.
Mediated communication is not as commonly used as face-to-face
communication in the workplace, but there are different preferred media of
communication for simple forms of coordination. E-mails and phone calls tend to
be used for simple or complex coordination, but e-mails are also useful for
retaining information and recording the exchange of information. In terms of
communication solutions to certain situational factors, e-mails are used for
recording the transfer of information and sending long, complex, and non-textual
information, and phone calls and pagers are used for immediate communication.
E-mails and phone calls are also used in knowledge sharing and information
gathering. E-mails are rarely used to accomplish relationship goals, but they are
used for conflict resolution. Individuals have a higher motivation to use cell-phone
texting for weak-tie communication. The network effect has the most impact on e-
mail, meaning that people tend to use e-mail more if their peers use it, too.

Unit II Communication and Mass Communication

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") is the act of

conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the
use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules.
The main steps inherent to all communication are:

1. The formation of communicative motivation or reason.

2. Message composition (further internal or technical elaboration on what
exactly to express).
3. Message encoding (for example, into digital data, written text, speech,
pictures, gestures and so on).
4. Transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a
specific channel or medium.
5. Noise sources such as natural forces and in some cases human activity
(both intentional and accidental) begin influencing the quality of signals
propagating from the sender to one or more receivers.
6. Reception of signals and reassembling of the encoded message from a
sequence of received signals.
7. Decoding of the reassembled encoded message.
8. Interpretation and making sense of the presumed original message.
The scientific study of communication can be divided into:

 Information theory which studies the quantification, storage, and

communication of information in general;
 Communication studies which concerns human communication;
 Biosemiotics which examines communication in and between living
organisms in general.
The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile (such as in Braille)
and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, or biochemical.
Human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language.
Development of civilization has been closely linked
with progress in telecommunication.

Non-verbal
Nonverbal communication describes the processes of conveying a type of
information in the form of non-linguistic representations. Examples of nonverbal
communication include haptic communication, chronemic
communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and
how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to the intent of a
message. Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a
hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains
nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e.g. rhythm, intonation, tempo, and
stress. It affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes
trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting
style, the spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey
emotion.
Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawick's laws: you cannot
not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin
interpreting any signals received. Some of the functions of nonverbal
communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and
emphasize, to replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict
the denovative message.
Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret
others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. However,
non-verbal communication is ambiguous. When verbal messages contradict non-
verbal messages, observation of non-verbal behaviour is relied on to judge
another’s attitudes and feelings, rather than assuming the truth of the verbal
message alone.
There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a vital role
in communication:
“Non-verbal communication is omnipresent.” They are included in every single
communication act. To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such
as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch, distance, timing, and other
environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction. Written
communication can also have non-verbal attributes. E-mails and web chats allow
an individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and
capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium.
“Non-verbal behaviours are multifunctional.” Many different non-verbal channels
are engaged at the same time in communication acts and allow the chance for
simultaneous messages to be sent and received.
“Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system.” Smiling, crying,
pointing, caressing, and glaring are non-verbal behaviours that are used and
understood by people regardless of nationality. Such non-verbal signals allow the
most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective
due to language barriers.

Verbal
Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message.
Human language can be defined as a system of symbols (sometimes known
as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated.
The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language
learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the
thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols
which enable communication with others around them. Languages tend to share
certain properties, although there are exceptions. There is no defined
line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such
as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalism is
not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.
As previously mentioned, language can be characterized as symbolic. Charles
Ogden and I.A Richards developed The Triangle of Meaning model to explain the
symbol (the relationship between a word), the referent (the thing it describes),
and the meaning (the thought associated with the word and the thing)
The properties of language are governed by rules. Language follows
phonological rules (sounds that appear in a language), syntactic rules
(arrangement of words and punctuation in a sentence), semantic rules (the
agreed upon meaning of words), and pragmatic rules (meaning derived upon
context).
The meanings that are attached to words can be literal, or otherwise known as
denotative; relating to the topic being discussed, or, the meanings take context
and relationships into account, otherwise known as connotative; relating to the
feelings, history, and power dynamics of the communicators.

Written communication and its historical development

Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through the
continuing progression of technology. Advances include communications
psychology and media psychology, an emerging field of study.
The progression of written communication can be divided into three "information
communication revolutions":

1. Written communication first emerged through the use of pictographs.

The pictograms were made in stone, hence written communication was
not yet mobile. Pictograms began to develop standardized and simplified
forms.
2. The next step occurred when writing began to appear on paper, papyrus,
clay, wax, and other media with commonly shared writing systems,
leading to adaptable alphabets. Communication became mobile.
3. The final stage is characterized by the transfer of information through
controlled waves of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio, microwave,
infrared) and other electronic signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in
an attempt to create shared understanding. Gregory Bateson called it "the
replication of tautologies in the universe. This process, which requires a vast
repertoire of skills in interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking,
questioning, analyzing, gestures, and evaluating
enables collaboration and cooperation.

Business
Business communication is used for a wide variety of activities including, but not
limited to: strategic communications planning, media relations, public relations
(which can include social media, broadcast and written communications, and
more), brand management, reputation management, speech-writing, customer-
client relations, and internal/employee communications.
Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these
activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of
communications. Since it is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills,
communications professionals often specialize in one or two of these areas but
usually have at least a working knowledge of most of them. By far, the most
important qualifications communications professionals can possess are excellent
writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the capacity to think critically and
strategically.

Political
Communication is one of the most relevant tools in political strategies, including
persuasion and propaganda. In mass media research and online media
research, the effort of the strategist is that of getting a precise decoding, avoiding
"message reactance", that is, message refusal. The reaction to a message is
referred also in terms of approach to a message, as follows:

 In "radical reading" the audience rejects the meanings, values, and

viewpoints built into the text by its makers. Effect: message refusal.
 In "dominant reading", the audience accepts the meanings, values, and
viewpoints built into the text by its makers. Effect: message acceptance.
 In "subordinate reading" the audience accepts, by and large, the
meanings, values, and worldview built into the text by its makers. Effect: obey
to the message.
Holistic approaches are used by communication campaign leaders and
communication strategists in order to examine all the options, "actors" and
channels that can generate change in the semiotic landscape, that is, change
in perceptions, change in credibility, change in the "memetic background",
change in the image of movements, of candidates, players and managers as
perceived by key influencers that can have a role in generating the desired "end-
state".
The modern political communication field is highly influenced by the framework
and practices of "information operations" doctrines that derive their nature from
strategic and military studies. According to this view, what is really relevant is the
concept of acting on the Information Environment. The information environment
is the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process,
disseminate, or act on information. This environment consists of three
interrelated dimensions, which continuously interact with individuals,
organizations, and systems. These dimensions are known as physical,
informational, and cognitive.
Family
Family communication is the study of the communication perspective in a broadly
defined family, with intimacy and trusting relationship. The main goal of family
communication is to understand the interactions of family and the pattern of
behaviors of family members in different circumstances. Open and honest
communication creates an atmosphere that allows family members to express
their differences as well as love and admiration for one another. It also helps to
understand the feelings of one another.
Family communication study looks at topics such as family rules, family roles or
family dialectics and how those factors could affect the communication between
family members. Researchers develop theories to understand communication
behaviors. Family communication study also digs deep into certain time periods
of family life such as marriage, parenthood or divorce and how communication
stands in those situations. It is important for family members to understand
communication as a trusted way which leads to a well constructed family.

Interpersonal
In simple terms, interpersonal communication is the communication between one
person and another (or others). It is often referred to as face-to-face
communication between two (or more) people. Both verbal and nonverbal
communication, or body language, play a part in how one person understands
another. In verbal interpersonal communication there are two types of messages
being sent: a content message and a relational message. Content messages are
messages about the topic at hand and relational messages are messages about
the relationship itself. This means that relational messages come across
in how one says something and it demonstrates a person’s feelings, whether
positive or negative, towards the individual they are talking to, indicating not only
how they feel about the topic at hand, but also how they feel about their
relationship with the other individual.
There are many different aspects of interpersonal communication including;
- Audiovisual Perception of Communication Problems

 The concept follows the idea that our words change what form they take
based on the stress level or urgency of the situation.
 It also explores the concept that stuttering during speech shows the
audience that there is a problem or that the situation is more stressful.
- The Attachment Theory
 This is the combined work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth
& Bowlby, 1991)
 This theory follows the relationships that builds between a mother and
child, and the impact it has on their relationships with others.
- Emotional Intelligence and Triggers

 Emotional Intelligence focuses on the ability to monitor ones own

emotions as well as those of others.
 Emotional Triggers focus on events or people that tend to set off intense,
emotional reactions within individuals.
- Attribution Theory

 This is the study of how individuals explain what causes different events
and behaviors.
- The Power of Words (Verbal communications)

 Verbal communication focuses heavily on the power of words, and how

those words are said.
 It takes into consideration tone, volume, and choice of words.
- Nonverbal Communication

 Focuses heavily on the setting that the words are conveyed in.
 As well as the physical tone of the words.
- Ethics in Personal Relations

 It is about a space of mutual responsibility between two individuals, it’s

about giving and receiving in a relationship.
 This theory is explored by Dawn J. Lipthrott in the article What IS
Relationship? What is Ethical Partnership?
- Deception in Communication

 This concept goes into that everyone lies, and how this can impact
relationships.
 This theory is explored by James Hearn in his article Interpersonal
Deception Theory: Ten Lessons for Negotiators
- Conflict in Couples
 This focuses on the impact that social media has on relationships.
 As well as how to communicate through conflict.
 This theory is explored by Amanda Lenhart and Maeve Duggan in their
paper Couples, the Internet, and Social Media

Barriers to effectiveness
Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message or intention
of the message being conveyed. This may result in failure of the communication
process or cause an effect that is undesirable. These include filtering, selective
perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence, communication
apprehension, gender differences and political correctness
This also includes a lack of expressing "knowledge-appropriate" communication,
which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical
jargon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is not understood by the
recipient.

 Physical barriers- Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the
environment. An example of this is the natural barrier which exists if staff is
located in different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated
equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new
technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor
which frequently causes communication difficulties for an organization.
 System design- System design faults refer to problems with the
structures or systems in place in an organization. Examples might include an
organizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to
know whom to communicate with. Other examples could be inefficient or
inappropriate information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a
lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to staff being
uncertain about what is expected of them.
 Attitudinal barriers- Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of
problems with staff in an organization. These may be brought about, for
example, by such factors as poor management, lack of consultation with
employees, personality conflicts which can result in people delaying or
refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees
which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought
 about by insufficient training to enable them to carry out particular tasks, or
simply resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.
 Ambiguity of words/phrases- Words sounding the same but having
different meaning can convey a different meaning altogether. Hence the
communicator must ensure that the receiver receives the same meaning. It is
better if such words are avoided by using alternatives whenever possible.
 Individual linguistic ability- The use of jargon, difficult or inappropriate
words in communication can prevent the recipients from understanding the
message. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in
confusion. However, research in communication has shown that confusion
can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.
 Physiological barriers- These may result from individuals' personal
discomfort, caused—for example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing
difficulties.
 Bypassing-These happens when the communicators (sender and the
receiver) do not attach the same symbolic meanings to their words. It is when
the sender is expressing a thought or a word but the receiver takes it in a
different meaning. For example- ASAP, Rest room
 Technological multi-tasking and absorbency- With a rapid increase in
technologically-driven communication in the past several decades, individuals
are increasingly faced with condensed communication in the form of e-mail,
text, and social updates. This has, in turn, led to a notable change in the way
younger generations communicate and perceive their own self-efficacy to
communicate and connect with others. With the ever-constant presence of
another "world" in one's pocket, individuals are multi-tasking both physically
and cognitively as constant reminders of something else happening
somewhere else bombard them. Though perhaps too new of an
advancement to yet see long-term effects, this is a notion currently explored
by such figures as Sherry Turkle.
 Fear of being criticized-This is a major factor that prevents good
communication. If we exercise simple practices to improve our
communication skill, we can become effective communicators. For example,
read an article from the newspaper or collect some news from the television
and present it in front of the mirror. This will not only boost your confidence
but also improve your language and vocabulary.
 Gender barriers- Most communicators whether aware or not, often have
a set agenda. This is very notable among the different genders. For example,
many women are found to be more critical in addressing conflict. It's also
 been noted that men are more than likely to withdraw from conflict when in
comparison to women. This breakdown and comparison not only shows that
there are many factors to communication between two specific genders but
also room for improvement as well as established guidelines for all.

Unit III Mass Communication and Effects Paradigm

Direct Effects; Mass Society Theory,

Mass society theory is a complex, multifaceted perspective. As applied to social

movements, however, the basic idea is that people who are socially isolated are
especially vulnerable to the appeals of extremist movements. The theory
resonated with fears of fascist and communist movements in the 1930s and
1940s and reached its apogee in the late 1950s.

Mass society theory is a complex, multifaceted perspective. As applied to social

movements, however, the basic idea is that people who are socially isolated are
especially vulnerable to the appeals of extremist movements. The theory
resonated with fears of fascist and communist movements in the 1930s and
1940s and reached its apogee in the late 1950s.

Ideologically, the concept of mass society has been used by conservative

thinkers to express dismay about the leveling tendencies of industrial society and
the declining influence of family and community (Swingewood 1977). It has also
been used by radical thinkers to bemoan the manner in which large bureaucratic
institutions (especially in the guise of mass culture) can pacify populations and
reinforce the status quo (Marcuse 1964).

An important sociological predecessor is Emile Durkheim's analysis of modern

society and the rise of individualism. With increasing size and complexity, social
integration became problematic in two ways. Anomie involves insufficient
regulation of behavior while egoism involves excessive individuation of people.
Both signify weakened social integration and loosened social controls that
contribute to dysfunctional outcomes, including suicide (Durkheim 1897). The
same logic applies to many types of unconventional behavior.

The mass was one type of collective behavior subsequently identified by the
Chicago School of Sociology (Blumer 1951). Alongside crowds, publics, and
social movements, masses are distinguished by their large size, anonymous
nature, loose organization, and infrequent interaction. As such, the concept of a
mass connotes a group ripe for manipulation and control.

C. Wright Mills 1956 recognized these dangers in his analysis of the power elite.
It gained power in part because of the transformation of publics enjoying
democratic dialogue and political influence into masses with neither. With the
transformation of publics into masses, “[a]t the end of the road there is
totalitarianism, as in Nazi Germany or in Communist Russia” (Mills 1956: 304).

It was in this context that William Kornhauser—trained in Chicago School

sociology—wrote The Politics of Mass Society (1959). It remains one of the most
explicit statements of the alleged links between mass society and social
movements. Written in the shadow of aforementioned totalitarian tendencies,
mass society theory sought to explain the rise of extremism abroad and the
dangers to democracy at home. Recalling Durkheim's analysis of egoism and
anomie, mass society emerges when small local groups and networks decline,
leaving powerful elites and massive bureaucracies on one side and isolated
individuals on the other. As Kornhauser wrote: “Mass society is objectively
theatomized society, and subjectively the alienated population. Therefore, mass
society is a system in which there is high availability of a population for
mobilization by elites…[p]eople who are atomized readily become mobilized”
(Kornhauser 1959: 33, emphasis in original). Put slightly differently, mass society
is one where “both elites and non‐elites lack social insulation; that is, when elites
are accessible to direct intervention by non‐elites, and when non‐elites are
available for direct mobilization by elites” (Kornhauser 1959: 43, emphasis in
original).

In a healthy pluralist democracy, both elites and non‐elites are partially insulated,
intermediate groups are strong, and normal channels of influence are robust. In
mass society, both groups lose this insulation, intermediate social buffers erode,
normal channels are ineffective or bypassed, and extremism becomes more
likely.

Mass movements pursue remote, extreme objectives and mobilize uprooted,

atomized people (Kornhauser 1959: 47). Thus, “[m]ass movements mobilize
people who are alienated from the going system, who do not believe in the
legitimacy of the established order, and who therefore are ready to engage in
efforts to destroy it. The greatest number of people available to mass movements
will be found in those sections of society that have the fewest ties to the social
order…”

This description of mass movements reflects the collective behavior depiction of

mass behavior with a remote focus of attention, a declining sense of reality and
responsibility, and a highly unstable, shifting focus of attention and intensity of
response (Kornhauser 1959: 43–46). This depiction thus links the politics of
collective behavior with unreasoning and extremist threats to social order.

Subsequent analysis and research have led many to conclude that the idea that
the most socially isolated are most likely to engage in mass politics “is almost
certainly false” (Rule 1988: 109). Those who are socially isolated are actually
less likely to join while those who are embedded in preexisting social ties are
disproportionately likely to do so (Oberschall 1973). Chicago School sociologists
Turner and Killian (1987: 390) themselves note that “[s]ubsequent study of
totalitarian movements has raised serious questions about the applicability of
Kornhauser's concept of mass movement.”

Other researchers concur that “[v]irtually all of the major claims of the theory
have been controverted by an overwhelming body of evidence” (Hamilton 2001:
12). Despite its largely discredited status among academics, literary and
journalistic proponents of this perspective enjoy a much wider and perhaps more
credulous audience. As a result, “mass society theory proves well‐nigh
indestructible” (Hamilton 2001: 12) despite its logical flaws and empirical
shortcomings.

Propaganda,

Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily

to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts
selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded
language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the
information that is presented. Propaganda is often associated with material
prepared by governments, but activist groups, companies and the media can
also produce propaganda.
In the twentieth century, the term propaganda has been associated with
a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive
term. A wide range of materials and media are used for conveying propaganda
messages, which changed as new technologies were invented, including
paintings, cartoons, posters, pamphlets, films, radio shows, TV shows,
and websites.
In a 1929 literary debate with Edward Bernays, Everett Dean Martin argues that,
“Propaganda is making puppets of us. We are moved by hidden strings which the
propagandist manipulates.”

Limited Effects;

Mass Media is a primary dispenser of Propaganda and has an important role in

influencing the public opinion. However, media researchers have varied and
contrasting opinions on the extent and type of such influence and whether mass
media has the power to sway public discourse.

This paper aims to analyse the Limited effects theory, proposed by Paul
Lazarsfeld, which states that media effect on people’s deep set opinions and
thoughts is limited or even minimal.

Paul Lazarsfeld research findings were methodological in nature, based on

statistical survey analysis and empirical media measurement. He conducted a
survey on thousand voters, before the US Presidential elections of 1940. He
classified around 3000 voters, basis their voting patterns into early deciders,
wavers, converts and crystallizers.

Lazarsfeld noted that wavers and converts were comparatively more influenced
by interpersonal communication than by mass media. These people followed
influencers and their opinions rather than what was broadcast by mass media.
Lazarsfeld hence, classified voters into the following categories

Opinion Followers

Gatekeepers

Media
Opinion Leaders

This model stipulates that the mass media content is first filtered by gatekeepers,
whose personal bias affects the interpretation. Thereafter, it reaches opinion
leaders i.e people who are active media users. The filtered version is then
diffused to the less active media consumers. Lazarsfeld’s theory can be termed
as a classist theory as it assumes that media influence is subject to interpretation
by the elite and the educated. It also implies that interpersonal communication
has a greater role to play in shaping opinions than mass media. Another insight it
provides is on the prominent role of influencers and gatekeepers in mass media.

During the 2015 Bihar Assembly elections, political strategist Prashant kishore
employed the old fashioned door to door campaigning as a part of JDU’s outreach
initiative. “Har Ghar Dastak” helped the party to connect with grassroots and build
local support. Volunteers were roped in to campaign for the party on cycles and
cover remote areas.

In a way, limited effects theory questioned the paradigm of direct media influence,
a notion that prevailed till late 1930’s. Mc Quail recognises four stages of research
in media effects. The first stage, dominated by the experience of propaganda
during World War one, recognised media’s role as decisive, opinion shaping and
with the capability to change attitude and lifestyle. This gave emergence to the
“Hypodermic needle” model. The second stage, which extends from 1940s to late
1960s, questioned the paradigm of direct media and was called the theory of
“Limited Effects”. This theory established that an individual is selective in terms of
his exposure, retention and perception. The theory concluded that rather than
influencing opinions, media merely “reinforced” existing opinions.

Individual Difference Theory,

Individual differences is a cornerstone subject area in modern psychology. In

many ways, it is the "classic" psychology that the general public refers to - it
refers the psychology of the person - the psychological differences between
people and their similarities.
Plato stated more than 2000 years ago:
�No two persons are born exactly alike; but each differs from the other in natural
endowments, one being suited for one occupation and the other for another.
Individual difference psychology examines how people are similar and how they
differ in their thinking, feeling and behaviour. No two people are alike, yet no
two people are unlike. So, in the study of individual differences we strive to
understand ways in which people are psychologically similar and particularly
what psychological characteristics vary between people.
In the Western psychology approach to individual differences, it is generally
assumed that:
 People vary on a range of psychological attributes
 It is possible to measure and study these individual differences
 individual differences are useful for explaining and predicting behaviour
and performance
We can classify people psychologically, according to their intelligence and
personality characteristics, for example, with moderate success, however
people are complex and much is still left unexplained. There are multiple and
often conflicting theories and evidence about individual difference psychology.
Human beings have been aware of individual differences throughout history,
e.g.
 Gender differences -hunters=men, gatherers=women
 Intelligence differences - caste, class, education, etc.
 Personality differences - job specialisations

Early study of individual differences

We have come a long way since Franz Gall invented phrenology in the early
1800s. Phrenology is the study of an individual's bumps on the skull, which
supposedly reveal character traits and mental abilities.
Phrenology had such vogue that by 1832 there were 29 phrenological societies
in Britain and many journals in both the UK and US devoted to the study of
phrenology. It was seriously proposed to select Members of Parliament from
their "bumps". Some phrenologists even moulded children's heads to
accentuate good qualities and minimise bad ones!
Despite the theory being incorrect one of its assumptions holds true: the idea
that various brain regions have particular functions.

Darwin suggested that nature selects successful traits through the �survival of
the fittest�. His cousin, Sir Francis Galton(1822-1911) concluded that he could
apply the principle scientifically. Why not measure human traits and then
selectively breed superior people? He assumed human traits, everything from
height and beauty to intelligence and ability, to personality traits such as even-
temperedness, were inherited.

Modern psychology has formalised the study of individual differences over the
last 100 years. Individual differences psychology is still a young science and a
relatively recent development in modern psychology. There are still many
debates and issues. Current knowledge will change and evolve. So, have an
open-minded, but critical perspective as we go along!
Since there are multiple and controversial viewpoints, it is necessary to move
beyond reliance on personally preferred viewpoints to also embrace alternative
perspectives, particularly those which are utilized in psychological practice and
which have solid research support.

Personal Influence Theory

Two-step flow model of communication, theory of communication that

proposes that interpersonal interaction has a far stronger effect on shaping public

opinion than mass media outlets.

The two-step flow model was formulated in 1948 by Paul Lazarsfeld,Bernard

Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in the book The People’s Choice, after research into

voters’ decision-making processes during the 1940 U.S. presidential election. It

stipulates that mass media content first reaches “opinion leaders,” people who

are active media users and who collect, interpret, and diffuse the meaning of

media messages to less-active media consumers. According to the authors,

opinion leaders pick up information from the media, and this information then

gets passed on to less-active members of the public. This implies that most

people receive information from opinion leaders through interpersonal

communication rather than directly from mass media. Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and

Gaudet discovered that most voters in the 1940 election got their information

about the candidates from other people who read about the campaign in the

newspapers, not directly from the media. Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet

concluded that word-of-mouth transmission of information plays an important role

in the communication process and that mass media have only a limited influence

on most individuals.

The theory of the two-step flow of communication reversed the

dominant paradigm in mass communication at the time. Before Lazarsfeld’s

study, it was assumed that mass media have a direct influence on a mass

audience who consume and absorb media messages. Media were thought to
significantly influence people’s decisions and behaviours. However, the research

done by Lazarsfeld and others showed that only about 5 percent of people

changed their voting preference as a result of media consumption and that

interpersonal discussions of political issues were more prevalent than

consumption of political news within one typical day. Factors such as

interpersonal communication with family members, friends, and members of

one’s social and professional circles turned out to be better predictors of a

person’s voting behaviour than that person’s media exposure. These findings

came to be known as the “limited effects paradigm” of media influence,

explicated more fully by Joseph Klapper in The Effects of Mass

Communication (1960), which guided mass communication researchers over the

next five decades.

The theory of the two-step flow of mass communication was further developed by

Lazarsfeld together with Elihu Katz in the book Personal Influence (1955). The

book explains that people’s reactions to media messages are mediated by

interpersonal communication with members of their social environment. A

person’s membership in different social groups (family, friends, professional and

religious associations, etc.) has more influence on that person’s decision-making

processes and behaviour than does information from mass media. Researchers

of mass communication cannot therefore treat the public as a homogenous mass

audience that actively processes and responds to media messages uniformly, as

had been postulated by initial theories of mass communication, which assumed

that audiences respond to media messages directly.

Since its formulation, the theory of the two-step flow of communication has been

tested, and validated, on numerous occasions through replicative studies that

looked at how innovations were diffused into society through opinion leaders and
trendsetters. However, the theory came under some criticism in the 1970s and

the 1980s. Some researchers argued that the process of a two-step flow is an

oversimplification and that the actual flow of information from mass media to

media consumers has more than two steps. For instance, additional research

revealed that conversations based on media content are more frequent among

opinion leaders themselves rather than among opinion leaders and less-informed

individuals. This creates the extra step of opinion sharing among equally

informed individuals, compared with only a vertical flow of information from

opinion leaders to followers. Another criticism is the fact that the two-step flow

model was formulated during a time when television and the Internet did not

exist. Both original studies relied on people’s responses to newspapers and radio

broadcasts and concluded that interpersonal communication is more frequent

than media consumption during an average day. Later studies of everyday

behaviour in the era of television dominance seem to indicate the opposite. It

was also found that only a small percentage of people discuss information they

have learned from mass media with their peers. National surveys regarding

people’s main sources of information also indicate that people rely much more on

mass media than on personal communication.

Unit IV Cultural Effects and the Emergence of an Alternative Paradigm

Cultural Effects: Agenda Setting,

Agenda-setting theory describes the "ability [of the news media] to influence
the importance placed on the topics of the public agenda". With agenda setting
being a social science theory, it also attempts to make predictions. That is, if a
news item is covered frequently and prominently, the audience will regard the
issue as more important. Agenda-setting theory was formally developed by Max
McCombs and Donald Shaw in a study on the 1968 American presidential
election. In the 1968 "Chapel Hill study", McCombs and Shaw demonstrated a
strong correlation coefficient (r > .9) between what 100 residents of Chapel Hill,
North Carolina thought was the most important election issue and what the local
and national news media reported was the most important issue. By comparing
the salience of issues in news content with the public's perceptions of the most
important election issue, McCombs and Shaw were able to determine the degree
to which the media determines public opinion. Since the 1968 study, published in
a 1972 edition of Public Opinion Quarterly, more than 400 studies have been
published on the agenda-setting function of the mass media, and the theory
continues to be regarded as relevant. Studies have shown that what the media
decides to expose in certain countries correlates with their views on things such
as politics, economy and culture. Countries that tend to have more political power
are more likely to receive media exposure. Financial resources, technologies,
foreign trade and money spent on the military can be some of the main factors
that explain coverage inequality.

Role of policymakers in agenda-setting process

Some groups have a greater ease of access than others and are thus more likely
to get their demands placed on agenda than others. For instance, policymakers
have been found to be more influential than the overall group of news sources
because they often better understand journalists' needs for reliable and
predictable information and their definition of newsworthiness. Cobb and Elder
ascribed even more importance to decision makers, claiming that in order for an
issue to attain agenda status, it must be supported by at least some of key
decision makers as they act as guardians of the formal agenda. They also
asserted that certain personages in the media can act as opinion leaders and
bring media coverage to a particular issue. Government-affiliated news sources
have higher success rates in becoming media agenda and have been found by a
number of scholars to be the most frequently appearing of sources at the local,
state, and national levels.
News sources can also provide definitions of issues, thus determining the terms
of future discussion and framing problems in particular ways. What interpretation
of "reality" will dominate public discourse has implications for the future of the
social problem, for the interest groups and policymakers involved, and for the
policy itself. For example, Gusfield argues that the highway deaths associated
with alcohol consumption can be interpreted as a problem of irresponsible
drunken drivers, insufficient automobile crashworthiness, a transportation system
overly dependent on cars, poor highway design, excessive emphasis on drinking
in adult social life. Different ways of framing the situation may compete to be
accepted as an authoritative version of reality, consequently spurring competition
between sources of information for definition of an issue. Very powerful
resources of information can even influence whether an issue receives media
attention at all.
The relationship of media and policymakers is symbiotic and is controlled by
shared culture of unofficial set of ground rules as journalists need access to
official information and policymakers need media coverage; nevertheless the
needs of journalists and policymakers are often incompatible because of their
different orientation in time as powerful sources are at their best in routine
situations and react more slowly when crisis or disaster occur. Consequently,
policymakers who understand the rules of this culture the best will be most
capable of setting their agendas and issue definitions.[17] On the other hand,
media also influence policymakers when government officials and politicians take
the amount of media attention given to an issue as an indirect expression of
public interest in the issue.

Role of public in agenda-building process

The agenda-building perspective ascribes importance not only to mass media
and policymakers, but also to social process, to mutually interdependent relation
between the concerns generated in social environment and the vitality of
governmental process. Thus according to Cobb and Elder, the agenda-building
framework makes allowances for continuing mass involvement and broaden the
range of recognized influences on the public policy-making process. Although the
public does have a place on the list of possibly influencing the media agenda,
they are not thought to powerfully shape media agendas. It seems the more
correct to argue the possibility that when journalists look to their own interests for
story ideas, they are actually trying to predict their audience’s needs.
This idea of mass involvement has become more prominent with the advent of
the Internet and its potential to make everyone a pamphleteer. Increase in the
role of citizens in agenda setting sheds light on a new direction in the traditional
agenda-building research. This is now the case because the general public can
now create their own media. Social media has changed the way people view and
perceive things in today's world. Mass involvement within social media lets the
general publics voices be heard. Comments and reply's give potential for people
to address your thoughts or open new doors for conversation.
Kim and Lee noted that the agenda-setting research on the Internet differs from
traditional agenda-setting research with respect that the Internet is in competition
with traditional media and has enormous capacity for contents' and users'
interactivity. Lee, Lancendorfer and Lee argued that "various opinions about
public issues are posted on the Internet bulletin boards or the Usenet newsgroup
by Netizens, and the opinions then form an agenda in which other Netizens can
perceive the salient issue". Scholars also stated that the Internet plays role in
forming Internet user's opinion as well as the public space.
Kim and Lee studied the pattern of the Internet mediated agenda-setting by
conducting a case study of 10 cases that have a great ripple effect in Korea for 5
years (from 2000 until 2005). Scholars found that a person's opinion could be
disseminated through various online channels and could synthesize public
opinion that influences news coverage. Their study suggests 'reversed agenda
effects', meaning that public agenda could set media agenda. Maxwell
McCombs also mentioned "reverse agenda-setting" in his recent textbook as a
situation where public concern sets the media agenda.
According to Kim and Lee, agenda-building through the Internet take the
following three steps:
1) Internet-mediated agenda-rippling: an anonymous netizen's opinion spreads to
the important agenda in the Internet through online main rippling channels such
as blogs, personal homepages, and the Internet bulletin boards.
2) agenda diffusion in the Internet: online news or web-sites report the important
agenda in the Internet that in turn leads to spreading the agenda to more online
publics.
3) Internet-mediated reversed agenda-setting: traditional media report online
agenda to the public so that the agenda spread to both offline and online publics.
However, scholars concluded that the Internet-mediated agenda-setting or
agenda-building processes not always occur in consecutive order. For example,
the agenda that was reported by traditional media can come to the fore again
through the online discussion or the three steps can occur simultaneously in a
short period of time.
Several studies provide evidence that the Internet-community, particularly
bloggers, can push their own agenda into public agenda, then media agenda,
and, eventually, into policy agenda. In the most comprehensive study to date,
Wallsten tracked mainstream media coverage and blog discussion of 35 issues
during the 2004 presidential campaign. Using time-series analysis, Wallsten
found evidence that journalists discuss the issues that bloggers are blogging
about. There are also anecdotal pieces of evidence suggesting bloggers exert an
influence on the political agenda. For instance, in 2005 Eason Jordan, the chief
news executive at CNN, abruptly resigned after being besieged by the online
community after saying, according to various witnesses, that he believed the
United States military had aimed at journalists in Iraq and killed 12 of
them. Similarly, in 2002, Trent Lott had to resign as Senate majority leader due to
his inappropriate racist remarks that were widely discussed in the
blogosphere. However bloggers attract attention not only to oust journalists and
politicians. An online investigation on technical problems with electronic voting
machines started by an activist Bev Harris in 2003 eventually forced traditional
media outlets to address issue of electronic voting malperformance. This in turn
made Diebold, a company that produces these machines, to acknowledge its
fault and take measures to fix it. Many studies have been performed to test the
agenda setting theory within global news coverage. One of the findings
determined that foreign news that had any mentions of the United States or the
UK, greatly influenced public opinion compared to global news that didn’t involve
either country.

Spiral of Silence,

The spiral of silence theory is a political science and mass

communication theory proposed by the German political scientist Elisabeth
Noelle-Neumann, which stipulates that individuals have a fear of isolation, which
results from the idea that a social group or the society in general might isolate,
neglect, or exclude members due to the members' opinions. This fear of isolation
consequently leads to remaining silent instead of voicing opinions. Media is an
important factor that relates to both the dominant idea and people's perception of
the dominant idea. The assessment of one's social environment may not always
correlate with reality.

According to Shelly Neill, "Introduced in 1974, the Spiral of Silence Theory

explores hypotheses to determine why some groups remain silent while others
are more vocal in forums of public disclosure The spiral of silence theory
suggests that "people who have believed that they hold a minority viewpoint on a
public issue will remain in the background where their communication will be
restrained; those who believe that they hold a majority viewpoint will be more
encouraged to speak."
The theory explains the formation of social norms at both the micro and macro
level. "As a micro-theory, the spiral of silence examines opinion expression,
controlling for people's predispositions – such as fear of isolation, and also
demographic variables that have been shown to influence people's willingness to
publicly express opinions on issues, such as agricultural biotechnology." The
spiral of silence occurs on a macro level if more and more members of the
perceived minority fall silent. This is when public perceptions of the opinion
climate begin to shift. "In other words, a person's individual reluctance to express
his or her opinion, simply based on perceptions of what everyone else thinks, has
important implications at the social level. As one opinion gains the interest of the
majority, the minority faces threat and fear of isolation from society. As the
opinion gains momentum by the majority, the minority continues to be threatened
and falls deeper into their silence. It continues until the minority no longer speaks
out against it, and the opinion of the perceived majority ultimately becomes a
social norm.

Spiral model
The spiral model is an analogy used to visually describe the theory. The end of
the spiral refers to the number of people who are not publicly expressing their
opinions, due to the fear of isolation. An individual is more likely to go down the
spiral if his or her opinion does not conform with the perceived majority
opinion. The following steps summarize how the process works:

1. We can distinguish between fields where the opinions and attitudes

involved are static, and fields where those opinions and attitudes are
subject to changes... Where opinions are relatively definite and static – for
example, "customs" – one has to express or act according to this opinion
in public or run the risk of becoming isolated. In contrast, where opinions
are in flux, or disputed, the individual will try to find out which opinion he
can express without becoming isolated.
2. Individuals who, when observing their environments, notice that their own
personal opinion is spreading and is taken over by others, will voice this
opinion self-confidently in public. On the other hand, individuals who
notice that their own opinions are losing ground will be inclined to adopt a
more reserved attitude when expressing their opinions in public.
3. It follows from this that, as the representatives of the first opinion talk quite
a lot while the representatives of the second opinion remain silent, there is
a definite influence on the environment: an opinion that is being reinforced
in this way appears stronger than it really is, while an opinion suppressed
as described will seem to be weaker than it is in reality.
4. The result is a spiral process which prompts other individuals to perceive
the changes in opinion and follow suit, until one opinion has become
established as the prevailing attitude while the other opinion will be
 pushed back and rejected by everybody with the exception of the hard
core that nevertheless sticks to that opinion.
This is a process of formation, change and reinforcement of public opinion. The
tendency of the one to speak up and the other to be silent starts off a spiraling
process which increasingly establishes one opinion as the dominant one. Over
time, these changing perceptions establish one opinion as predominant one and
they change from the liquid state to a solid norm.
Further, Noelle-Neumann describes the spiral of silence as a dynamic process, in
which predictions about public opinion become fact as mass media's coverage of
the majority opinion becomes the status quo, and the minority becomes less
likely to speak out.

Cultivation Analysis,

Cultivation theory examines the long-term effects of television. "The primary

proposition of cultivation theory states that the more time people spend 'living' in
the television world, the more likely they are to believe social reality aligns with
reality portrayed on television. The images and ideological messages transmitted
through popular television media heavily influence perceptions of the real world.
Cultivation theory is positivistic, meaning it assumes the existence of objective
reality and value-neutral research. A study conducted by Jennings Bryant and
Dorina Miron in 2004, which surveyed almost 2,000 articles published in three
top mass-communication journals since 1956, found that Cultivation Theory was
the third-most frequently utilized theory, showing that it continues to be one of the
most popular theories in mass-communication research.
Cultivation theory suggests that exposure to television, over time, subtly
"cultivates" viewers' perceptions of reality. Gerbner and Gross assert: "Television
is a medium of the socialization of most people into standardized roles and
behaviors. Its function is in a word, enculturation".Within his analysis of
cultivation, Gerbner draws attention to three entities—institutions, messages, and
publics.
Initial research on the theory establishes that concern regarding the effects of
television on audiences stem from the unprecedented centrality of television
in American culture. Gerbner posited that television as a mass medium of
communication had formed into a common symbolic environment that bound
diverse communities together, socializing people into standardized roles and
behaviors. He thus compared the power of television to that of religion, stating
television was to modern society what religion once was in earlier times. Thus,
Gerbner's research focused on the larger meaning of heavy television
consumption instead of the meaning behind specific messages.

Critique of the effects Paradigm and emergence of alternative paradigm

When the United States became a superpower after World War II, American
social scientists were called upon to study the problems of “Third World”
development. This started the modernization school, which dominated the field of
development in the 1950s and Rogers rightly called “dominant paradigm” of
development as it exercised a dominant influence in the field of development.
This model emphasizes productivity, economic growth, industrialization,
urbanization, centralized planning and endogenous factors of development, and
development was measured by gross national product (GNP). Daniel Lerner and
Wilbur Schramm are among the influential advocates who made significant
contributions in identifying the role of communication for technological
development. Heavily influenced by the evolutionary theory, American social
scientists conceptualized modernization as a phased, irreversible, progressive,
lengthy process that moves in the direction of the American model. Strongly
influenced by Parson’s functionalist theory, they looked upon modernity as
incompatible with tradition. Subsequently the American social scientists proposed
that Third World countries should copy American values, rely on US loans and
aid, and transform their traditional institutions.

However, the failure of modernization programs in Latin America in the 1960s led
to the emergence of a neo-Marxist dependency school which led its researchers
modified their basic assumptions. These recent modifications of the
modernization school have started a new direction of research referred as the
“new modernization studies” or “dependency school”. This dependency school
was highly critical of modernization school, frequently attacking it as a
rationalization of imperialism. The dependency school conceptualized the
linkages with Western and Third World countries as a set of externally imposed,
exploitative, dependent, economic relationship incompatible with development.
Thus this school advocated that Third World countries should sever their linkages
with western countries in order to promote an autonomous, independent path of
development. This is because that the latest theme of modernization school is
that tradition can play a beneficial role in development and Third World countries
can pursue their own paths of development. However, when the dependency
school came under attack in the early 1970s, its researchers modified their basic
assumptions as follows: “dependency is not just an economic but also a
sociopolitical process; dependency is not just an external relationship but also a
historically specific internal relationship; and development can occur side by side
with dependency.” Thus a new direction of dependency started as the “new
dependency studies”.
Although the dependency school was unable to destroy the modernization
school, the modernization school was unable to exclude competing views as
illegitimate. The coexistence of contrasting perspectives in the field of
development made the 1970s a time of intellectual fertility. By the mid 1970s, the
ideological battle between the modernization school and the dependency school
began to subside. The debate on Third World development became less
ideological and emotional. A group of radical researchers led by Immanuel
Wallerstein found that there were many new activities in the capitalist world-
economy that could not be explained within the confines of the dependency
perspective. The world-system perspective, thus emerged, and offered a new
orientation to the interpretation of major events in the 1970s, such as East Asian
industrialization, the crisis of the socialist states, and the decline of the capitalist
world-economy. Influenced first by the dependency school and then by the
French Annales school, world-system researchers emphasized the need to
examine the totality. The unit of analysis thus should be the world-economy, a
historical system composed of three strata: “the core, the semiperiphery, and the
periphery”. The world-system school contended that by the late twentieth
century, the capitalist world economy would reach a transitional stage at which
real choices might be made to change the path of human history.

The main realization that development was not going well in developing countries
for those who have followed the dominant paradigm closely has made people
think that there were alternative pathways to development. In the late 1960s and
1970s, several world events combined with intellectual critiques began to crack
the credibility of the dominant paradigm and the reigning paradigms of
modernization and development no longer inspire the confidence which they did
three decades back. Critical assessment of results and fresh endogenous
reflection, have led to serious doubts and questions, which in their turn have
thrown up insights and have led towards the emergence of an alternative
paradigm as we have in the following:

Economic growth can no longer be defined merely as raising the GNP and per
capita income. Both are necessary, but without a purposive orientation they can
defeat the objectives of development. A major share of benefits of growth is
invariably cornered by the thin upper crust of society, leaving the masses where
they were or worse off. The development paths so far followed by most Third
World countries have proved blind alleys. The focus has to be on people and
society. It implies more equitable distribution of goods and services.

The development endeavours of the last three decades have been largely
emulative and, therefore, in many instances misdirected. A small elite often with
western orientation has taken major decisions in respect of the present and the
future; people themselves having little say in them. Many Third World countries
are under authoritarian and repressive regimes, some have only a façade of
democracy; where democracy still survives in the political sense, the choice of
the people is restricted to one or the other elite-led political party whose
orientations differ only in minor detail. To ensure endogenous growth a new
institutional framework, assigning more decisive roles to the people and their
associations, is necessary.

The development process, almost globally, has shown a lack of sensitivity to the
environment. This has had lethal effects. History bears testimony to the fact that
some civilizations have died because of their reckless exploitation of the
environment. An important element that is missing from most planning
development is sustainability. Most development countries are consciously or
unconsciously trying to copy the West without any awareness of their resources
and limits.

While relative self-reliance is the ideal, global interdependence cannot be

ignored. The developed countries have depended, and still depend, on the
developing countries for many important resources that have made their
development possible and contribute to its continuation. This interdependence is
not restricted only to raw and semi-processed materials; the West has drawn
heavily also on the brain power and trained competence of the Third World.

Rogers also identified four world events which many took as reason to accept an
alternative to the dominant paradigm of development.
Those with sympathy for ecological issues were disgusted with the environmental
pollution in the developed nations. This led to the question whether they were,
after all, such ideal models for development.
Pollution problems and overpopulation problems on available resources helped
create doubts whether unending growth was possible or desirable, whether high
technology was the most appropriate engine for development. There was a
growing loss of faith in the “trickle-down” theory of distributive development
benefits. People were getting “development weary” from the slow rate of
economic development.
The world oil crisis demonstrated that developing could make their own rules in
the international game and produced some suddenly rich developing nations.
This was a lesson to other developing countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa
– that the causes of underdevelopment were not mainly internal.
The sudden opening of international relations with China allowed the rest of the
world to learn details of her pathways to development. China had created
“miracle of modernization” in two decades without any foreign assistance.

Thus development programmes based on the Dominant Paradigm were not

achieving the anticipated results, leading to revisions. However, each of the three
revisions discussed above focused on a single dimension of the development –
the causes of underdevelopment. They did not address the question of how an
effective development programme could be implemented. The dominant
paradigm in the 1950s and the new paradigm in 1970s were the only two
paradigms which emphasized the problem of implementation as well as
analyzing the causes of underdevelopment. From all these events grew the
realization that there were many alternative pathways to development while their
exact combination would be somewhat different in every nation. Every nation
may pursue somewhat different pathways to development depending on exactly
what style of development was desired. Thus another new paradigm of
development emerged as a reaction of all development models in the past and it
tries to assimilate the various emphases of all the other models. Development
theorists labeled it as the “new paradigm of development” or “alternative
paradigm” because for the first time, development theorist and practitioners have
incorporated many dimensions in the development model which were never
emphasized before.

Concept of Development: Development of what and for whom?

Alternative development suggests a course of development that is need-oriented,
endogenous, self-reliant, ecologically sound and based on structural
transformation. It is aimed at meeting human needs, endogenously defined and
with primary focus on those who have been deprived and exploited. It recognizes
the importance of equality, freedom of expression, conviviality and creativity.
Each society is left free to operate according to its values and cultures and
articulate its own vision of the future. No universal model is to be imposed; each
society can build its own. For development a society has to rely essentially on its
inherent strength, although collective self-reliance is not ruled out. Rational
utilization of the biosphere is built into the model: outer limits have to be
respected and local ecosystems handled sensitivity. From the little community to
the global human community structural transformations will be needed to evolve
participative decision-making mechanisms. Capacity for self-governance will
have to be strengthened. Thus the concept of development that answers the
questions of development for what, development by whom, development for
whom, and development how contains the following five elements:

Need-Oriented: that is, geared to human needs, both material and non-material,
starting with the needs of the majority of the world’s inhabitants, the dominated
and the exploited. Ensuring the humanization of all human beings by the
satisfaction of their needs for expression, creativity, equality and conviviality, and
to understand and master their own destiny.

Endogenous: that is, stemming from the heart of each society, which defines in
sovereignty its values and its vision of the future.

Self-reliant: that is, implying that each society relies primarily on its own strength
and resources in terms of its members’ energies and its natural and cultural
environment.
Ecologically sound: that is, utilizing rationally the resources of the biosphere in
full awareness of the potential of local ecosystems as well as global and local
outer limits imposed on present and future generations.

Based on structural transformation: they are required, more often than not, in
social relations, in economic activities and in their spatial distribution, as well as
in the power structure, so as to realize the conditions of self-management and
participation in decision making by all those affected by it.

Approaches of Development: Theories

Rogers initially identified with the Dominant Paradigm approach and laid out
clearly its central concerns and preoccupations. He argued that there is a shift in
the focus of development in the new and alternative paradigm. The result of this
paradigm is an alternative concept of communication in development. Some of
the theories under way in newer conceptions of development communications
are: self-development, self-reliance, the communication effects gap, the new
communication technology, and understanding the participatory approach of the
new paradigm.

Self-development: This approach suggests concern for involvement of individuals

in their economic and social life. Rogers identified self-development in this
context as some type of small group at the local level that takes the primary
responsibility
(i) for deciding what type of development is most needed in their
village or neighbourhood;
(ii) (ii) for planning how to achieve this development goal;
(iii) (iii) for obtaining whatever government or nongovernment
resources may be necessary; and
(iv) (iv) for carrying out their own development activities.

This was different from the earlier top-down approach to development which
defined development in terms of what government does to and for the people.]

Self-reliance: Self reliance is independence in development with an emphasis on

the potential of the local resources. Rogers argued that self reliance suggested
rejection of external models of development leading to a viewpoint that every
nation and perhaps each village may develop in its own way. Dissanayke pointed
out self-reliance in this model is seen as a way of eliminating or minimizing the
exogenous political pressures and trade patterns that are associated with
exploitation of developing countries by the developed countries.

Communication effects gap: The communication effects gap concept has

suggested that there is not only a gap in the socio-economic benefits of
development but there is a knowledge and information gap between the “have”
and the “have nots”. This could seriously affect the direction of development.
New Communication technology and development: The potential of new
communication technology such as satellites, broadcasting, cable television and
computers for facilitating the process of development in Third World countries is
limited. But what is new about the technology is not the technology per se as the
social technology of how the new communication devices are organized and
used, and how the audience is organized to receive and discuss the messages.
In this paradigm Rogers has changed his stance with regard to the diffusion
model. Rogers argued that for development both diffusion of technological and
social innovations were necessary. He advocated that it was communication that
was more important in innovation the innovation itself. Secondly, the acceptance
or rejection of communication not only depended on what was being
communicated but on how it was being communicated.

Participatory Communication Model: Participatory communication is a product of

the criticism of vertical or top-down communication system. Essential to all
development programmes is the development of human beings and the
assumption that planning and implementation of development programmes
should be carried out with the people and not for them. Therefore there is a need
to see participatory communication both as “means” and as an “end”. Ryan and
Kaplun pointed out that such a perspective of communication could be a means
towards a new model of development based on man’s complete freedom from all
forms of marginality and exploitation. Paulo Freire was a vigorous exponent of
this participatory model for liberation. As a result of their critique of western
education systems in Central and Latin America, Freire and Illich proposed
education and communication system based on participative and receiver-
oriented.

The Role of Media in Participatory Communication

Deveoplment communication is regarded as a key to people’s participation in the

development process. People must be regarded as the subjects as well as the
motive force of development. It is so easy to get away with the fancy world of
new technologies- or colorful traditional media. We have to pause for a moment
to realize that communication is not about the production of information material,
but lies in its ability to reach people with useful information conveyed via a
humane perspective, exchange of views, expressions of concern about basic
need issues and communicating sustainable solutions. Above all, the objective of
development planners and communication specialists is to mobilize people for
action and empower people to resolve their own problems. We should therefore
identify our service as participatory communication, in recognition of the people
we serve as being equal partners. The main objective here is to empower people
to speak for themselves and to narrow down the communication gap between
regions, nations, communities and social groups. For example:
In Bangladesh, the Nutrition Blindness Prevention Programme (NBPP) almost
eradicated a desease which turned blind 30,000 children a year – night blindness
due to Vitamin A deficiency. NBPP initiated in 1984, relies on a network of 400
women volunteers who cooperate with local schools and teachers, mothers’
clubs and, last but not least, children who relay nutritional information between
school and homes both, as beneficiaries and as communicators. In close
cooperation with the volunteers and teachers, radio dramas, posters, traditional
theater plays, cinema spots and films for mobile units were produced to pursue
two major goals: to inform about nutritional blindness and how it can easily be
avoided, and to reinforce local action through problem and goal-oriented regional
mass media support.

Ethical perspective of Development

Ethics which is defined as ‘the branch of philosophy dealing with values relating
to human conduct, with respect to rightness or wrongness of certain actions and
to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions’ attempted
to analyze the issue in development, noting the moral underpinnings of human
actions in the theory and policy-making realms.[23] In defining and discussion of
development it must be included the physical, mental, social, cultural, and
spiritual development of individual in an atmosphere free from coercion or
dependency. Besides, importance would need to be given to preserving and
sustaining local traditional cultures and other artifacts as these are usually the
media through which people at the grassroots structure their reality of world
around them.

The level of development is usually laid at the level of the nation-state or some
region. Here development of individuals or group is neglected. Development
should not create greater misery for a large body of humanity at the periphery.
We have been experiencing the coexistence of development and poverty. In
case of individuals, development and poverty do not have to coexist, but the
notions are not individuals. The notion is that when nations develop they can get
rid of poverty. This is not true. On the other hand, it is in the nature of the
development process to cause greater poverty. Second, it is the method of
development that causes poverty. Fewer and fewer individuals are consuming
more and more. Any policy that continues to exploit the masses at the cost of the
rich and powerful is morally indefensible.

What is needed in future is a more egalitarian distribution of benefits and risks of

development across all social and economic classes. Policy-makers, on the basis
of their own actions, should refrain from increasing human misery. The focus
needs to be on humane development, i.e. to reduce human suffering and not
increase it. The Human Development Report (1992) accuses the rich and elite
states for contributing, to a great extent, to the persistent and widening disparity
among the states and to the failure of world markets to benefit the poorer and
less powerful states. The Report points out:
 “Firstly, where world trade is completely free and open…it generally works to
benefit
the strongest. Poor and developing countries enter the market as unequal
partners – and
leave with an equal rewards. Secondly, in…those areas where developing
countries may
have a competitive edge…the market rules are often changed to prevent free
and open
competition.”

Critique

Every achievement has its own advantages and disadvantages. Thus Alternative
Paradigm of development also not free from certain limitations in spite of its
many ideal approaches of development. The following are some of a few
reflections from both sides.
The new or alternative paradigm does not contain a single model for
participation. In terms of theory and research, the game consists of discovering
what forms of participation occur in particular contexts and relating those forms to
existing social, economic, and political conditions. Thus flexibility makes the
paradigm suitable to all contexts.
This new paradigm of communication development is audience-oriented and
participatory that stressed development for individuals of periphery.
Sustainable development that is eco-friendly development.
Even though most policy makers or development planners would accept this
principle, sadly enough, this has remained a theoretical benediction rather than
an active practice. It is in a way disheartening to see that only small efforts are
yet being made in communication for sustainable development around the globe.
This participatory approach of communication also left us critical questions
unanswered. Who among the people is to be selected for participating in this
bottom-up communication?

Unit V Four Models of Communication

Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the

human communication process. The first major model for communication came
in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories.
Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and
receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another
(receiver).

 Shannon and Weaver. The original model was designed to mirror the
functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of
three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of
 a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the
receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person.
Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes
with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The
noise could also mean the absence of signal. In a simple model, often referred
to as the transmission model or standard view of
communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is
sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a
destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication
views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The
strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social
scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on
the following elements: An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals. A channel, to which
signals are adapted for transmission. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs)
the message from the signal. A destination, where the message
arrives. Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems
for communication within this theory. The technical problem: how accurately can
the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the
meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the
received meaning affect behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission
model by stating: It assumes communicators are isolated individuals. No
allowance for differing purposes. No allowance for differing interpretations. No
allowance for unequal power relations. No allowance for situational contexts.
 David Berlo. In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s
(1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of
Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of
communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded
upon by other scholars.
 Schramm. Communication is usually described along a few major
dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor /
sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through
which medium), destination / receiver / target /decoder (to whom), and
Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine
the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the
message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge
and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts
may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The
form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together,
communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a
destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity
(such as a corporation or group of beings). Communication can be seen as
 processes of information transmission governed by three levels
of semiotic rules: Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their
users) and Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and
what they represent). Therefore, communication is social interaction where at
least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set
of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense
ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal
communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed
the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social
interactions.
 Barnlund. In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a
transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional
model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the
sending and receiving of messages. In a slightly more complex form a sender
and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication,
referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an
individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will
be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which
information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes
separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication
is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal
filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender;
which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of
"communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception
and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not
achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-
decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the
sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a codebook, and
that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although
something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere
represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties. Theories
of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous
process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media
scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to
communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities
for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous
example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built
themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus.
Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of
written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military
campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding',
 through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority
generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape
communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
 Psychology of communication. Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced
computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into
what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of
Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology
and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures,
graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication.
 Constructionist Model. There is an additional working definition of
communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as
far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from
Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and
revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the
process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The
packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from
which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is
style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing
use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS
model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose
discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the
whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then
rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham
10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are
not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we
construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis. Erving Goffman sees the
performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication.
Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn
enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any
part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the
significance of expression. The truth in both cases is the articulation of the
message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social
and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the
transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should
include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham
and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures
of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or
behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young
field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy,
psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus
 conceptualization of communication across disciplines. Communication Model
Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15): Noise; interference with effective
transmission and reception of a message. Sender; the initiator and encoder of a
message. Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the
decoder of a message. Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message
into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language
from personal experience. Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while
putting their own meaning into the word/message. Channel; the medium
through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio,
television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text
messages) Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a
message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for
being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message
(verbal). Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is
sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
 Linear Model. It is a one way model to communicate with others. It
consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in
the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a
clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback
from the receiver. For example; a letter, email, text message, lecture.
 Interactive Model. It is two linear models stacked on top of each other.
The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes
the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has
added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way
process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background,
ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal
experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is
feedback but it is not simultaneous. For example – instant messaging. The
sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the
IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you
just ask a question then you get an answer.
 Transactional Model. It assumes that people are connected through
communication; they engage in transaction. Firstly, it recognizes that each of us
is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes
that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is
fluid/simultaneous. This is how most conversation are like. The transactional
model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment
(how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the
most effect communication area because both communicators share the same
meaning of the message. For example – talking/listening to friends. While your
friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think
 through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping
your friend from talking.
 Communication cycle. The first major model for communication came in
1949 by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. The
original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone
technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender,
channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke
into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the
phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also
recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a
telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. In a simple model, often
referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication,
information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form
(as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/
receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views
communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths
of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the
following elements: An information source, which produces a message. A
transmitter, which encodes the message into signals. A channel, to which
signals are adapted for transmission. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs)
the message from the signal. A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for
communication within this theory. The technical problem: how accurately can
the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the
meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the
received meaning affect behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission
model by stating: It assumes communicators are isolated individuals. No
allowance for differing purposes. No allowance for differing interpretations. No
allowance for unequal power relations. No allowance for situational contexts.
 Communication noise. In any communication model, noise is
interference with the decoding of messages sent over a channel by an encoder.
There are many examples of noise: Environmental Noise: Noise that physically
disrupts communication, such as standing next to loud speakers at a party, or
the noise from a construction site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear
the professor.