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Kriti Singh (Referral code – KRITISINGH11)

Critical Reasoning – Revision Notes
 Argument means quarrel but in logic and critical reasoning, an argument is a list of
statements one of which is conclusions and others are the premises or assumptions
of the argument.
 An argument is a group of statements including one or more premises and one
and only one conclusion.

 A conclusion is a statement in an argument that indicates of what the arguer is

trying to convince the reader/listener. What is the argument trying to prove? There
can be only one conclusion in a single argument.

Eg. Cats with long hair shed all over the house so you should not get a long-
haired cat. I have heard that they also have lots of fleas.

 In reasoning, arguments are based on certain premises; these premises are facts
that are explicitly stated and acts as in support of the argument and further the
arguments make certain assumptions;

 These assumptions are implicit, they are not stated and they also provide support
and using the support of these two, the arguments reach a certain conclusion.

 A premise is a statement in an argument that provides reason or support for the

conclusion. There can be one or many premises in a single argument.

 Cats with long hair shed all over the house so you should not get a long-haired
cat. I have heard that they also have lots of fleas.

1. Important Topics
a. Assumptions
b. Conclusions
c. Strengthen

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 d. Weaken
e. Evaluating the argument
1. Assumptions :-

 Assumptions is something that is assumed, supposed, taken for granted – hidden

thought.

• Statement: It’s cloudy outside and before leaving your home, you carry an
umbrella.
• • In this case, you’re assuming that it might rain.

Rules to find assumption:-

1. Rule out the options that contain Extreme words or words that show certainty. Only words
with possibility like may, can, might, could, possible, etc should be used.

Extreme Key – words to eliminate the options

• Only
• Best
• Strongest
• All

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 • Definitely
• Certainly
• These words lead to tone of a sentence, extreme words lead to wrong assumptions.

2. Notice, advertisement , appeal, notices to be taken true

3. Rule 3. Restatements

Eg. Statement: "If you trouble me, I will slap you." - A mother warns her child.
•Assumptions:
•I. With the warning, the child may stop troubling her.
•II. All children are basically naughty.

•A. Only assumption I is implicit

•B. Only assumption II is implicit
•C. Either I or II is implicit
•D. Neither I nor II is implicit
Answer – only Ist is valid assumption as mother’s intention is only to scare the kid. So she
assumed that warning may stop the child from troubling. 2nd option is irrelevant.

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1. Statement: There is a match between India and Pakistan, and we lose two wickets and
Virat Kohli comes to play. You’re watching the match and you take a sigh of relief.
• The assumption you have made is that he is going to play well.

2. Statement: According to my opinion, you should see a skin specialist for your allergy.
• The assumption will be that the skin specialist will be able to help you better than a
normal physician or doctor.

4. Statement: Of all the mobiles produced in India, Rivo X has maximum sales.
• The assumption is that sales of all the mobiles produced in India are known.

Few points to remember about assumptions:

1. By default, the assumption is to be considered to be true.
2. Assumption is open-ended and not definite.
3. It is usually positive.
4. Assumptions usually are mild and show possibility of being true. The assumptions can
contain terms like some, to a large extent, may, many etc.
5. Assumptions avoid extreme language.
6. Assumptions showing a possibility, request, or orders are usually correct.
7. Any assumptions which pass on the communication of advertisement, notice, and
appeal are usually considered to be true.

Invalid assumptions have the following traits:

1. Re-statements are usually invalid assumptions.
2. An obverted form of the statement is an invalid assumption.
3. An assumption is considered to be invalid if it makes farfetched reasoning or a long-
drawn conclusion.
4. Assumptions which are contrary to the statement or simply don’t have any
connection with what the given statement says.
5. Assumptions which use comparisons are usually invalid.

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 2. Conclusions
• A conclusion is a statement in an argument that indicates of what the arguer is trying to
convince the reader/listener. What is the argument trying to prove? There can be only
one conclusion in a single argument.
 Cats with long hair shed all over the house so you should not get a long-haired cat. I
have heard that they also have lots of fleas.
 ‘Conclusion’ means the point that the author is trying to prove based on the given facts.
It is the opinion, position or judgment reached after considering the given facts or
premise.
 Some keywords to identify the conclusion :-
conclude that, contend that, believe that, hypothesize that, clearly. Therefore,
wherefore, accordingly, we may conclude, entails that, hence, thus, consequently, we
may infer, it must be that, hence, so, it follows that, implies that, as a result
Such wording allows you to identify the conclusion in no time.

Premises + Assumptions = Conclusions

Eg . Now human law is framed for a multitude of human beings. The majority of human
beings are not perfect in virtue. Therefore human laws do not forbid all vices.
Solution: Human laws do not forbid all vices. We get a clear hint from the use of
therefore.

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 3. Inferences

• Inference = combining author’s idea with your idea and framing a

meaningful answer
• Inference problems in the examination are often introduced by “the para implies” or
“the author infers”, where the word “suggests” is at times replaced.

Example
Ram took a deep breath and dried his sweaty palms on his jeans. He looked down the ramp
and shivered. It was a steep drop. But he had to go through with it. Everyone was staring
straight at him. He put his skateboard down and got ready. He could do it!

Q: What evidence helps you to infer that Ram was nervous?

a) He put his skateboard down and got ready.

b) His palms were sweaty.
c) He looked down the ramp.
d) He could do it.

• Solution: 1 and 4 are positive statements which mean that he was not nervous. 2 and 3
statements seem to be the correct answer choices but statement 3 only says that he

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 looked down which cannot be the correct fact to infer. Hence, statement 2 is the only
fact to infer that Ram was nervous.

examp

Inference - India is thinking of privatization.

Example: Dr.AJ tried a chemical X on his two mice and they both turned blue due to blockage of
the lungs and died.

The Conclusion would be: If chemical X is applied to any mouse he shall turn blue and die due
to its inability to breathe.

The inference to this statement would be, “Chemicals can be harmful to Mice”

 Difference between inference and assumption

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 Q. Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion. The
general recognition of this fact is shown in the proverbial phrase,’ It is
the busiest man who has time to spare’. Thus, an elderly lady at leisure
can spend the entire day writing a postcard to her niece. An hour will
be spent in writing a postcard, another hunting for spectacles, half an
hour to search for the address, an hour and a quarter in composition
and twenty minutes in deciding whether or not to take an umbrella
when going to the pillar box in the street. The total effort that could
occupy a busy man for three minutes, all told may in this fashion leave
another person completely exhausted after a day of doubt, anxiety, and
toil.

What happens when the time to be spent on some work increases?

a) The work is done smoothly.

b) The work is done leisurely.

c) Work consumes all the time.

d) The work needs additional time.

Answer:-
• Here the method of elimination and inference applies. A and D are eliminated at the
first reading. The description that the lady who has enough leisure time takes the entire
day in writing the postcard gives us the clue that the correct answer is ‘c

Q2. Accidents on roads can be prevented, provided the quality of roads is improved and
the drivers are instructed in safety rules which they must follow for their own

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 protection. It is also necessary that the illumination on the roads is adequate so as to
prevent accidents at night.

2. This paragraph best supports the statement that-

a) Road accidents are solely due to improper illumination.

b) Road accidents result in a large number of deaths.

c) Road accidents are man-made and are always avoidable.

d) Safety rules are not taught properly to all drivers.

• The answer for this is ‘c’, which is the central idea in the given passage. There is still
another variation in which the passage is short, comprising one or two sentences, but
the questions are so many. On the basis of Information Elimination Inference formula,
answers can be located.

Q3. Recent advances in cataract surgery show that high-technology medicine is increasing
the nation’s health care costs. Cataracts are a major cause of blindness, especially in elderly
people. Fifteen years ago, cataract surgery was painful and not effective all the time. Due to
new technology used in cataract surgery, the surgery now restores vision drastically and is
not as expensive. These two factors have caused the number of cataract surgeries
performed to increase, which has, in turn, driven up the total amount spent on cataract
surgery.

Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage above?

a. Fifteen years ago, very few people had successful cataract surgery.

b. In the long term, the advantages of advanced medical technology will probably be out-
weighed by the disadvantages.

c. The total amount spent on cataract surgery has increased because the increased number
of people choosing to have the surgery more than offsets the decrease in cost per
operation.

d. Fifteen years ago, cataract surgery was affordable for more people than it was last year.

Answer:- since they asked for inference your answer changes to c.

• Option a states a clear fact as stated in the passage that 15 years ago very few people
had successful surgery . But we “infer” from the passage that even though new
technology which restores vision is cheaper due to its success rate obviously more

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 people will undertake it because an added advantage is that its cheap. Hence the total
amount of money spent on cataract surgery has increased.

Passage based Question:-

Health is wealth. In the life of a human being health occupies an important place. Preservation of
health should be the primary duty of mankind. Health is man's normal condition, his birth right.
It is the result of living in accordance with the natural laws, pertaining to the body, mind and
environment. A healthy environment facilities good health but it is the unhealthy environment
due to over population, excessive industrialization, air and water pollution etc. that is threatening
the life with many dreadful diseases. In the contemporary India many people have been gripped
by the clutch of disease like cancer, diabetes, hypertension, AIDS etc. although people of ancient
India were said to be relatively healthy. At present people are suffering from various mental
disorders also because they are racing blindly towards fame and having only one aim in life that
is to achieve the big status in society. There is no field of human endeavor that has been so
misunderstood as health. While health which connotes well being and the absence of illness has a
low profile, it is illness representing the failure of health which virtually monopolizes attention
because of the fear of pain, disability and death. This provides the medical practitioner power
over the patients which can be misused. Till recently, patients had implicit faith in their doctor
whom they loved and respected, not only for his knowledge but also in the total belief that
practitioners of this noble profession, guided by ethics, always placed the patient’s interest above
all other considerations. Our indigenous system of medicine like Ayurveda and yoga have been
more concerned with the promotion of health. Healthy practices like cleanliness, proper diet,
exercise and meditation are part of culture which sustains people even in the prevailing
conditions of poverty in rural India and in unhygienic urban slums. These systems consider
disease as an aberration resulting from disturbance of the equilibrium of health, which must be
corrected by gentle restoration of this balance through proper diet, medicines and the
establishment of mental peace. They also teach the graceful acceptance of old age with its
infirmities resulting from degenerative process as well as of death which is inevitable. This is in
marked contrast to the western concept of life as a struggle against disease, aging and death
which must be fought and conquered with the knowledge and technology derived from their
science: a science which, with its narrow dissecting and qualifying approach, has provided us the

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understanding of the microbial causes of communicable diseases and provided highly effective
technology for their prevention, treatment and control.

Which of the following can be inferred about the position of the author in writing the
passage?
A. Critical and objective assessment of the present situation.
B. Passionate supporter of western system in present context.
C. Supremacy of ancient Indian system in today’s world.

A. Only A
B. Only B
C. Both A and C
D. Both B and C

Answer : Option A.
The author is evaluating the present scenario . So, A is true.
Statement B is nowhere given. And author is also not talking about the superiority of India over
others. Therefore only option A is correct.

2. Strengthen and Weaken - argument consists of these three components:

 The stated premises

 The hidden assumptions
 The conclusion

this means that

 The argument would be strengthened if

 The stated premises are supported by some more facts of the same nature,

Or

 The hidden assumptions are supported by a fact of the same nature.

Or

 The conclusion itself is supported by a fact of the same nature.

The key to strengthen argument is finding the answer choice that confirms that
the central assumption is correct. If you encounter an answer that would be
correct on the assumption question, it would be correct on the strengthen

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question as well. Also, the correct answer can confirm by citing a study, survey or
any other relevant piece of evidence that makes the assumption to be more likely
to be true.

 The argument would be weakened if

 The stated premises are contradicted by some contradicting facts,

Or

 The hidden assumptions are attacked by some contradicting facts,

Or

 The conclusion itself is contradicted by some contradicting facts

An answer that weakens the argument can directly refute the assumptions. Any
answer that states the assumption is incorrect will weaken the argument. Any new
information presented in an answer choice that makes the assumption less likely
to be correct will act to weaken the argument as a whole.

This means that if we have an argument by example, this can be strengthened

(weakened) if

 we prove the example itself is totally correct (incorrect).

Or

 we support (contradict) the assumption.

Or

 we support (contradict) the conclusion directly or by some other means.

Example 1: We must follow the policy of non-violence because Gandhiji used to

practice it.

Statements: I. Even lord buddha advocated non-violence.

1. We must follow our great leader’s example.

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 III. Non-violence is our constitutional obligation.

1. At certain stages, Gandhi Ji also advocated violence.

2. It is not necessary, that whatever Gandhi Ji did must be correct.
3. Non-violence has been declared to be an unconstitutional policy.

Which of the following statements would strengthen and weakened the

argument?

Q2. In a laboratory study, 160 rabbits in an experimental group were injected with serum
D, while 160 rabbits in a control group were injected with a harmless sugar solution.
Within two weeks, 39% of the experimental group’s rabbits had contracted jungle fever, a
highly contagious and fatal disease. Therefore, jungle fever must be caused by some
substance similar to the substance found in Serum D.

The above argument would most greatly be strengthened if it were shown that

1. The normal rate of jungle fever among rabbits is less than 0.01%
2. 40 % of the rabbit among the control group had also contracted jungle fever
within two weeks.
3. Serum D contains substance extracted from the root of a poisonous jungle
wildflower.
4. the blood of jungle fever victims invariably contains a high level of certain toxic
substance also found in Serum D.
5. Nearly all the rabbits which contracted the general fever died within two days of
the appearance of the first symptoms.

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 Break-up
Premise - 39 % of rabbits injected with Serum developed Jungle fever.
Hidden Assumption - In the other group, much fewer rabbits developed Jungle
fever.
Apart from the fact that one group was given Serum D and
the other wasn’t the two were kept in similar conditions in all
respects
Conclusion - Serum D must have some substance that causes Jungle fever.

Strengthen Weakened
Statements Irrelevant
Arguments Arguments

A strengthens the
argument as naturally
0.01 % rate is minute
and insignificant
A whereas 39% is an
alarming number.
Therefore, it gives
weight to supporting
the premise.

Whereas B, weakens
the argument by
contradicting the
premise by stating that
40% of the rabbit of
the control group also
contracted Jungle
Fever when the
B
premise state that
39% of the other group
injected with the
Serum D developed
the fever. This
argument shakes the
very support of the
conclusion.

C It is an irrelevant
argument as Jungle

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 wildflower has no
correlation with
Jungle fever so this
does argument does
not create any
impact in supporting
the conclusion.

This argument
strengthens the
conclusion by denoting
a high level of
correlation between
D
the similarity between
the blood of the victims
of Jungle Fever and
the ones injected with
serum D.

This again has no

relevance in the
current scenario. It
just merely states
that Jungle fever is a
fatal disease and
E rabbits die within 2
days of its contact.
By no means, this
argument provides
relevance to the
premise or the
conclusion.

Henceforth, the question arises out of the two strengthened arguments A and D which
one greatly strengthens?

With little thinking and insight we could reason out that argument A is not that relevant
and great strengthening argument in the sense that it only gives credence to the fact
that the experimental group contacted with high rate of fever and doesn’t really
highlight the triggering cause of Jungle fever and hence doesn’t form strong reason in
support of conclusion whereas argument D strongly correlates Serum D with Jungle
fever. Thus, the conclusion that some substance found in Serum D causes jungle
fever would be greatly strengthened if the substance and the fever were invariably
found together, as stated in the argument D.

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 4. Paradox - A paradox is a statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory
or absurd but in reality, expresses a possible truth.

 Which of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent paradox
presented above?
 Which of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the
apparent discrepancy described above?
 Each of the following could help account for this discrepancy, EXCEPT:

Q1. A recent archeological expedition in Northern Asia revealed a great number of

skeletons of animals that died about 1000 years ago. Further research indicated that all
the skeletons had been subjected to temperatures in excess of 300 degrees Celsius. This
fact provided grounds for speculation that they were killed and cooked by tribes that
lived in Northern Asia at that time. However, some of the skeletons belonged to animals
that were considered sacred by those tribes and were never hunted or eaten.

Which of the following best explains the apparent discrepancy above?

a) Some of the skeletons found during the expedition belonged to animals that no
longer inhabit the area.
b) Skeletons of most animals did not have damages typical of the skeletons of
animals that had been killed, cut, and cooked.
c) Tribes that inhabited Northern Asia 1000 years ago used fire to cook food.
d) Another study indicated that there was a great famine in Northern Asia at that
time, which forced local tribes to look for alternative sources of food.
e) A further study indicated evidence of a large fire that had occurred in Northern
Asia approximately 1000 years ago.

Answer:-

 Choice (a) is talking of the past and the future, but it doesn’t answer the question,
hence it will be eliminated.
 Choice (b) is increasing the paradox rather than resolving it. It is adding to the
contradiction by saying that the animals had not been killed or cooked, and
hence can be eliminated.
 Choice (c) only answers part of the paradox, but it doesn’t answer the question,
and thus it is crossed out.

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  On reading choice (d) it seems as the obvious as the answer ,however, it fails to
explain the paradox without assuming additional data, and thus in spite of
seeming to be correct, this choice is, in fact, incorrect.
 Choice (e) resolves both the paradox, and also solves the question. Because in a
fire, all the animals will be burned irrespective of their sacredness.

Q2. French cuisine is famous for its frequent and liberal use of cream and cheese,
both high in saturated fat. For years, medical studies have shown the strong
correlation between diets high in saturated fat and coronary heart disease, and yet,
France has a much lower incidence of such disease than found in comparable
countries like the United States. This is the so-called French Paradox.

 Which of the following, if true, helps to explain the French Paradox?

(A) Certain kinds of cheese can have as much as five times the amount of saturated
fat that cream has.

(B) People in the United States, per capita, eat almost the same amount of saturated
fat on average as do people in France.

(C) The United States imports more cheese from France than from any other country.

(D) Red wine, typically served with French food, helps to clean the buildup of fats in
the arteries, reducing the risk of heart disease.

(E) It is typically for a French person to have either cream or cheese at each of the
three meals in a day.

Answer -

 In attacking a paradox question, first read the prompt and understand the
paradox or contradiction in your own words. Here, we could say: most people eat
high food and get heart attacks, but the French eat high fat foods and don’t get
hard attacks. Then, look for an answer choice that best resolves the paradox.
 Both (B) and (E) do the opposite: they make the paradox harder to explain. With
(B), if folks in the US and France eat about the same amount of saturated fat, then
why do Americans get heart disease but not the French? With (E), if French are
eating high fat foods all the time, why aren’t they getting heart disease? In other
words, neither of these answers the question, and in fact, both of them simply
would make it even harder to understand.

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  Answers (A) and (C) are off-the-wall irrelevant. Choice (A) says that cheese has
more fat then cream, but the French are eating both of those, so it doesn’t
matter: either way, the French are eating high fat food. (C) changes the topic to
imports, which is completely unrelated to the direct relationship of diet and
epidemiology.
 Only (D) resolves the paradox. Since the French drink red wine, which in
moderation cleans the arteries, this explains how they could eat high fat foods
and have a much lower risk of heart disease.

5. Course of action - course of action is a procedure to deal with a situation

 •A situation is presented in the form of a statement and possible course of actions

are given.
•We need to choose the option which is feasible i.e.
 Practically possible,
 Universal and
 Logical.
• These test decision making ability.

How to determine whether the suggested solution is valid or not!

 •Whether the solution really solves the problem ,
 Is it practical ?

 Also you need to ask yourself if you are solving a problem or creating new
one…!!!

Points to keep in mind:

1. Correct course of action should either lessen the problem or improve the situation
created by the problem.

2. Simple problem must have a simple course of action and not a complex one which may
create more problems than to solve or reduce it.

3. Course of action should be possible and should relate to the practical aspect of life and
hence the given problem.

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1.STATEMENT: The Police has been alerted in the district following flood triggered by
incessant rains.
•Course of Action
a) Relief to flood affected people should be arranged.
b) Supply of flood article should be arranged.
c) Adequate medical facilities should be arranged.

a) Only 1 follows
b) Only 2 follows
c) Only 3 follows
d) None follows

Answer. 1 – e. All the courses of action are worth pursuing for the problem as defined in
the statement, because flood affected person need all sort of relief.

Q2.

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 6. Cause and Effect

 Cause: It is the condition under which an event occurs.

Effect: The consequence of an even occurred is the effect

1. For every cause, there is an effect happening

1.The main aim of such questions is to find a relationship between the two given
statements.
2. The relationship that needs to be tested is whether the statements are causally
related to each other.

2. Some Rules for Cause/ Effect questions

1. The cause will occur before the effect

A necessary condition for the event occurrence is a circumstance without

which the event cannot occur.

2. Both the events express generalized results that may not be lacked by
any specific cause but may influence certain other factors.

3. The effects in both statements may be caused by a third unknown event

which may be the common cause of both events.

Question.

1. Rain and thunder showers bashed the city during the past three days.

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 2. Many people stayed indoor during the past three days.

The given statements represent a relationship between them. I is a cause and II is its
effect as the statements show that because of rain and thunder, people stayed in-
door.

Question

A. There has been a considerable increase in the sale of fat free foods
articles.
B. Now, people have become more conscious about their health conditions
and food habits.

Solution: Here also, we can see that there is a relationship in between the
statements. They say that because people have become health conscious, there is an
increase in sale of fat free food items which shows that II is the cause and I is its
effect.

Question

A. In the past few years, job market has improved for the professionally
qualified youth.
B. Many youth are not able to get the jobs as per their expectations.

Solution: In this case, there cannot be any cause-effect relationship as it says in I

that market has improved and in II it says that people are not getting jobs which
seems to be out of the context.
So, both the statements can be either causes or effects of independent causes.

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