Demand management and Energy Storage

Course Code: B51GK

In Edinburgh
Dr Andrew Peacock

In Dubai
Dr Mutasim Nour
[email protected]

1
4 Lecture Series for Part 1

Energy efficiency
A broad overview that considers energy efficiency
motivations, applications and complications
Energy efficiency in buildings
A look at the specific area of energy efficiency in
buildings
Electricity networks
A broad overview of the drivers and constraints
that are causing changes to electricity provision
Demand Response
A discussion on the how changes in demand might
participate in energy transitions
2
Aims of the series

• a discussion about the

way in which the
energy transition is Strategy
evolving
• a discussion about
why the energy Drivers
transition is taking
place
• a discussion about the
Practice
difficulties in getting
energy networks to
evolve
3
4 Lecture series

Energy efficiency
A broad overview that considers energy efficiency
motivations, applications and complications
Energy efficiency in buildings
A look at the specific area of energy efficiency in
buildings
Electricity networks
A broad overview of the drivers and constraints
that are causing changes to electricity provision
Demand Response
A discussion on the how changes in demand might
participate in energy transitions
4
Energy efficiency

Description of Energy Efficiency

Efficiency describes a physical input/output ratio

Ratio of energy services out to energy input

Process or Service
Fuel input Energy Supply
transformation Provided

5
Simple domestic space heating example
A household has a space heating and hot water
requirement of 10,000kWh pa

It currently uses a 18 year old natural gas fired boiler with

an energy efficiency of 55%

The space heating and hot water energy demand

18,181kWh pa of supply to meet requirement

They replace the old boiler with a new boiler of energy

efficiency of 85%

New energy supply = 11765kWh pa 6

Simple domestic space heating example

Energy saving c. 6400kWh pa

Utility bill saving c. £250pa

(£0.04/kWh gas tariff)

Emission saving c. 1.3TCO2 pa

(0.206kgCO2/kWh

7
https://www.volker-quaschning.de/datserv/CO2-spez/index_e.php 8
Energy efficiency

Straight forward
More complex
– no issues or
and nuanced
debate

9
 Areas that will be covered

Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

10
 Description of Energy Efficiency

Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

11
 Description of Energy Efficiency

Technical efficiency, zT

zT = zEX x zC x zD x zE x zHE

12
 Description of Energy Efficiency

Technical efficiency, zT

zT = zEX x zC x zD x zE x zHE
zEX – Fuel extraction efficiency
zC – Conversion efficiency of primary energy into secondary energy
zD – Distribution efficiency of delivering energy from point of conversion
to point of use
zE – End use efficiency of converting energy into the desired service
zHE – Hedonic efficiency – extent to which the delivered service meets
the desire

13
 Description of Energy Efficiency

Technical efficiency, zT

zT = zEX x zC x zD x zE x zHE
zEX – Fuel extraction efficiency
zC – Conversion efficiency of primary energy into secondary
energy
zD – Distribution efficiency of delivering energy from point of conversion
to point of use
zE – End use efficiency of converting energy into the desired service
zHE – Hedonic efficiency – extent to which the delivered service meets
the desire

14
 Description of Energy Efficiency

Technical efficiency, zT

zT = zEX x zC x zD x zE x zHE
zEX – Fuel extraction efficiency
zC – Conversion efficiency of primary energy into secondary energy
zD – Distribution efficiency of delivering energy from point of
conversion to point of use
zE – End use efficiency of converting energy into the desired service
zHE – Hedonic efficiency – extent to which the delivered service meets
the desire

15
 Description of Energy Efficiency

Technical efficiency, zT

zT = zEX x zC x zD x zE x zHE
zEX – Fuel extraction efficiency
zC – Conversion efficiency of primary energy into secondary energy
zD – Distribution efficiency of delivering energy from point of conversion
to point of use
zE – End use efficiency of converting energy into the desired
service
zHE – Hedonic efficiency – extent to which the delivered service meets
the desire

16
 Description of Energy Efficiency

Technical efficiency, zT

zT = zEX x zC x zD x zE x zHE
zEX – Fuel extraction efficiency
zC – Conversion efficiency of primary energy into secondary energy
zD – Distribution efficiency of delivering energy from point of conversion
to point of use
zE – End use efficiency of converting energy into the desired service
zHE – Hedonic efficiency – extent to which the delivered
service meets the desire

17
 Exploitation of Energy Efficiency

Exploited Readily Not Exploited Readily

a) Considered to be economic a) Considered to be un-economic
(simple payback)
b) the savings are
implemented by and accrue b) but more importantly the savings
to few actors are accrued by millions of
consumers – who benefits? –
zEX zC zD economic motivation? Tragedy of
the commons

zE zHE

Where should energy efficiency measures be

targeted? 18
 Electricity supply (TWh per quarter)

100
120

0
20
40
60
80
1998.1
1998.2
1998.3
1998.4
1999.1
1999.2
1999.3
1999.4
2000.1
2000.2
2000.3
2000.4
2001.1
2001.2
2001.3
2001.4
2002.1
2002.2
2002.3
2002.4

Ratcliffe-on-Soar,
2003.1
2003.2
2003.3
2003.4
2004.1
2004.2
2004.3
2004.4

coal fired power plant –

2005.1
2005.2
2005.3
Coal + oil + diesel

2005.4
2006.1
Consider the generation of
Gas

2006.2
2006.3

Nottingham c2GW coal plant

2006.4
1kWh of electricity from UK a
2007.1
Nuclear

2007.2
2007.3
RE

2007.4
2008.1
2008.2
2008.3
Bioenergy

2008.4
2009.1
2009.2
2009.3
Imports

2009.4
2010.1
fired electricity generation as an example

2010.2
2010.3
2010.4
2011.1
2011.2
2011.3
2011.4
2012.1
2012.2
2012.3
2012.4
2013.1
2013.2
Let’s look at a conversion process in full – using coal

2013.3
2013.4
2014.1
2014.2
2014.3
2014.4
2015.1
2015.2
2015.3
2015.4
19

2016.1
2016.2
2016.3
Let’s look at a conversion process in full?

Consider UK Electricity Generation in coal fired power plants

20
Let’s look at a conversion process in full?

Cerrejon open cast coal mine in Colombia

Area = 170,000acres  2.6 times the size of
Edinburgh

21
Energy balance in producing 1kWh of
electricity from Colombian coal
Waste Electricity Electricity distributed
produced – loss of 9g 88g of coal
heat
ejected 97 g
172 g

1 kWh of
15g electricity
295g

Light a 15m2 office

for 12 hours
278 g of coal

26g Coal
62g lost
as heat

280g
of
coal
2g

22
Energy balance in producing 1kWh of
electricity from Colombian coal
City of London, 3am

Overall input-output
efficiency is 8.8%
295g

Light a 15m2 office http://www.28dayslater.co.uk/forums/high-stuff/

for 12 hours
40% of UK non-domestic lighting
energy occurs in unoccupied
26g Coal

buildings
What is the hedonic efficiency?
0% efficiency?
23
Process improvements

Process Task Plausible saving in coal

z EX Institute a 50% improvement in equipment efficiency at mine 5g

zC Installing super critical boiler 50g

zE Double the luminous efficacy of the lighting technology 26g

z HE Do not leave the lights on in an unoccupied building 295g

24
Motivation for energy efficiency

Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

25
 Economic rationale
Depending on the stage in the process, there is ample economic
incentive to invest in energy efficiency

26
27
Economic rationale
Cautionary tale – Forecasting RE capacity additions
Forecasting is a difficult business
Policy implications for Governments seeking to back winners through
subsidies
Economic rationale
Modelling limitations
Economy-wide policy models have to make significant assumptions
to rationalise scale, temporal precision and future scenarios

29
 INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEM
MODELLING
THE NEED FOR BETTER
METHODOLOGIES
Centre for energy system integration

Peter McCallum, [email protected]

 Electricity

Hydrogen
Bio-fuels
Heat
Gas
+ + + +
+
Other
energy
carriers…

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Integrated Energy System Model

1.Open Source Electricity Model for Germany (ELMOD-DE)

2.ETH Zurich
3.http://www.heatroadmap.eu/maps.php
4.…
5.Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH
Integrated energy system modelling
Overview

Integrated Energy System Model

Optimisation Equilibrium Simulation

Network HUMAN
Policy Economic Supply Storage Demand
Infrast. (SOCIETY)
Demand evolution: questions

Evolution of retail
Policy integration

Behavioural evol.

Technology evol.
Climate uncert.

Energy security
How will demand be affected by … e.g.
changes to demand requirements; population movement (e.g.
direct climate change impact? ● ○ · · · · flooding, fires)
international trade; natural resource availability; currency
geographical and international factors? · ● · · ○ markets; universal energy access; conflict
incentives (elec. heating, EVs); fuel poverty policy; social
direct policy influence? (demand specific) · ● · ○ housing; building regs.; fuel tax; DSM roll-out
FITs; RHIs; energy market interference; support for energy
indirect policy influence? ○ ● · · intensive industries; immigration
growth; demographics; internal popul. movement
uncontrolled population factors? · ○ · ● · (urban ↔ suburb. ↔ exurb. ↔ rural ↔ isolated)
changes to usage of existing technology; new technologies
changes in technology usage patterns? · ● ○ · (unforeseen demands)

technology acceptance? · · ● ○ · change rates; demographics; trends

efficiency gains; human behavioural changes; fuel type changes;
technological change? · ○ ● ○ automation; DSM; peer-to-peer trade

demand side management? ○ ○ ○ ● · rate of uptake; mixed use developments; distributed industry
ownership and control; peer-to-peer trade; comm-unity /
distributed generation? ○ · ○ ● ● private; micro-grid ownership; co-generation
ownership and control; community based / private; storage
distributed energy storage? · · ○ ● ● state (electricity / thermal / pressure)
fuel type; behaviour and usage changes; private / public
developments in the transport sector? ○ ○ ○ ● ● transport; driverless vehicles; short contract

Relationships: ● primary ○ secondary · tertiary

 Motivation for energy efficiency
• Beneficial impact on the wider economy
• Improve Energy Security
• Energy Security energy efficiency and
contribution to load management
• Climate Change mitigation
• Fuel Poverty
• ………

34
Beneficial impact on the wider economy

Consider the UK Domestic Sector

25M existing dwellings in the UK

If each were to get an energy efficiency upgrade

This upgrade may last one week

Would keep a workforce of 26,000 occupied for 20

years

35
Improve Energy Security

The UK is importing >90% of its

gas requirement

Currently c. 40% of electricity

generation is from natural gas

80% of space heating is delivered

by natural gas

North Sea Oil production peaked

in the 90’s and output has been
declining since

c. 70% of UK coal is imported

36
Energy Security energy efficiency and
contribution to load management

37
Climate Change mitigation

UK buildings responsible for over 40% of total CO2

emissions (27% of emission from domestic sector)

80% CO2 reduction by 2050 is now law in the UK –

Climate Change Bill 2008

IPCC reports and other mitigation studies

consistently identify built environment emission
saving opportunity as being the low hanging fruit

38
Climate change - adaptation

Extant climate change is predicted as a consequence of

historical emissions

Energy efficiency has a role to play in adaptation

For instance:
In reducing internal gains from end use equipment and
thereby reducing overheating – future proofing built
environment

Energy efficiency and new technologies

39
Fuel Poverty

A poorly insulated dwelling costs more to heat than a well

insulated dwelling

Consider a detached dwelling – well insulated heating

costs £20.50 for each internal degree temperature above
ambient

Badly insulated - £90.80

For the same approximate cost the well insulated house

can be 4.5oC warmer
40
 Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

41
What can energy efficiency contribute
Can help to reduce the energy intensity of an economy
less emissions for a unit of economic output
EU28 Germany United Kingdom World
China Middle East India United States
140
Energy intensity of economy relative to 1990

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
42
What can energy efficiency contribute
What reduction in energy intensity is needed?

Simple analysis Ehrlich and Holdren Equation

I = PAT
(I) is the impact of human activity on the planet
(P) is the size of the population
(A) is the level of affluence expressed as income per person
(T) is the technology factor which is a measure of the impact on
the planet associated with each dollar we spend.

CAUTION: IT ASSUMES VARIABLES ARE INDEPENDANT

43
What can energy efficiency contribute

(P) is the size of the population

Population is forecast to increase to 9.7bn by mid century
(A) is the level of affluence expressed as income per person
Increase in global GDP by 3% pa to mid century – economy is 2.36 times
bigger in 2050 than today
(I) is the impact of human activity on the planet
Climate science indicated that for mitigation policy to stand a chance of
being effective CO2 emission must fall by 80% by 2050 (its actually higher
than that!)
(T) is the technology factor which is a measure of the
impact on the planet associated with each dollar we
spend
To achieve the target require the (T) term to reduce to 0.04 by 2050, a
reduction of nearly 7.3% pa from 2010
44
Reduction in energy intensity
Using energy intensity as a proxy for T (reduced impact of economic activity on the
planet)

45
Economic trends

Decomposition analysis can be used to estimate disaggregated structural and

technology contribution

Economy structural adjustment Technology improvements

Countries with low initial energy intensity and low energy intensity reduction
Voigt, S., De Cian, E., Schymura, M. and Verdolini, E., 2014. Energy intensity developments in 40 major
economies: Structural change or technology improvement?. Energy Economics, 41, pp.47-62. 46
 Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

47
 Domestic sector energy efficiency legislation
Since 1986, 46 different initiatives or pieces of legislation (18 from the EU) that
have contributed to implementing energy efficiency or raising awareness
legislative body name of programme year details

UK Pa rl i a ment "get more for you monergy" 1986

EU Appl i a nce energy l a bel l i ng i ni ti a ted 1989
UK Pa rl i a ment Envi ronmenta l whi te pa per "thi s common i nheri tence" 1990
UK Pa rl i a ment Home energy effi ci ency s cheme i ntroduced 1991
UK Pa rl i a ment "Hel pi ng the ea rth begi ns a t home" 1991
92/75/EEC; Compul s ory provi s i on of
i nforma ti on on energy cons umpti on by
EU Energy La bel l i ng Di recti ve 1992
mea ns of a l a bel on s pecfi ed hous ehol d
a ppl i a nces
EU SAVE di recti ve i ntroduced 1993
UK Pa rl i a ment EST Es ta bl i s hed 1993
EU La bel l i ng Schemes a nd Mi ni mi m energy performa nce s ta nda rds 1995 Wa s hi ng Ma chi nes
UK Pa rl i a ment SAP i ntroduced 1995
EU La bel l i ng Schemes a nd Mi ni mi m energy performa nce s ta nda rds 1996 Combi ned wa s her dri ers
UK Pa rl i a ment Home cons erva ti on a ct 1996
Engl i s h hous e condi ti on s urvey reports on energy effi ci ency
UK Pa rl i a ment mea s ures 1996
UK Pa rl i a ment Kyoto Protocol 1997
EU La bel l i ng Schemes a nd Mi ni mi m energy performa nce s ta nda rds 1998 hous ehol d l a mps
EU La bel l i ng Schemes a nd Mi ni mi m energy performa nce s ta nda rds 1999 di s hwa s hers
EU La bel l i ng Schemes a nd Mi ni mi m energy performa nce s ta nda rds 1999 col d a ppl i a nces (ma nda tory)
EC 1980/2000; Promoti on of products tha t
EU Communi ty eco-l a bel a wa rd s ceme 2000 ha ve the potetni a l to reduce nega ti ve
i mpa cts
UK Pa rl i a ment Roya l comi s s i on i n envi ronmentl a pol l uti on 2000
UK Pa rl i a ment Decent Homes Sta nda rd 2000
UK Pa rl i a ment Ca rbon Trus t es ta bl i s hed 2001
UK Pa rl i a ment Fuel Poverty s ta rtegy publ i s hed 2001
48
UK Pa rl i a ment Wa rm Front 2001
Domestic sector energy efficiency legislation

legislative body name of programme year details

UK Pa rl i a ment Ca rbon Trus t es tabl i s hed 2001
UK Pa rl i a ment Fuel Poverty s tartegy publ i s hed 2001
UK Pa rl i a ment Wa rm Front 2001
EU La bel l i ng Schemes a nd Mi ni mi m energy performa nce s tanda rds 2002 ovens
EU La bel l i ng Schemes a nd Mi ni mi m energy performa nce s tanda rds 2002 a i r condi tioners
EU EPBD 2002
UK Pa rl i a ment EEC1 2002
EU Di rective on energy end-us e effi ci ency a nd energy s ervi ces 2003
Energy Whi te Pa per "our energy future - crea ting a l ow ca rbon
UK Pa rl i a ment 2003
economy"
EU Action pl a n for energy effi ci ency: rea l i s i ng the potentia l 2006 COM (2006) 545
UK Pa rl i a ment Energy Revi ew 2006
UK Pa rl i a ment EEC2 2006
UK Pa rl i a ment Code for Sus tai na bl e Homes 2006
EU EU energy s ervi ce di rective 2006
UK Pa rl i a ment Energy Whi te Pa per 2007
UK Pa rl i a ment Cl i ma te Cha nge Act 2008
UK Pa rl i a ment CERT & CESP 2008
UK Pa rl i a ment UK Low Ca rbon Tra ns i tion Pl a n 2009
UK Pa rl i a ment Sma rt Meter Rol l Out 2009
EU EPBD - s ets EU net zero s tanda rd for 2020 2010
EU energy effi ci ency pl a n 2011 COM (2011) 109
UK Pa rl i a ment El ectri ci ty ma rket reform bi l l 2011
UK Pa rl i a ment ECO 2012
UK Pa rl i a ment Green Dea l 2012
EU EU energy effi ci ency di rective - 10.5% target by 2020 2012
UK Pa rl i a ment Energy Bi l l 2013

49
Domestic sector energy efficiency legislation

Germany Spain France Italy Sweden United Kingdom

200
Total energy consumption in the residential

180
sector (1990 = 100)

160

140

120

100

80

50
Domestic sector energy efficiency legislation

20% reduction since 2002

BUT almost no reduction in consumption since 1990

51
Domestic sector energy efficiency legislation

One of the two things might be happening:

Energy efficiency is allowing us to use more energy in the home
OR
We are using more energy (for a variety of reasons) but energy efficiency is allowing us to use less than what we
otherwise would use

These two opposing explanations exemplify the debate around the Rebound Effect 52
Energy efficiency and energy conservation

Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

53
Energy efficiency and energy conservation

Energy efficiency means getting more in columns A and B

below for less in column C.

Productivity; performance; jobs

These are all economic growth

words

So does energy efficiency have

a functional relationship with
economic growth

54
Economic trends

Energy per unit of product or service increased by 30% in

OECD countries (1970-1991) BUT energy use increased
by 20%
Global energy efficiency increased by 2% pa (1973 to
1990) BUT consumption increased by 2.7%
Since mid 19th Century carbon use per production unit has
reduced by 1.3% per year BUT CO2 emissions have risen
by 1.7%
Between 1995 and 2007, gross output and energy use in
40 economies increased by 53.2% and 27.0%,
respectively.
55
UK: Relationship between GDP and primary
energy consumption – 1970-2014
GDP change (%) Energy consumption (toe)
10 80000
GDP growth (%)

5 70000

0 60000

UK Total Energy use (toe)

-5 50000

-10 40000

-15 30000

-20 20000

-25 10000

-30 0
1978

1980

1982
1970

1972

1974

1976

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014
Year

56
UK Domestic sector
Uptake of energy efficiency measures

57
UK Domestic sector electricity consumption –
lights and appliances

Lights Cold Cooking

Wet Home computing Consumer electronics
Total

900 3450

Total average electricity consumption

Average electricity consumption

800 3400
per household (kWh pa)

700

per household (kWh pa)

3350
600
500 3300
400 3250
300
3200
200
100 3150

0 3100
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Year

58
The Rebound Effect

The extent to which energy saved by energy efficiency is

taken back in the form of higher consumption is called the
rebound effect.

Direct – increased consumption of specific service

Indirect – increased income allows more spending

Economy wide – energy efficiency begets affluence

Promoting energy efficiency may result in deifying

certain technologies - it is culturally sound to
increase energy use as long as it is consumed by
these technologies 59
No Rebound Effect?

Lovins and Grubb both passionately argue that energy

efficiency does lead to reduced energy consumption

One of the principal issue of argument is that energy

efficiency reduces the impacts of greater affluence

However, does energy efficiency produce affluence –

things get cheaper more people can buy them ergo a
stimulus to the economy

Ekins through a modelling study predicted the rebound

effect to be 26% for UK policies between 2000-2010

60
Jevons Paradox

William Stanley Jevons - English economist –

in 1865 he suggested
“… an increase in the efficiency of using a
resource leads in the medium to long term to
an increased usage of that resource rather
than a reduction in its use.”

In addition to reducing the amount needed for

a given output, improved efficiency lowers the
relative cost of using a resource – which
increases demand.

Overall resource use increases or decreases

depending on which effect predominates.
61
Khazzoom-Brookes postulate

This is also referred to as the Khazzoom-Brookes postulate:

At the microeconomic level improvements in energy efficiency result
in reduced energy consumption.

However, at the macroeconomic level, more efficient (comparatively

cheaper) energy use leads to faster economic growth, that in turn
increases energy use throughout the economy.

Taking into account both the microeconomic and the

macroeconomic effects, technological progress that improves
energy efficiency will tend to increase overall energy use.

62
Energy efficiency and energy conservation

Energy Conservation
• The OPEC oil embargo and related energy
shortages and gas lines in the 1970s…
• The President of the United States sitting in a
cardigan asking all Americans to turn down
their thermostats and industries to run
factories at partial capacity…being somewhat
less comfortable… Sacrificing…
• These are such graphic images of energy
and national security in the American
consciousness that they often are the first
thoughts that come to mind when the words
"energy conservation" are heard.

63
 Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

64
Regulatory anomalies
The difficulty in framing legislation

In the absence of market driven change, policy steps in

to encourage an outcome
In this instance to (hopefully) seed a market place for
energy efficient goods
The following case studies are examples of situations
where actual and desired outcomes were different
The problem of framing good policy

65
in the UK and the Building regulations

Until about 1986 household conservatories were

exempted from the building regulations
Typically they were single glazed, unheated spaces
They would reduce the space heating requirement of
dwellings by pre-warming ventilation air during the winter
time

Work by Tadj Oreszczyn group at UCL 66

Conservatories in the UK and the Building
regulations

The building regulations attempted to improve

the performance of conservatories by reducing
their heat loss.
So walls were insulated and double glazing
become standard

67
Conservatories in the UK and the Building
regulations

An energy efficient conservatory is cheaper to heat – so people started to

heat them

67% heat their conservatories with gas central heating (22% in 1991)

90% used all year round (72% in 1991)

56% now report heating their conservatory 7 or more hours per day in
winter (32% in 1991)

Conservatories became a cheap way of getting an extra room in the house

The service provided by the conservatory

changed as a consequence of energy efficiency
legislation
68
Energy Efficiency – Household Lighting

Incandescent light bulbs – typically 13 lu/W

Halogen light bulb – typically 20 lu/W
End use efficiency = c. 50%
The introduction of halogen lighting coincided with an
increase in the number of light bulbs in a dwelling from
16 to 24 – increased domestic sector lighting
consumption
The service provided by household lighting changed
with the technology

69
Appliance Labelling and Market
Transformation
The application of Market Transformation is
one of the key success stories of EU
energy policy in the last 2 decades
It has been applied to appliances (laundry,
cold appliances, light bulbs etc) and is now
being applied to houses themselves
through the Energy Performance of
Buildings Directive EPBD
Rate all appliances (A-E)
At some point in the future prohibit D’s and
E’s
Market transformed to A,B and C’s
70
Market Transformation

over time

A B C D E
Rating

71
Energy Efficiency – Refrigeration 1

The label for refrigeration appliances is based on an

accredited test method that measures kWh/litre of cold
space.
This is then multiplied by the volume of the space and
the number of days in the year to produce the kWh pa
figure found on the label.
Principal energy consumption driver for a fridge is the
shell:cold volume ratio. Heat gain through the shell
requires the compressor to run for longer
One method of increasing the kWh/litre of cold space
value is to reduce the shell:cold space ratio.
You can do this by increasing the size of the refrigerator
72
Energy Efficiency – Refrigeration 1

Energy efficiency gets better

Energy consumption rises
By increasing the size of the refrigerator you
change the service provided
This has knock on effects for supermarkets and
food production (and energy) (and emissions)

73
Energy Efficiency – Refrigeration 2

In US a similar Energy Star programme was initiated.

This followed the same market transformation procedure

When energy consumption from refrigerated appliances

was monitored after the introduction of the legislation it
had risen sharply
Old fridges were put in the basement typically to store
beer

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Doing the laundry

70 years ago 40 years ago Now

Which group spent the most time doing the laundry?

Wilhite cites this as an example of technology having

‘hidden’ behavioural scripts

The adoption of a technology results in secondary

behaviours and these may have energy implications
75
Air conditioning in the USA
Air conditioning of internal space started in the 1950’s in
Cinemas
Spread to other built space over the next 3 decades

Domestic air con

has now reached
saturation point
in many states in
the US

Figure shows penetration data from the American housing survey for 39 cities for
the years 1994–1996 for both central and window units 76
Air conditioning in the USA
By the 1980’s shopping malls were air conditioned
Supermarkets were air conditioned

The car fleet was air conditioned

Most indoor spaces were air conditioned

People became inured to space temperature of 23oC and

stopped going outside

People stop going outside, stop walking and travel by car

more

Not all of this was a consequence of energy efficiency but a

mass market could not have developed without it 77
Increased energy efficiency of mechanical
cooling systems  Skiing in Dubai

78
Dubai and Energy Efficiency

79
Energy Efficiency – key questions for debate
Economic studies consistently describe a energy efficiency
as ‘low hanging fruit’; as ‘a no brainer’; as ‘the cheapest fuel
we could invest in.’

Why is policy and regulation still necessary?

In a growing economy, energy consumption will rise despite

reductions in the energy intensity of developed economies

Is there a functional relationship between energy

efficiency and economic growth?

Will the magnitude of this functional term

outweigh energy savings?
80
Energy Efficiency – summing up

Innovation driven by energy efficiency creates additional

service opportunities at unit energy consumption.
Should there be any limit to service opportunities or
is this a question only for the market?
Maximising hedonic efficiency seems to offer a route to
providing optimal service with reduced consumption
How would you draft policy initiatives to
maximise hedonic efficiency?
Or is this a question of waiting for the utility price
tide to come in?

81
Next week

Description of Motivations
What can
energy for energy
energy
efficiency efficiency
efficiency
contribute
Energy Energy Does energy
efficiency and efficiency efficiency save
regulation anomalies energy

Energy Energy
Energy
efficiency and efficiency and
efficiency and
the built the domestic
behaviour
environment sector

82
Reading list

Mallaburn & Eyre, Lessons from energy efficiency policy and programmes in the UK from 1973 to 2013, Energy Efficiency
(2014) 7, pp23 –41
Druckman A., Chitnis M., Sorrell S. and Jackson T., Missing carbon reductions? Exploring rebound and backfire effects in
UK households, Energy Policy Volume 39, Issue 6, (2011), pp3572–3581
Lapilonne B., Sebi C. and Pollier K., Energy efficiency trends for households in the EU, Enerdata, 2013
de Almeida A., Fonseca P., Schlomann B. and Feilberg N., Characterization of the household electricity consumption in the
EU, potential energy savings and specific policy recommendations, Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) pp1884–1894
Payne J., A survey of the electricity consumption-growth literature, Applied Energy 87 (2010) pp723-731
Energy Policy, Volume 38, Issue 12, (2010) (Special Section: Carbon Reduction at Community Scale)
Payne J., Survey of the international evidence on the causal relationship between energy consumption and growth, Journal
of Economic Studies, Vol. 37 No. 1, 2010, pp. 53-95
Herring H and Roy R, Technological innovation, energy efficient design and the rebound effect, Technovation, 27 (2007)
194–203
Barkera T, Ekins P and Foxon T, The macro-economic rebound effect and the UK economy, Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4935–
4946

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Reading list

Lovins AB, Energy Efficiency, Taxonomic Overview, Encyclopedia of Energy, Volume 2, 2004, Rocky Mountain Institute,
Elsevier
Wilhite H, Will efficient technologies save the world? A call for new thinking on the ways that enduse technologies affect
energy using practices, European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (eceee) 2007 Summer Study, Côte d’Azur,
France 4-9 June 2007
Hong SH, Oreszczyn T and Ridley I, The impact of energy efficient refurbishment on the space heating fuel consumption in
English dwellings Energy and Buildings 38 (2006) 1171–1181
Barrett M, Lowe R, Oreszczyn T and Steadman P, How to support growth with less energy, Energy Policy 36 (2008) 4592–
4599
Peacock A.D., Banfill P.F., Newborough M., Kane D., Turan S., Jenkins D., Ahadzi M., Bowles G., Eames P.C., Singh H.,
Jackson T., Berry A., Reducing CO2 emissions through refurbishment of UK housing, European Council for an Energy
Efficient Economy (eceee) 2007 Summer Study, Côte d’Azur, France 4-9 June 2007
Boardman B, Achieving energy efficiency through product policy: the UK experience, Environmental Science & Policy 7
(2004) 165–176
Anderson, K. and Bows A., Reframing the climate change challenge in light of post-2000 emission trends, Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 366 (1982), pp. 3863-3882
Lloyd B, The Commons revisited: The tragedy continues, Energy Policy 35 (2007) 5806–5818
Jackson T, Papathanasopoulou E, Luxury or ‘lock-in’? An exploration of unsustainable consumption in the UK: 1968 to
2000, Ecological Economics, 68 (2008) 80-95

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