Fundamental of Process Control system

Chapter 3
Process Modeling
 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to analyze and design a control

system
n Disturbance
r e u y
Controller Actuator Plant
Expected Controlled
value - Error variable

Sensor

• The first thing is to establish system model

(mathematical model)

2
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Content in Chapter 3
2-1 Introduction
2-2 Establishment of differential
equation and linearization
2-3 Transfer function
2-4 Structure diagram
2-5 Signal-flow graphs

3
 Fundamental Of Process Control

2-1 Introduction on mathematical

models

4
 Fundamental Of Process Control

System model
Definition：
Mathematical expression of dynamic relationship
between input and output of a control system.

Mathematical model is foundation to analyze and design

automatic control systems

No mathematical model of a physical system is exact.

We generally strive to develop a model that is adequate
for the problem at hand but without making the model
overly complex.
5
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Process Dynamics
 Dynamics is the time varying behavior of
processes.
 Chemical processes are dynamically changing
continuously.
 Steady-state change indicates where the
process is going and the dynamic characteristics
of a system indicates what dynamic path it will
take.

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Uses of Dynamic Process Models

 Evaluation of process control configurations
 For analysis of difficult control systems for both existing
facilities and new projects
 Process design of batch processes
 Operator Training
 Start-up/shut-down strategy development
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Three models
 Differential equation
 Transfer function
 Frequency characteristic

Study Linear system study

time-domain frequency-domain
response response

Transfer Differential Frequency

function Laplace equation Fourier characteristic
transform transform 8
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Modeling methods
Analytic method

According to
A. Newton’s Law of Motion
B. Law of Kirchhoff - Electric engineer
C. System structure and parameters
the mathematical expression of system input
and output can be derived.
Thus, we build the mathematical model
( suitable for simple systems).

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Modeling methods
System identification method
Building the system model based on the system
input—output signal
This method is usually applied when there are little
information available for the system.

Input Output Neural Networks,

Black box
Fuzzy Systems

Black box: the system is totally unknown.

Grey box: the system is partially known.

10
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Why Focus on Linear Time-Invariant (LTI)

System
 What is linear system?
-A system is called linear if the principle of
superposition applies

u1 (t ) y1 (t )
system
system
u 2 (t ) y 2 (t )
1u1 (t ) +  2u2 (t ) 1 y1 +  2 y2
system

Is y(t)=u(t)+2 a linear system？

11
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Advantages of linear systems

 The overall response of a linear system can
be obtained by

-- decomposing the input into a sum of elementary

signals
-- figuring out each response to the respective
elementary signal
-- adding all these responses together.

Thus, we can use typical elementary signal (e.g. unit

step ,unit impulse, unit ramp) to analyze system for the
sake of simplicity.
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

• What is time-invariant
system?
– A system is called
time-invariant if the
parameters are
stationary with
respect to time
during system
operation

– Examples？

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

2.2 Establishment of differential

equation and linearization

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Differential equation
 Linear ordinary differential equations

--- A wide range of systems in engineering are

modeled mathematically by differential
equations
--- In general, the differential equation of an n-
th order system is written
a0 c ( n ) (t ) + a1c ( n −1) (t ) + + a n −1c (1) (t ) + c (t ) =
b0 r ( m ) (t ) + + bm −1r (1) (t ) + bm r (t )

Time-domain model 15
 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system

--- list differential equations according to the

physical rules of each component;

--- obtain the differential equation sets by

eliminating intermediate variables;

--- get the overall input-output differential

equation of control system.

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Conservation Equations:
Mass, Moles, or Energy Balances

Rate of  Rate Entering

Accumulation  =  the System  −
   
Rate Leaving Rate of Generation by 
 the System  +  Reaction within the System
   

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Mass Balance Equation
Rate of mass Rate of mass
Rate of accumulation    _ leaving the 
=
of mass in the system  entering the   
  system  system 


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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Accumulation Term

dm d ( V )
Total mass balance : or
dt dt
dmi d ( xi m)
Component mass balance: or
dt dt

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Other Terms in Mass Balance Equation

Mass entering or leaving the system:

xi F (component balance) or
F (overall mass balance)

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Mole Balance Equation
Rate of moles Rate of moles
Rate of accumulation    _ leaving the 
=
of moles in the system  entering the   
  system  system 


Rate of generation  Rate of consumption 

+   − 
 of moles by reaction  of moles by reaction 

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Accumulation Term

Component mole balance:

dni d (VCi )
or
dt dt

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Other Terms in Mass Balance Eq.
Moles of component i entering
or leaving the system:
xi N (based on molar flow rate, N ) or
Ci FV (based on volumetric flow rate (FV )
Generation or consumption of
component i by reaction :
Vri = V  i r 23
 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Thermal Energy Balance Equation
Accumulation Term

Energy Balance Equation :

dT
MCv
dt

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Thermal Energy Balance Equation
Other Terms in Energy Balance Eq.

Convective Heat Transfer :

FC p (Ts − Tref )
Heat Generation by reaction :
−Vri H rxn (T )
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How to establish ODE of a control

system
Thermal Energy Balance Equation
Other Terms in Energy Balance Eq.

Convective Heat Transfer :

FC p (Ts − Tref )
Heat Generation by reaction :
−Vri H rxn (T )
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Examples-1 Mass-spring-friction system

Gravity is We are interested in the

neglected. relationship between
external force F(t) and
Spring mass displacement x(t)
F1 = kx ( t ) k
Define: input—F(t); output---x(t)
F(t)

m Displacement
 F = ma
F2 = fv ( t ) x(t)
ma = F − F1 − F2
friction dx(t ) d 2 x (t )
f
v= , a=
dt dt
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

By eliminating intermediate variables, we

obtain the overall input-output differential
equation of the mass-spring-friction system.

mx (t ) + f x (t ) + kx (t ) = F (t )

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Examples-2 nonlinear system

 In reality, most systems are indeed nonlinear, e.g. then
pendulum system, which is described by nonlinear
differential equations.

d 2
ML 2 + Mg sin  (t ) = 0  L
dt
• It is difficult to analyze nonlinear systems,
however, we can linearize the nonlinear
system near its equilibrium point under Mg

certain conditions.

d 2
ML 2 + Mg (t ) = 0 (when  is small）
dt
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Linearization of nonlinear differential

equations
Several typical nonlinear characteristics in
control system.
output output

0 input 0 input

Saturation (Amplifier) Dead-zone (Motor)

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Methods of linearization
（1）Weak nonlinearity neglected
If the nonlinearity of the component is not within its
linear working region, its effect on the system is
weak and can be neglected.
（2）Small perturbation/error method
Assumption: In the system control process, there are just
small changes around the equilibrium point in the input
and output of each component.
This assumption is reasonable in many practical control
system: in closed-loop control system, once the deviation
occurs, the control mechanism will reduce or eliminate it.
Consequently, all the components can work around the
equilibrium point.
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Example y Fundamental of Process Control
y=f(x) A(x0,y0) is equilibrium point.
y0 Expanding the nonlinear
A(x0,y0)
function y=f(x) into a Taylor
series about A(x0,y0) yields
0 x0 x
dy 1 d2y
y = f ( x) = y 0 + ( x − x0 ) + 2
( x − x 0 ) 2 + 
饱和（放大器）
Saturation dx
(Amplifier) x0 2! dx x0
The input and output only have small
variance around the equilibrium point.  x = ( x − x0 ), (  x ) n
→0
dy
y = y0 + ( x − x0 )
dx x0
This is linearized model of
y = kx the nonlinear component.

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 Fundamental Of Process Control
Note：this method is only suitable for systems
with weak nonlinearity.

0 0

继电特性
Relay 饱和特性
Saturation

For systems with strong nonlinearity, we cannot

use such linearization method.

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Example-3 modeling a nonlinear system

• Flash toilet
Water Q1
flow piston
Q1: inflow per unit time
Q2: outflow per unit time float

Q10=Q20=0
H(t)
Initial water level: H0
Define: Input—Q1,Output—H
Problem: Derive the differential equation valve
of water tank (the cross-sectional area Q2
of the water tank is C).
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Solution: Outflow or inflow within dt time should be equal to

the total amount of water change（Q1-Q2）dt , that is:

CdH = (Q1 − Q2 )dt

According to ‘Torricelli Theorem’, the water yield is in direct
proportion to the square root of the height of water level, thus:

H R ' is a scale
Q2 =
R coefficent.
It is obvious that this formula is nonlinear, On the basis of the
Taylor Series expansion of functions around operation points
(Q10,H0 )，We have
1 H
Q2 = H = ,
2 H 0 R R
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

 Therefore, the Linearized Differential

Equations of the water tank is:

dH
RC + H = RQ1
dt

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

dm mi mo
= −
dt dt dt
d (  Ah)
=  Fi −  Fo
dt

d ( h)
A = Fi − Fo
dt

dh Fi − Fo 1
dt
=
A
=
A
(
Fi − Cv Ao h )

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Exercise
 E1. Please build the differential equations of the
following two systems.
x i
Input
C

K1

R1
Input Output A
f
ur (t ) R2 uc (t )
x

Output
B
x o
K2

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Solutions.
(1) RC circuit

 1
 R1i1 = C  i2 dt
 duc dur
 i = i1 + i2  R1 R2C + ( R1 + R2 )uc = R1 R2C + R2ur
uc = R2i dt dt

 ur = R1i1 + uc
(2) Mass-spring system

 K1 ( xi − x ) = f ( x − xo ) dxo dx
  f ( K1 + K 2 ) + K1 K 2 xo = K1 f i
 K 2 xo = f ( x − xo ) dt dt

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

2-3 Transfer function

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Solving Differential Equations

Example

Solving linear differential equations with

constant coefficients:
• To find the general solution (involving solving the
characteristic equation)
• To find a particular solution of the complete
equation (involving constructing the family of a function)

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

WHY need LAPLACE transform?

Time-domain Laplace s-domain

ODE problems algebra problems
Transform
(LT)
Difficult Easy

Inverse
Solutions of time- Solutions of algebra
domain problems problems
LT

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform of a

function f(t) is defined as

F ( s) =  f (t ) 

=  f (t )e dt − st
0

Laplace, Pierre-Simon where s =  + j  is a complex

1749-1827 variable.
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Examples
 Step signal: f(t)=A

  
F ( s ) =  f ( t ) e dt = 0 − st − st
Ae dt = − A e − st =
A
0
s 0
s

• Exponential signal f(t)= e − at


 1 −( a+s )t 1
F (s) =  e e dt = −
− at − st e =
0 s+a 0 s+a

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Laplace transform table

f(t) F(s) f(t) F(s)

w
δ(t) 1 sin wt s 2 + w2
1 s
1(t) cos wt
s s 2 + w2
1 − at w
t e sin wt ( s + a) 2 + w 2
s2
− at 1 s+a
e s+a
− at
e cos wt ( s + a) 2 + w 2

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Properties of Laplace Transform

(1) Linearity
[af1 (t ) + bf 2 (t )] = a [ f1 (t )] + b [ f 2 (t )]

(2) Differentiation Using

Integration By
df (t ) 
  = sF (s ) − f (0) Parts method
 dt  to prove

where f(0) is the initial value of f(t).

d nf (t )  n n −2 (1)
 n 
= s F (s ) − s f (0) − s f (0) −
n −1
− f (n −1) (0)
 dt 
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

(3) Integration
Using Integration
By Parts method
 t f ( )d   = F (s )
 0
to prove ）
 s

 t1 t2 tn
 F (s )
 o o  f ( )d  dt1dt2 dtn −1 =
o  sn

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

（4）Final-value Theorem
The final-value theorem
relates the steady-state
lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s ) behavior of f(t) to the
t → s →0 behavior of sF(s) in the
neighborhood of s=0

(5) Initial-value Theorem

lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t →0 s →

48
 Fundamental Of Process Control

(6)Shifting Theorem：
a. shift in time (real domain)
[ f (t −  )] =
− s
e F ( s)

b. shift in complex domain

[e f (t )] = F ( s − a )
at

(7) Real convolution (Complex multiplication)

Theorem
t
[  f1 (t −  ) f 2 ( )d ] = F1 (s)  F2 (s)
0
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Inverse Laplace transform

Definition：Inverse Laplace transform,
denoted by −1[ F (s)] is given by
C + j
1

−1
f (t ) = [ F ( s)] = F ( s ) e st
ds (t  0)
2  j C − j

where C is a real constant。

Note: The inverse Laplace transform operation

involving rational functions can be carried out using
Laplace transform table and partial-fraction expansion.

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Partial-Fraction Expansion method for finding

Inverse Laplace Transform
N ( s) b0 s m + b1s m−1 + + bm−1s + bm
F ( s) = = n n −1
( m  n)
D( s ) s + a1s + + an −1s + an

If F(s) is broken up into components

F ( s) = F1 ( s) + F2 ( s) + + Fn ( s)

If the inverse Laplace transforms of components

are readily available, then
−1
 F ( s ) = −1
 F1 ( s ) + −1
 F2 ( s ) + + −1
 Fn ( s )
= f1 (t ) + f 2 (t ) + ... + f n (t )
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Poles and zeros

 Poles
 A complex number s0 is said to be a pole of a
complex variable function F(s) if F(s0)=∞.
• Zeros
– A complex number s0 is said to be a zero of a
complex variable function F(s) if F(s0)=0.

Examples:
(s − 1)(s + 2)
poles: -3, -4; zeros: 1, -2
(s + 3)(s + 4)

s +1
s 2 + 2s + 2 poles: -1+j, -1-j; zeros: -1
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Case 1: F(s) has simple real poles

N ( s) b0 s m + b1s m−1 + + bm−1s + bm
F (s) = = n
D( s ) s + a1s n −1 + + an −1s + an
Partial-Fraction Expansion
c1 c2 cn
= + + +
s − p1 s − p2 s − pn
where pi (i = 1, 2, , n) are eigenvalues of D( s) = 0, and
 N ( s)  Inverse LT
ci =  ( s − pi ) 
 D( s)  s = pi

− p1t − p2t − pn t
f (t ) = c1e + c2 e + ... + cn e
Parameters pk give shape and numbers ck give magnitudes. 53
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Example 1 Partial-Fraction Expansion

1 c1 c2 c3
F ( s) = = + +
( s + 1)( s − 2)( s + 3) s +1 s − 2 s + 3
 1  1
c1 =   ( s + 1)  =−
 ( s + 1)( s − 2)( s + 3)  s =−1 6

 1  1
c2 =   ( s − 2)  =
 ( s + 1)( s − 2)( s + 3)  s =2 15
 1  1
c3 =   ( s + 3)  =
 ( s + 1)( s − 2)( s + 3)  s =−3 10
1 1 1 1 1 1
 F (s) = −  +  + 
6 s + 1 15 s − 2 10 s + 3
1 −t 1 2t 1 −3t
 f (t ) = − e + e + e 54
6 15 10
 Fundamental Of Process Control
Case 2: F(s) has simple complex-conjugate poles
Example 2
Laplace transform

Applying initial conditions

s+5 s+5 s+2+3

Y ( s ) = 2 = =
s + 4s + 5 ( s + 2) + 1
2
( s + 2) 2 + 1
s+2 3
Partial-Fraction Expansion = +
( s + 2) + 1 ( s + 2) 2 + 1
2

Inverse Laplace transform 55

y(t ) = e−2t cos t + 3e−2t sin t

 Fundamental Of Process Control
Case 3: F(s) has multiple-order poles
N (s) N (s)
F (s) = =
D( s) ( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) ( s − pn −r )( s − pi )l
c1 cn −l bl bl −1 b1
= + + + + l −1
+ +
s − p1 s − pn −l ( s − pi ) ( s − pi )
l
s − pi
Simple poles Multi-order poles
The coefficients c1 , , cn −l of simple poles can be calculated as Case 1;
The coefficients corresponding to the multi-order poles are determined as

d l 
b l =  F ( s )  ( s − pi ) 
l
, bl −1 =   F ( s)  ( s − pi )   , ,
s = p1
 ds  s = pi
1 dm  N ( s) l  1  d l −1  N ( s) l 
bl −m =   D( s) ( s − pi )   , b1 =   ( s − pi )  
m !  ds    s = p1 (l − 1)!  ds  D( s)   s = pi
56
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Example 3

Laplace transform:
s 3Y ( s) − s 2 y (0) − sy (0) − y(0) + 3s 2Y ( s) − 3sy (0) − 3 y (0)
1
+ 3sY ( s) − 3 y (0) + Y ( s ) =
s
Applying initial conditions: s= -1 is a 3-
1 order pole
Y (s) =
s ( s + 1)3
Partial-Fraction Expansion
c1 b3 b2 b1
Y ( s) = + + +
s ( s + 1) ( s + 1) s + 1
3 2 57
 Fundamental Of Process Control
1
Determining coefficients: c1 = s =1
s ( s + 1) s = 0
3

1 1
b3 = [ ( s + 1) 3
]s =−1 = −1 b1 = (2 s −3 ) = −1
s ( s + 1) 3
2! s =−1
d 1 3  d 1 −2
b2 =  [ ( s + 1) ]  = [ ( )] s =−1 = ( − s ) = −1
 ds s ( s + 1) =−
3
 s =−1 ds s s 1

1 1 1 1
Y ( s ) = − − −
s ( s + 1) ( s + 1) s + 1
3 2

Inverse Laplace transform:

1 2 −t
y (t ) = 1 − t e − te −t − e −t
2
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

With aid of MATLAB

>> syms t
1. Laplace Transform >> L=laplace(t)
L=laplace(f) L=
1/s^2
>> L=laplace(sin(t))
2. Inverse Laplace Transform L=
1/(s^2+1)
F=ilaplace(L)
>> F=ilaplace(L)
F=
sin(t)

59
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Transfer function
Input LTI Output
u(t) system y(t)

Consider a linear system described by differential equation

y ( n ) (t ) + an −1 y ( n −1) (t ) + + a0 y (t ) = bm u ( m ) (t ) + bm −1u ( m −1) (t ) + + bu (1) (t ) + b0u (t )

Assume all initial conditions are zero, we get the transfer

function(TF) of the system as

TF = G ( s ) =
 output y (t )
input u (t ) zero initial condition
Y ( s ) bm s m + bm −1s m −1 + ... + b1s + b0
= = n
U (s) s + an −1s n −1 + ... + a1s + a0 60
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Example 1. Find the transfer function of the RLC

R L
C uc(t) Output
Input u(t) i(t)
Solution:
1) Writing the differential equation of the system according to
physical law:
LCuC (t ) + RCuC (t ) + uC (t ) = u(t )
2) Assuming all initial conditions are zero and applying Laplace
transform
LCs U c ( s ) + RCsU c ( s ) + U c ( s ) = U ( s )
2

3) Calculating the transfer function G(as

s)
U c ( s) 1
G( s) = =
U ( s) LCs 2 + RCs + 1 61
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Exercise
 Find the transfer function of the following
system :

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
+5 + 4 y (t ) = u (t )
dt dt

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Transfer function of typical components

Component ODE TF

v (t ) i (t )
V ( s)
R v(t ) = Ri(t ) G( s) = =R
I ( s)

i (t )
v (t ) di (t ) V ( s)
L
v (t ) = L G( s) = = sL
dt I ( s)

v (t ) i (t ) V ( s) 1
1 t
C
v (t ) =
C 0 i( )d G( s) = I ( s) = sC
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Properties of transfer function

 The transfer function is defined only for a
linear time-invariant system, not for
nonlinear system.
 All initial conditions of the system are set
to zero.
 The transfer function is independent of the
input of the system.
 The transfer function G(s) is the Laplace
transform of the unit impulse response g(t).

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

How poles and zeros relate to system response

• Why we strive to obtain TF models?
• Why control engineers prefer to use TF model?
• How to use TF model to analyze and design
control systems?

• we start from the relationship between the

locations of zeros and poles of TF and the
output responses of a system

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 Fundamental Of Process Control
Transfer function Time-domain impulse
response
A
X ( s) = x (t ) = Ae − at
s+a

Position of poles
and zeros
j

-a 0 i

0
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 Fundamental Of Process Control
Time-domain
Transfer function
impulse response
A1 s + B1
X ( s) = x(t ) = Ae− at sin(bt +  )
( s + a )2 + b2

Position of poles and

zeros
j
b

-a 0 i
0

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 Fundamental Of Process Control
Time-domain
Transfer function
impulse response
A1 s + B1
X ( s) = 2 x(t ) = A sin(bt +  )
s + b2

Position of poles and

zeros
j
b
0
0 i

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 Fundamental Of Process Control
Time-domain impulse
Transfer function
response
A
X ( s) = x(t ) = Aeat
s−a

Position of poles
and zeros
j

0 -a i

69
 Fundamental Of Process Control
Time-domain
Transfer function：
dynamic response
A1 s + B1
X ( s) = x(t ) = Aeat sin(bt +  )
( s − a )2 + b2

Position of poles and

zeros
j
b
0
-a 0 i

70
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Summary of pole position & system dynamics

71
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Characteristic equation

-obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the

transfer function to zero

s n + an −1s n −1 + + a1s + a0 = 0

Note: stability of linear single-input, single-output

systems is completely governed by the roots of the
characteristics equation.

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Transfer function(TF) models in MATLAB

Suppose a linear SISO system with input u(t), output y(t),
the transfer function of the system is
Y (S ) bm s m + bm −1s m −1 + ... + b1s + b0
G( s) = =
U ( s) s n + an −1s n −1 + ... + a1s + a0

num = b m , b m −1 ,..., b0 
Descending
den = 1, a n −1 ,..., a 0  power of s

TF in polynomial form
>> Sys = tf（num，den）
>> [num, den] = tfdata (sys)
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

TF in zero-pole form
>> sys = zpk（z, p, k）
>> [z, p,k] = tfdata (sys)

Transform TS from zero-pole form into

polynomial form
>> [z, p, k] = tf2zp(num, den)

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Review questions
 What is the definition of “transfer function”?
 When defining the transfer function, what happens
to initial conditions of the system?
 Does a nonlinear system have a transfer function?
 How does a transfer function of a LTI system
relate to its impulse response?
 Define the characteristic equation of a linear
system in terms of the transfer function.

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

2-4 Block diagram and Signal-

flow graph (SFG)

76
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Block diagram
The transfer function relationship
Y (s) = G(s)U (s)

can be graphically denoted through a block diagram.

U(s) Y(s)
G(s)

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Equivalent transform of block diagram

1 Connection in series

U(s) X(s) Y(s)

G1(s) G2(s)

U(s) Y(s)
G(s)

G( s) = ?
Y ( s)
G ( s) = = G1 ( s)  G2 ( s)
U ( s) 78
 Fundamental Of Process Control

2.Connection in parallel
U(s) Y1(s)
G1(s)
Y(S) U(s)
G(s) Y(s)
G2(s)
+
Y2(s)

G( s) = ?

Y (s)
G(s) = = G1 ( s) + G2 ( s)
U (s)
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 Fundamental Of Process Control

3. Negative feedback
R(s) U(s) Y(s)
_ G(s)
R(s) Y(s)
M(s)
H(s)

Y ( s) = U ( s)G( s) Y ( s) =  R( s) − Y ( s) H ( s)  G ( s)

U ( s) = R( s) − Y ( s) H ( s)
Transfer function of a negative feedback system:
G( s) gain of the forward path
M ( s) = =
1 + G ( s) H ( s) 1 + gain of the loop 80
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Signal flow graph (SFG)

SFG was introduced by S.J. Mason for the cause-
and-effect representation of linear systems.
1. Each signal is represented by a node.
2. Each transfer function is represented by a branch.
U(s) Y(s) G(s)
G(s)
U(s) Y(s)

R(s) U(s) Y(s)

_ G(s) R(s) U(s)
G(s) Y(s)
1

H(s) 81
-H(s)
 Fundamental Of Process Control

Block diagram and its equivalent signal-flow graph

U r ( s) I1 ( s ) － U1 ( s) 1
1 1 1 U c ( s)
R1 sC1 R2 sC2
－ － I 2 ( s)

－1
1 1 1 1
1 R1 1 sC1 1 R2 sC2
U r ( s) I1 ( s ) U1 ( s) I 2 ( s) U c ( s)

－1 －1

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Note
 A signal flow graph and a block diagram
contain exactly the same information
(there is no advantage to one over the
other; there is only personal preference)

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 Fundamental Of Process Control

Mason’s rule
Y ( s) 1 N
M (s) = =  M k k
U ( s)  k =1
N = total number of forward paths between output Y(s) and input U(s)
M k =path gain of the kth forward path.
 =1 − ( all individual loop gains)
+ ( gain products of all possible two loops that do not touch)
−( gain products of all possible three loops that do not touch)
+
k = value of ∆ for that part of the block diagram that does not
touch the kth forward path.
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 Fundamental Of Process Control
Example 1 Find the transfer function for the following block diagram

b1
+ + ⑥ Y(s)
b2
+
① + ② ③ ④ ⑤
U(s) _ 1/s 1/s 1/s b3
_
_
a1
a2
Solution. a3
Forward path Path gain and the determinates are
1
1236 M 1 = 1  (b1 )(1)  a a a 
s  = 1 −  − 1 − 22 − 33  + 0
 s s s 
12346   
1 1
M 2 = 1   (b2 )(1) 1 = 1 − 0
  
s s
 1  1  1  2 = 1 − 0
123456 M 3 = 1    (b3 )(1)  = 1 − 0
 s  s  s  3 85
 Fundamental Of Process Control
Example 1 Find the transfer function for the following block diagram
b1
+ + ⑥ Y(s)
b2
+
① + ② ③ ④ ⑤
U(s) _ 1/s 1/s 1/s b3
_
_
a1
a2
a3
Solution.
Applying Mason’s rule, we find the transfer function to be
Y ( s) N M k  k
M ( s) = =
U ( s ) k =1 
b1s 2 + b2 s + b3
= 3
s + a1s 2 + a2 s + a3 86
 Fundamental Of Process Control
Example 2 Find the transfer function for the following SFG

H4
H6
① 1 ② H1 ③ ④ H3 ⑤ 1 ⑥
U ( s) H2 Y ( s)
H5 H7
Solution.
Forward path Path gain
and the determinates are
123456 M 1 = H1 H 2 H 3
 = 1 − ( l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 ) + (l1l3 )
1256 M 2 = H4
Loop path Path gain 1 = 1 − 0
232 l1 = H1 H 5 2 = 1 − H 2 H6
343 l2 = H 2 H 6
454 l3 = H 3 H 7
87
25432 l4 = H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5
 Fundamental Of Process Control
Example 2 Find the transfer function for the following SFG

H4
H6
① 1 ② H1 ③ ④ H3 ⑤ 1 ⑥
U ( s) H2 Y ( s)
H5 H7
Solution.
Applying Mason’s rule, we find the transfer function to be
Y ( s) N M k  k
M ( s) = =
U ( s ) k =1 
H1 H 2 H 3 + H 4 − H 4 H 2 H 6
=
1 − H1 H 5 − H 2 H 6 − H 3 H 7 − H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5 + H 1 H 5 H 3 H 88