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Thermo 2

1. Thermodynamics studies systems and their surroundings. A system is defined as a quantity of matter chosen for study, with a boundary separating it from its surroundings. 2. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant - energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form. For a closed system, the change in the system's internal energy equals the net heat and work transferred to or from the system. 3. Thermodynamic properties are either extensive or intensive. Extensive properties depend on system size, while intensive properties do not. Examples include volume (extensive) and temperature (intensive).

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167 views12 pages

Thermo 2

1. Thermodynamics studies systems and their surroundings. A system is defined as a quantity of matter chosen for study, with a boundary separating it from its surroundings. 2. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant - energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form. For a closed system, the change in the system's internal energy equals the net heat and work transferred to or from the system. 3. Thermodynamic properties are either extensive or intensive. Extensive properties depend on system size, while intensive properties do not. Examples include volume (extensive) and temperature (intensive).

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Thermodynamic

LECTURE 2

CHAPTER TWO
The First Law and Other Basic Concepts

Dr. Khaleel I. Hamad


1. INTRODUCTION
A thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
The region outside the system is called the surroundings.
The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a
system may be fixed or movable.
Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen
for study.
A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the system boundary. The closed system
boundary may move.
Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note the volume does not have to be fixed).
However, energy in the form of heat and work may cross the boundaries of a closed system.
An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary, called a control surface. Examples
of open systems are pumps, compressors, turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.
An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross the boundaries An isolated system
is a closed system with no energy crossing the boundaries and is normally a collection of a main system and its
surroundings that are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system. .
The First low of thermodynamic:
Although energy assumes many forms, the total quantity of energy is
constant, and when energy disappears in one form it appears
simultaneously in other forms.
2. INTERNAL ENERGY OF SYSTEM
The internal energy U of a system is the total of all kinds of energy possessed by the particles that make up the system.
Usually the internal energy consists of the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of the working gas molecules.
3. EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE PROPERTIES

Thermodynamic properties can be placed into two general classes: extensive and intensive.
A property of a system is called extensive if its value for the overall system is the sum of the values of the parts to which the system has been divided into
A property of a system is called intensive if its value is independent of the extent (size) of the system, and may vary from place to place and from moment
to moment.
Some examples of intensive properties are: density, specific volume, pressure, and temperature.
An easy test for whether a property is extensive or intensive is to imagine a fixed amount of matter and ask if you cut the matter into two pieces would the
property in question remain unchanged.
Example (extensive-intensive test)
Consider a fixed amount of gas in a closed insulated container. Assume the temperature, pressure, and density of the gas were uniform throughout the
volume. If we cut the container in half by magically inserting an insulated impermeable wall that did not disturb the gas, then the temperature of the two
halves would not change, the pressure would not change, and the density would not change; but the volume would be half that of the original volume, the
total mass would also be cut in half, and the total energy would be cut in half as well.
Intensive properties may be functions of position and time; whereas extensive properties can only be functions of time
State function, function of state, state quantity, or state variable is a property of a system that depends only on the current state of the system, not on the
way in which the system acquired that state (independent of path). A state function describes the equilibrium state of a system. For example, internal
energy, enthalpy, and entropy are state quantities because they describe quantitatively an equilibrium state of a thermodynamic system, irrespective of how
the system arrived in that state. In contrast, mechanical work and heat are process quantities because their values depend on the specific transition (or path)
between two equilibrium states.
Path function: A thermodynamic quantity whose value depends on the path of the
process through the equilibrium state space of a thermodynamic system is termed a
process function or, alternatively, a process quantity, or a path function. As an
example, mechanical work and heat are process functions because they describe
quantitatively the transition between equilibrium states of a thermodynamic system.
Path functions depend on the path taken to reach one state from another. Different
routes give different quantities. Examples of path functions include work, heat and
length. In contrast to path functions, state functions are independent of the path
taken.
4. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Although energy assumes many forms, the total quantity of energy is constant, and
when energy disappears in one form it appears simultaneously in other forms.
The first law applies to the system and surroundings, and not to the system alone. In
its most basic form, the first law requires:
5. ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
Since no streams enter or leave a closed system, no internal energy is transported across the
boundary of the system.
All energy exchange between a closed system and its surroundings then appears as heat and
work, and the total energy change of the surroundings equals the net energy transferred to
or from it as heat and work. The second term of Eq. (2.1) may therefore be replaced by
Δ(Energy of surroundings) = ±Q ± W
The choice of signs used with Q and W depends on which direction of transport is regarded
as positive.
Heat Q and work W always refer to the system, and the modern sign convention makes the
numerical values of both quantities positive for transfer into the system from the
surroundings.
The corresponding quantities taken with reference to the surroundings, Qsur. and Wsur.
have the opposite sign, i.e., Qsur. = - Q and Wsur. = - W. With this understanding:
Δ(Energy of surroundings) = Qsur + Wsur. = -Q – w
Equation (2.1) now become
Δ(Energy of the system) = Q + W (2.2)
This equation means that the total energy change of a closed system equals the net
energy transferred into it as heat and work.
Closed systems often undergo processes that cause no change in the system other
than in its internal energy. For such processes, Eq. (2.2) reduces to:
ΔUt = Q + W (2.3)

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