Energy 289 (2024) 129932

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Energy
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An efficient and low-cost solar-aided lignite drying power generation

system based on cascade utilisation of concentrating and non-concentrating
solar energy
Yu Han *, Yingying Sun , Junjie Wu
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Nanjing Institute of Technology, Nanjing, 211167, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Soteris Kalogirou A new solar-aided power generation system is proposed. It is based on the unique characteristics of non-
concentrating and concentrating solar energy applied to lignite drying. In the new system, solar energy
Keywords: cascade utilisation is achieved by the two-stage solar drying of lignite. Solar irradiance, especially diffused
Solar-aided power generation irradiance, can be efficiently used in the new system at a relatively low cost using a non-concentrating solar
Lignite drying
collecting device. High solar energy conversion efficiency is achieved through solar-integrated lignite drying. For
Solar energy cascade utilisation
a 600-MW base unit, the solar energy in the new system increases electric power by 26.8 MWe; the solar-to-
Concentrating solar energy
Non-concentrating solar energy electricity conversion efficiency is 35.83 %. The low-cost non-concentrating solar collecting device has
outstanding thermal performance. The net annual revenue of the new system is 63.45 million CNY with a solar-
generated electricity cost of 0.346 CNY/kWh. The problem of solar fluctuation is resolved by dried coal storage.
The new system achieves significantly better performance than the conventional system by efficiently utilising
diffused solar irradiance during cloudy days.

economic performance considerably exceeded that of solar-alone power

1. Introduction generation. Yan et al. [5] optimised a strategy for controlling the
water–fuel ratio, significantly improving the stability and response rate
Coal is used to generate approximately one-third of the total electric of SAPG. Ding et al. [6] analysed the application of SAPG to cogenera­
power worldwide [1], significantly contributing to the stability of power tion power plants. For a 330-MW unit, SAPG decreased the fuel con­
systems. However, coal-fired power plants emit considerable amounts of sumption by 80.23 t/d during the heating season. Shagdar et al. [7]
CO2, causing environmental problems. Owing to its abundance and introduced solar heat into water from deaerator to generate steam that
low-carbon characteristics, solar thermal energy is an excellent expanded in a turbine. The application of SAPG to a 300-MW unit
replacement for the energy generated from coal. Several commercial increased the electric power and thermal efficiency by 19.67 MW and
solar thermal power stations exist worldwide. Nevertheless, because of 3.74 %, respectively. Mofidipour et al. [8] optimised the performance of
the unsatisfactory efficiency and high cost of solar-alone electricity SAPG in a 600-MW plant with CO2 capture. Their results indicated that
production, its widespread application remains limited. thermal and exergy efficiencies could be increased by 1.16 % and 1.53
A promising method for the efficient utilisation of solar energy is the %, respectively, by two-objective optimisation. Liu et al. [9] proposed
integration of solar heat into coal-fired power plants; this is typically the integration of tower and trough solar heating. Based on a 660-MW
called solar-aided power generation (SAPG). This approach has attrac­ unit, the fuel consumption and additional solar exergy gained using
ted considerable attention since it was first proposed in 1975 [2]. Li et al. SAPG were 251.59 g/kWh and 64.93 MW, respectively. Qin et al. [10]
[3] compared systems integrated with trough and tower solar heating. investigated a new SAPG operating mode based on the combination of
For a 300-MW SAPG system, the trough and tower solar energy power increase and fuel decrease. Compared with the conventional
decreased coal consumptions by 17.56 and 24.26 g/kWh, respectively. operation mode, the new mode increased the annual profit by 11.4%–
Kamath et al. [4] identified the advantages of SAPG over solar-only 12.1 %. Wu et al. [11] analysed SAPG by tracking exergy flow and
power generation. Their results indicated that SAPG achieved lev­ destruction. Their results revealed the solar-to-electricity transfer
elised electricity cost by 8.5–9.0 ¢/kWh in different areas of India; this mechanism and provided a new method for calculating the solar

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Han).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129932
Received 5 August 2023; Received in revised form 2 December 2023; Accepted 6 December 2023
Available online 9 December 2023
0360-5442/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

drying technology had the best performance in terms of dryer thermal

Nomenclature efficiency and generated electric power. Zhang et al. [16] analysed the
variations in temperature and moisture during the coal-drying process.
Abbreviation Their experimental results demonstrated the potential of developing a
COEs Cost of electricity generated by solar energy new method for accurate moisture control. Xu et al. designed new
CRF Capital recovery factor coal-drying processes for water-cooled [17] and air-cooled [18] power
DEA Deaerator plants based on low-temperature lignite drying. The experimental and
DNI Direct normal irradiance simulation results revealed that low-temperature drying significantly
FCI Fixed capital investment improved the performance of power generation systems. This extremely
GHI Global horizontal irradiance high performance can be attributed to the combination of high thermal
LHV Lower heating value performance and low energy consumption of coal drying. Jaszczur et al.
NAR Net annual revenue [19] proposed the use of lignite steam drying in an integrated gasifica­
RH Regenerative heater tion combined cycle. Simulation results showed that the new system
SAPG Solar-aided power generation increased the carbon content of lignite from 27.5 % to 44.6 %. The
WTA Wirbelchicht-Trocknung mit integrierter thermal efficiency of the new power generation system ranged from
Abwärmenutzung 47.4 % to 56.4 % depending on the expansion ratio. Han et al. [20]
proposed a new integrated system combining lignite drying, spray
towers, and heat pumps. The simulation and numerical calculation re­
sults indicated that the thermal performance of this system could in­
contribution in SAPG. crease the thermal efficiency of power plants by 1.40 %, recover 83.3 %
Most previous studies on SAPG have focused on the high-grade solar of wastewater, and generate 110.6 MWth of heat. He et al. [21] proposed
heat (e.g., energy collected by solar troughs). In previous studies, high- a new lignite drying and separation process by integrating an impeller, a
grade solar energy was considered to improve thermal performance fluidised bed, and warm air flow (110 ◦ C). Under optimal conditions,
owing to the conventional integration mode (i.e., the integration of solar dried coal with low ash and moisture contents (9.72 % and 13.13 %,
heat into the steam–water cycle). Low-grade non-concentrating solar respectively) as well as a high calorific value (4318.38 cal/g) could be
energy, such as energy from a flat plate solar collector (50–100 ◦ C [12]), obtained using the newly developed process.
was ignored by scholars because of the predictable low thermal effi­ Lignite drying in power plants requires a considerable amount of
ciency in the conventional integration mode. Many solar energy-rich low-grade energy (50–100 ◦ C [17]) for most moisture removal. It also
areas, such as Western China and Central Australia, have high lignite requires a small amount of relatively high-grade energy (approximately
reserves [13]. Lignite drying is a mature technique for improving the 140 ◦ C [22]) to achieve sufficient drying and increase the power gen­
thermal performance of power plants in which drying heat must be eration efficiency significantly. Flat plate solar collectors, which are less
maintained at a low grade to prevent the spontaneous combustion of costly than concentrating solar collectors, can provide low-grade heat in
lignite [14]. Thus, based on the close connection between solar thermal the temperature range 50–100 ◦ C. Trough solar collector, which has a
energy and lignite, there exists a potential for efficient utilisation of relatively high cost, can provide high-grade heat of approximately
low-grade non-concentrating solar energy in lignite drying process, but 140 ◦ C. Overall, the thermal characteristics of flat plate and trough solar
it has not been evaluated in previous research on SAPG. heat collectors for lignite drying enable the development of a new
Scholars have conducted comprehensive research on system perfor­ low-cost and efficient SAPG system. Accordingly, considerable amount
mance and key techniques for lignite drying. Liu et al. [15] compared of low-grade non-concentrating as well as a little high-grade concen­
the thermal performance between rotary, chamber, pneumatic, and trating solar energy are introduced into the lignite drying process.
WTA (Wirbelchicht-Trocknung mit integrierter Abwärmenutzung, meaning In contrast to conventional SAPG reported in previous articles, a new
fluidised-bed dryer with internal heat exchanger) dryers applied to dried solar energy conversion mode is proposed in this study. First, numerous
lignite power generation systems. Their results indicated that the WTA conventional trough solar collectors are replaced by flat plate collectors,

Fig. 1. Proposed solution to the core problem of conventional SAPG.

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 2. Concept of conventional SAPG system.

significantly decreasing cost and improving economic performance. 2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of non-concentrating solar energy
Second, in the new system, solar energy is converted into the heating
value of fuel by lignite drying. The new system’s energy conversion ef­ Non-concentrating solar energy has received inconsiderable atten­
ficiency is higher than that of a conventional system where solar energy tion in solar thermal power generation because of its low grade. The
is applied to feedwater. Third, a substantial amount of diffused solar energy captured by a flat plate solar collecting device can heat fluid in
irradiance, which is not exploited in the conventional mode, can be the temperature range of 50–100 ◦ C [12]. The efficiency of this device is
efficiently utilised in the new solar energy conversion mode. Finally, in low if it is immediately introduced into the steam–water cycle with the
previous research, high solar energy conversion efficiency was typically same integration mode as that in the conventional SAPG system. How­
attributed to the high operating temperature of the collectors. In this ever, if the foregoing disadvantage can be overcome, non-concentrating
study, an effective method for efficiently utilising low-temperature solar solar energy offers two advantages. First, the entire solar irradiance,
energy is developed for lignite drying. Additionally, several solar–coal including direct, diffused, and reflected irradiances, can be captured by
hybrid power generation systems have been proposed by our research a plate collector. Consequently, more solar energy is available compared
team, including the integration of solar energy into waste heat recovery with the energy captured by conventional concentrating solar collecting
[23], selective catalytic reduction de-NOx [24], steam ejector operation devices in which only direct irradiance is available. Second, the in­
[13], and air preheating [25] processes. In contrast to previous studies, a vestment in a non-concentrating solar collecting device (approximately
novel solar energy conversion mode in power generation system—the 850 CNY/m2 for a flat plate collector [25]) is significantly lower than
cascade utilisation of solar thermal energy captured by troughs and flat that in a concentrating solar collecting device (approximately 2900
plates—is implemented in this study. CNY/m2 for a trough collector [26]).
Accordingly, an efficient and low-cost SAPG system is proposed. In
this new system, non-concentrating solar energy is efficiently integrated 2.3. Characteristics of lignite pre-drying: high thermal performance with
into lignite drying. Solar energy cascade utilisation is achieved by two- low-grade energy consumption
stage solar drying. The thermodynamic and economic performance of
the new SAPG system is evaluated based on simulations and calcula­ Many solar energy-rich areas, such as Western China and Central
tions. The designed, off-design, and annual performance levels are Australia, have high lignite reserves. In power plants, a considerable
discussed. amount of energy in the furnace (heated to approximately 1200 ◦ C) is
consumed by the evaporation of moisture in lignite. This consumption
2. New system concept proposal can be effectively reduced by lignite drying [14]. Additionally, after
lignite drying, the exhaust gas temperature decreases because of the low
In the research on solar–coal hybrid power generation, the high cost acid dew point and enhanced heat transfer in the boiler [27]. Overall,
of solar energy collectors and inadequate economic performance have lignite drying greatly improves the thermal performance by increasing
long been the core problems limiting the wide application of conven­ the furnace energy and reducing the waste heat of the boiler. Conse­
tional SAPG [26]. In this section, a new system concept is presented quently, additional energy is available for generating high-grade live
based on the following logic. First, the core problem (high cost) of and reheat steams (typically exceeding 500 ◦ C [28]) in power plants.
conventional SAPG systems is analysed. Second, the use of Drying heat must be maintained at a low temperature level to pre­
low-temperature and low-cost non-concentrating solar energy in lignite vent the spontaneous combustion. In lignite drying, a substantial
drying to replace conventional high-cost concentrating energy in feed­ amount of low-grade heat (50–100 ◦ C [17]) is required for moisture
water heating is conceived as a solution to the core problem. Then, a removal, and a relatively small amount of high-grade energy (approxi­
more practical solution is developed, as shown in Fig. 1. A considerable mately 140 ◦ C [22]) is required to achieve sufficient drying.
amount of flat plate solar heat and a small amount of trough solar heat is
introduced into the lignite drying power generation system. Finally, the 2.4. Two-stage solar drying: cascade utilisation of concentrating and non-
new system concept is presented. concentrating solar energy

2.1. High-cost concentrating solar energy in conventional SAPG Based on the moisture removal characteristics of lignite, the cascade
utilisation of concentrating and non-concentrating solar energy can be
Owing to its high grade, concentrating solar energy has gained achieved by two-stage drying. First, a considerable amount of non-
considerable attention in previous studies on conventional SAPG. Fig. 2 concentrating solar heat is captured by flat plate collectors. A low-
illustrates the concept of a conventional SAPG system. The figure shows grade working fluid (50–100 ◦ C) is produced for preliminary drying,
that high-grade trough solar energy is introduced into the feedwater, removing most moisture in lignite. Then, the trough collector captures a
saving high-grade extraction steam for power generation in the turbine. small amount of concentrating solar heat, generating a relatively high-
The conventional SAPG system exhibits satisfactory thermal efficiency grade working fluid (approximately 140 ◦ C) to achieve sufficient drying.
owing to the high-grade solar energy collected by the trough. However, Two-stage solar drying overcomes the disadvantages of both
although the thermal performance of a conventional SAPG system is concentrating (high-cost) and non-concentrating (low-grade) solar en­
satisfactory, the system has a distinct disadvantage: solar energy col­ ergy. Although the solar energy captured by flat plates is low-grade
lectors are costly (approximately 2900 CNY/m2 [26]). Thus, the eco­ (50–100 ◦ C), the use of this energy in lignite drying saves high-grade
nomic performance of the system is unsatisfactory. furnace energy (approximately 1200 ◦ C). This high-grade energy, orig­
inally intended for moisture evaporation, can be used to generate more
high-grade live and reheat steams at temperatures exceeding 500 ◦ C.
Additionally, only a small amount of high-cost trough solar energy is

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 3. Concept of the new SAPG system.

Fig. 4. Configuration of the base unit.

required for sufficient drying, significantly reducing the cost of solar is used for deep lignite drying. Finally, dried coal is combusted in a
collectors. furnace to produce electricity.

3. Application of new system to 600-MW power plant

2.5. Conceptualisation
3.1. Base unit
The characteristics of non-concentrating and concentrating solar
energy used in lignite drying enable the development of a low-cost and An existing 600-MW lignite power plant in China [22] was selected
efficient SAPG system; the concept is presented in Fig. 3. First, a sub­ to evaluate the performance of the new SAPG system. Detailed data and
stantial amount of non-concentrating solar heat is introduced for lignite configuration of the base unit are obtained from Ref. [22]. Fig. 4
preliminary drying. Second, a small amount of concentrating solar heat

Table 1
Mass fraction of elemental composition and LHV of the lignite.
Item Moisture (%) Ash (%) Carbon (%) Hydrogen (%) Oxygen (%) Nitrogen (%) Sulphur (%) LHV (MJ/kg)

Lignite 32.24 6.60 44.63 2.95 12.33 0.70 0.55 16.10

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Table 2
Temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate of working fluids of the base unit.
Number (in Fig. 4) Temperature (◦ C) Pressure (MPa) Mass flow rate (kg/s) Number (in Fig. 4) Temperature (◦ C) Pressure (MPa) Mass flow rate (kg/s)

1 566.0 3.23 396.9 13 35.4 0.006 265.8

2 566.0 24.20 459.3 14 275.4 30.65 459.3
3 369.3 1.06 326.2 15 245.3 30.66 459.3
4 290.8 3.78 396.9 16 214.5 30.67 459.3
5 349.9 6.01 33.1 17 185.8 30.68 459.3
6 290.8 3.78 29.2 18 141.6 1.00 356.0
7 500.8 2.15 18.9 19 101.5 1.01 356.0
8 397.9 1.06 21.9 20 81.8 1.02 356.0
9 282.3 0.43 24.0 21 58.5 1.03 356.0
10 185.0 0.12 10.8 22 35.9 1.04 356.0
11 95.2 0.06 13.2 23 142.0 0.10 654.8
12 62.4 0.02 12.3 24 25.0 0.10 85.0

Fig. 5. Configuration of new SAPG system.

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 6. Configuration of a conventional SAPG system.

illustrates the configuration of the base unit. The mass fraction of each following parameters are designed based on practical engineering. (1)
element and the lower heating value (LHV) of lignite are summarised in The flat plate and trough collectors in the new SAPG system are designed
Table 1. The temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate of each working to produce working fluids with temperature values of 80 and 140 ◦ C for
fluid in the base unit are listed in Table 2. the preliminary and deep drying of lignite, respectively. The inlet tem­
peratures of the flat plate and trough collectors are set as 50 and 120 ◦ C,
respectively. (2) Approximately 65 % of moisture can be easily removed
3.2. Configuration of new system and key parameter design using a practical coal-drying process [21]. In the new SAPG system, the
flat plate collector area is designed to be 87,900 m2 for drying to remove
Fig. 5 shows the configuration of the new SAPG system. In the new approximately 50 % of the total moisture [17]. The trough collector area
system, two-stage solar-lignite drying process is arranged. First, a flat is designed to be 31,100 m2 for drying to remove approximately 15 % of
plate solar collector is employed to produce hot water (80 ◦ C), releasing the total moisture. To compare their performance reasonably, the total
heat into raw coal in the preliminary dryer. Then, a trough solar col­ designed collector areas in the conventional and new SAPG systems
lector is installed to generate thermal oil (140 ◦ C) for lignite sufficient were made equal (119,000 m2). (3) The exhaust flue gas temperature in
drying in the depth dryer, producing the final dried coal. The drying the new SAPG system reasonably decreases to 131 ◦ C based on the extent
equipment employed is WTA dryer in which coal is fluidised by air, and of drying [29]. (4) The efficiency of the dryers is designed to be 98 %
the drying fluids release the heat inside the exchanger [15]. After [15]. (5) In the conventional SAPG system, taking the feedwater tem­
two-stage drying, the coal flows into the boiler furnace for combustion perature into consideration, the trough collector operates between 270
and power generation. To determine the advantages of the new system, a and 300 ◦ C, heating the feedwater from 245.2 to 275.4 ◦ C. (6) The yearly
conventional SAPG system (Fig. 6) is selected as the reference system. In performance of the SAPG systems is evaluated using the annual global
this system, a trough solar collector is installed to heat the feedwater to a horizontal irradiance (GHI) and direct normal irradiance (DNI) in
high temperature. Lanzhou, Gansu, China (N 36.8◦ , E 103.8◦ ), as shown in Fig. 6. (7) The
To evaluate the new and conventional SAPG systems reasonably, the

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 7. Annual (a) GHI and (b) DNI in Lanzhou, Gansu, China.

designed performance levels of the SAPG systems are evaluated using flow rate of the raw lignite (kg/s), respectively.
GHI (594 W/m2) and DNI (601 W/m2) at 10:00 h on 20 September in The flow rate of the extraction steam, electric power, and heating
Lanzhou. The solar data shown in Fig. 7 are obtained from Ref. [30]; value of coal are selected for validation. The original/theoretical
they can be read by the System Advisor Model software. calculation and simulation data are compared in Fig. 8. Specifically, the
Overall, the parameters assumption of the systems is in accordance simulation data of the flow rate of the extraction steam, electric power,
with the practical engineering. Specifically, first, taking account of the and LHV of lignite are compared with the original data of base unit. The
thermodynamic characteristics of both solar collectors and lignite dry­ simulated LHV of dried coal is compared with the theoretical calculation
ing technique, the operation temperature of flat plate and trough solar data using the method in Ref. [14]. The small errors can be reasonably
collecting device is assumed in reasonable range. Second, the assumed neglected, thus proving the accuracy of the simulation results.
drying degree is in accordance with the mature drying technology.
Third, the designed areas of solar collectors are not large, which can be
easily installed in the practical engineering. Finally, the assumed tem­ 4.2. Solar energy calculation
perature differences of all heat exchangers are over 20 ◦ C, providing
engineering feasibility for the heat transfer processes. In practical engineering, non-concentrating solar collecting devices
are typically installed facing south at an inclined angle. The total
4. Methodology available solar irradiance (Inc) comprising direct (ID), diffused (Id), and
reflected (Ir) irradiances is expressed as follows [32]:
4.1. System simulation and validation Inc = ID + Id + Ir (3)

The new and conventional SAPG systems are simulated using the ID =DNI⋅(sin δ ⋅sin φ⋅cos β
EBSILON software. It is developed by STAGE Power Group, and has been
− sin δ ⋅cos φ⋅ sin β +cos δ⋅ cos φ ⋅cos β ⋅ cos ω +cos δ ⋅sin φ ⋅sin β ⋅cos ω)
widely used for energy balance simulation and calculation for thermal
systems [31], especially for thermal power plants [19]. Table 3 lists the (4)
details of the models in the EBSILON software.
1 + cos β
The LHV of raw lignite and dried coal can be simulated by EBSILON Id = ⋅[GHI − (DNI ⋅ cos θz )] (5)
2
software, which is obtained based on the mass fractions of elemental
composition. In the simulation of the new SAPG system with lignite 1 − cos β
drying, the component variation and fuel flow rate reduction are related Ir = ρ⋅ ⋅GHI (6)
2
to the amount of vapour. This amount is calculated by [14].
where φ and β denote the latitude (36.8◦ ) and inclination angle (41.8◦ ),
Qncsh + Qcsh
mv = (1) respectively, and ρ denotes the albedo (0.2).
r The declination (δ), hour (ω), and zenith (θz) angles are calculated by
where Qncsh and Qcsh represent the non-concentrating and concentrating Ref. [24]:
solar heat (kW), respectively, which can be obtained using the solar (
284 + d
)
energy calculation presented in Section 4.2. The heat for vaporisation is δ= 23.45 ⋅ sin 360 ⋅ (7)
365
denoted by r (approximately 2500 kJ/kg).
The Lignite-based thermal efficiency of the systems is calculated by ω= 15 ⋅ (ts − 12) (8)
Ref. [14]:
cos θz = cos δ⋅cos φ⋅cos ω + sin δ⋅sin φ (9)
P
ηth = (2)
ml ⋅LHV
where d and ts are the number of days and time of the day, respectively.
where P and ml represents the generated electric power (MW) and mass Typically, a trough solar collecting device is installed in the north­
–south direction and tracks solar irradiance from east to west. The

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Table 3 incident angle (θ) and available solar irradiance (Ic) are given by [24].
Models simulated in EBSILON. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Equipment Mathematical model (Energy Model data cos θ = cos2 θz + cos2 δ⋅sin2 ω (10)
balance)

Boiler Energy input: air enthalpy, Mass fractions of elemental Ic = DNI⋅cos θ (11)
feedwater enthalpy, inlet composition (listed in
reheat steam enthalpy, and Table 1), temperature (25 ◦ C),
The following expresses the collected non-concentrating (Qncsh) and
coal heating value and mass flow rate (85 kg/s) concentrating (Qcsh) solar heat:
Energy output: enthalpy of live of fuel is defined by the data
steam, reheat steam, and of lignite; temperature
Qncsh = Inc ⋅Afp ⋅φfp (12)
exhaust flue gas (25 ◦ C), pressure (0.1 MPa),
and excess coefficient (1.2) of Qcsh = Ic ⋅At ⋅φt (13)
air is defined by the data of
base unit; exhaust flue gas where Afp and At represent the areas of the flat plate and trough col­
temperature of new and
lectors (m2), respectively.
conventional system is
defined by the designed data The solar-to-thermal conversion efficiencies of flat plate (φfp) and
(131 ◦ C) in Section 3.2 and trough (φt) solar collectors are calculated by the experimental equations
original data of base unit tested by scholars in Tsinghua University [33] and Indian Institute of
(142 ◦ C); steam/water
Technology Madras [34], respectively:
parameters are defined by the
data of base unit in Table 2.
[ ( )]
ΔT
Steam turbine Energy input: inlet steam Temperature and pressure of φfp = 0.7385 − 3.663 ⋅ ⋅100 (14)
Inc
enthalpy steam is defined by data of
Energy output: outlet steam original base unit [ ( )]
enthalpy, extraction steam ΔT
φt = 0.655 − 0.15 ⋅ ⋅100 (15)
enthalpy, and mechanical Ic
work
Regenerative Energy input: enthalpy of inlet Simulated as normal heat
where ΔT denotes the temperature difference between the solar col­
heaters (RH) feedwater/condensed water, exchanger; upper temperature
extraction steam, and drain difference is defined; pressure
lector and environment (◦ C).
from upper stage RH losses of high-temperature (3
Energy output: enthalpy of %) and low-temperature (5
outlet feedwater/condensed %) extraction steams are 4.3. Exergy analysis
water and drain specified
Condenser Energy input: enthalpy of Working pressure (6 kPa) is The following expresses the collected non-concentrating (Enc) and
exhaust steam and drain defined by data of base unit
concentrating (Ec) solar exergy [35]:
Energy output: enthalpy of
condensed water
( )
T0
Solar collecting Shown in Section 4.2 Simulated as heat injection; Enc = Qncsh ⋅ 1 − (16)
Tfp
devices calculation method of
injected solar heat is ( )
presented in Section 4.2 T0
Ec = Qcsh ⋅ 1 − (17)
Drying system Energy input: raw coal heating Simulated as component and Tt
value and inlet drying fluid flow rate variations of fuel
enthalpy
where T0 is the environmental temperature (298 K); Tfp and Tt represent
Energy output: dried coal
heating value, outlet drying
the average operational temperatures (K) of the flat plate and trough
fluid enthalpy, and vapour collectors, respectively.
enthalpy The exergy of coal is determined by the following [23]:
( )
H O N
Ec = mc ⋅ (LHV + r ⋅ M)⋅ 0.1882 +0.061 +0.0404 +1.0437 +9417 ⋅ S
C C C
(18)

where mc is the flow rate (kg/s) of coal, and M, H, O, N, C, and S

represent the mass fractions of moisture, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon, and sulphur in the coal, respectively.
The exergy variations of conventional fluids, such as steam, flue gas,
and water, are calculated by Ref. [35]:
ΔE= Δh − T0 ⋅Δs (19)

where Δh and Δs are the enthalpy and entropy variations, respectively.

4.4. Economic analysis

The net annual revenue (NAR) [24] and cost of solar-generated

Fig. 8. Validation of simulation results. electricity (COEs) [36] are widely applied to evaluate the economic
performance of SAPG systems and can be calculated as follows:

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Table 4
Data of the reference equipment. c = cr ⋅(s/sr )f (23)
Equipment Investment Reference Scale Scaling
where c and cr are the investments in the unknown and known devices,
(million CNY) scale parameter factor
respectively; s and sr represent the key parameters of the unknown and
Flat plate 60.14 70,000 Area (m2) 0.90 known devices, respectively; and f is the scaling factor.
collector [25]
Trough solar 387.17 183,300 2
Area (m ) 0.90
Solar collectors and dryers are employed in the new and conven­
collecting tional SAPG systems. The detailed data listed in Table 4 are obtained
device [26] from published references.
WTA dryer [13] 35.08 25.7 Vapour flow 0.8
rate (kg/s)
4.5. Environmental analysis

NAR = Gs ⋅p − ct ⋅CRF − co (20) Pollutant emissions can be calculated based on coal composition and
fundamental chemical reaction equations. The amounts of produced
ct ⋅CRF + co
COEs = (21) SOx, dust, and CO2 are expressed as follows [24]:
Gs
RSOx = 2mc ⋅S (24)
where Gs represents the amount of annual solar-generated electricity; ct
is the total investment in additional devices; co denotes the operational Rdust = mc ⋅A (25)
cost (4 % of ct [29]); and p represents the price of electricity produced by
solar heat (1.15 CNY/kWh [37]). RCO2 = 3.67mc ⋅C (26)
The capital recovery factor (CRF) is expressed by Ref. [38]:
5. Results and discussions
(1 + i)n ⋅i
CRF = (22)
(1 + i)n − 1
5.1. Designed thermal performance
where i is the interest rate (8 % [24]), and n is the system life (30 years
Tables 5 and 6 list the parameters of the working fluid of the pro­
[39]).
posed and conventional SAPG systems, respectively. The tables indicate
The cost of an additional device can be calculated based on existing
that in the new SAPG system, the moisture removal rates of the pre­
reference devices [23], as follows:
liminary and depth dryers are 13.7 and 4.1 kg/s, respectively (working
fluid Nos. 27 and 31 in Table 5, respectively). Consequently, this

Table 5
Working fluid parameters of the new SAPG system.
Number (in Fig. 5) Temperature (◦ C) Pressure (MPa) Mass flow rate (kg/s) Number (in Fig. 5) Temperature (◦ C) Pressure (MPa) Mass flow rate (kg/s)

1 566.0 3.23 413.9 17 185.8 30.68 478.9

2 566.0 24.20 478.9 18 141.6 1.00 371.4
3 369.3 1.06 340.2 19 101.5 1.01 371.4
4 290.8 3.78 413.9 20 81.8 1.02 371.4
5 349.9 6.01 34.5 21 58.5 1.03 371.4
6 290.8 3.78 30.5 22 35.9 1.04 371.4
7 500.8 2.15 19.8 23 131.0 0.10 637.0
8 397.9 1.06 22.8 24 50.0 0.10 277.9
9 282.3 0.43 25.1 25 80.0 0.11 277.9
10 185.0 0.12 11.3 26 25.0 0.10 85.0
11 95.2 0.06 13.8 27 75.0 0.04 13.7
12 62.4 0.02 13.4 28 120.0 0.10 279.2
13 35.4 0.006 276.7 29 140.0 0.11 279.2
14 275.4 30.65 478.9 30 25.0 0.10 71.3
15 245.3 30.66 478.9 31 110.0 0.10 4.1
16 214.5 30.67 478.9 32 25.0 0.10 67.2

Table 6
Working fluid parameters of the conventional SAPG system.
Number (in Fig. 6) Temperature (◦ C) Pressure (MPa) Mass flow rate (kg/s) Number (in Fig. 6) Temperature (◦ C) Pressure (MPa) Mass flow rate (kg/s)

1 566.0 3.23 411.0 15 245.3 30.66 454.9

2 566.0 24.20 454.9 16 214.5 30.67 454.9
3 369.3 1.06 338.7 17 185.8 30.68 454.9
4 290.8 3.78 411.0 18 141.6 1.00 368.3
5 349.9 6.01 13.5 19 101.5 1.01 368.3
6 290.8 3.78 30.3 20 81.8 1.02 368.3
7 500.8 2.15 19.7 21 58.5 1.03 368.3
8 397.9 1.06 23.0 22 35.9 1.04 368.3
9 282.3 0.43 24.8 23 142.0 0.10 654.8
10 185.0 0.12 11.2 24 25.0 0.10 85.0
11 95.2 0.06 13.7 25 275.4 30.65 266.9
12 62.4 0.02 12.7 26 245.3 30.66 266.9
13 35.4 0.006 276.2 27 300.0 0.51 542.1
14 275.4 30.65 454.9 28 270.0 0.50 542.1

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Table 7 improved performance is achieved by generating additional live steam

Designed thermal performance levels of the new and conventional SAPG in the boiler. In the new SAPG system, the live steam increases from
systems. 459.3 to 478.9 kg/s (working fluid No. 2 in Tables 2 and 5).
Parameters Base Conventional New SAPG Table 7 lists and compares the designed thermal performance levels
unit SAPG system system of the new and conventional systems. The total collector areas of the two
Flat plate/trough collector area − /− -/119,000 87,900/ systems are the same, revealing the advantages of the new system. The
(m2) 31,100 new SAPG system compared with the conventional system has two
Available non-concentrating/ − /− -/64.0 58.2/16.7 unique advantages. First, the total available solar power in the new
concentrating solar power (MW)
SAPG system (74.9 MW) is considerably higher than that of the con­
Total available solar power (MW) – 64.0 74.9
Collected non-concentrating/ − /− -/37.6 34.9/10.5 ventional system (64.0 MW). More available solar power is provided by
concentrating solar thermal the non-concentrating solar collecting devices, which collect direct,
power (MWth) diffused, and reflected solar irradiances. Second, the boiler efficiency in
Energy ratio of flat plate collector – – 1:0.3 the new SAPG system increases from 92.68 % to 93.66 % owing to the
to trough solar collector
Total collected solar thermal – 37.6 45.4
lower thermal loss of exhaust flue gas caused by lignite drying. In gen­
power (MWth) eral, the new SAPG system produces 26.8 MWe of extra electric power
LHV of coal for boiler (MJ/kg) 16.10 16.10 21.02 with a 1.96 % improvement in lignite-based thermal efficiency; this
Input thermal power of furnace 1368.5 1368.5 1412.7 power is 1.8 times greater than that of the conventional system. The high
from coal (MWth)
thermal performance proves that integrating both non-concentrating
Thermal loss of exhaust flue gas 66.8 66.8 56.2
(MWth) and concentrating solar energy into lignite drying is an effective
Boiler efficiency (%) 92.68 92.68 93.66 method for efficiently generating electricity.
Total generated electric power 600.2 615.2 627.0 Fig. 9 compares the solar power conversion between the new and
(MWe) conventional SAPG systems. In the conventional system, 1 MW of solar
Solar-generated electric power 15.0 26.8
power flows into the trough solar collector, producing 0.5867 MWth of
–
(MWe)
Lignite-based thermal efficiency 43.86 44.95 45.82 solar thermal power. This thermal power is then used to heat the feed­
(%) water, adding the same amount (0.5867 MWth) of thermal power to the
Thermal efficiency increase (%) – 1.09 1.96 steam–water cycle. Finally, 0.2341 MWe of electric power is generated.
In the new SAPG system, 77.65 % of the gross 1-MW solar power flows
into the flat plate collector and produces 0.4660 MWth of non-
increases the LHV and total fuel energy. Additionally, in the new system,
concentrating solar thermal power. A small amount of solar power
the exhaust flue gas temperature reduces from 142 to 131 ◦ C (working
(22.35 %) is collected using the trough collector, generating 0.1405
fluid No. 23 in Table 5), decreasing the boiler loss. Overall, the energy-
MWth of concentrating solar thermal power. Overall, in the new system,
saving mechanisms of the two SAPG systems differ. In the conventional
1 MW of solar power produces 0.6064 MWth of solar thermal power,
SAPG system, solar energy heats the feedwater, and performance im­
exhibiting satisfactory solar-to-thermal conversion efficiency. The
proves owing to the saved extraction steam. For RH1 of the conventional
0.6064-MWth solar thermal power in the new SAPG system is introduced
system, 266.9 kg/s of feedwater (working fluid No. 25 in Table 6) flows
into the lignite drying process, resulting in 0.5943 MWth of additional
into the trough collecting device, reducing the flow rate of extraction
fuel energy. Moreover, solar-aided lignite drying reduces the exhaust
steam from 33.1 to 13.5 kg/s (working fluid No. 5 in Tables 2 and 6). In
flue gas temperature because of the low acid dew point and enhances the
the new SAPG system, solar heat is used for lignite drying, increasing the
heat transfer in the boiler [27], saving 0.1352 MWth of waste heat from
energy input and decreasing the thermal loss in the boiler. Thus,

Fig. 9. Solar power conversion in the (a) conventional and (b) new systems.

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 10. Annual available solar energy of the (a) conventional and (b) new SAPG systems.

Fig. 11. Annual collected solar energy of the (a) conventional and (b) new SAPG systems.

the flue gas. Overall, 0.7295 MWth of additional boiler output is ach­ than that of the conventional system (187.4 GWh). Additionally, the
ieved using solar-aided lignite drying. Finally, 0.3583 MWe electric operating temperature of the solar collecting device in the new system is
power is generated. In general, the solar-to-electricity conversion effi­ lower than that of the conventional system; consequently, the solar-to-
ciency of the new system is 35.83 %, which is considerably higher than thermal conversion efficiency of the new system is higher. Overall, the
that of the conventional system (23.41 %). Overall, the high solar con­ annual collected solar heat of the new system (133.6 GWh) is 21.6 %
version efficiency of the new SAPG system proves that integrating both higher than that of the conventional system (109.9 GWh).
non-concentrating and concentrating solar heat into lignite drying Table 8 summarises the annual thermal performance levels of the
promotes efficient electricity generation. new and conventional systems. Through lignite drying, the annual
furnace input thermal energy in the new SAPG system increases from
4024.8 to 4155.7 GWh, and the annual thermal loss of exhaust flue gas
5.2. Yearly thermal performance decreases by 31.4 GWh. In the new SAPG system, solar energy produces
78.9 GWh of electricity with a 1.96 % increase in thermal efficiency; this
Figs. 10 and 11 compare the annual available and collected solar is 80.0 % greater than that of the conventional SAPG system. The annual
energy of the conventional and new systems, respectively. A key efficiency of the solar-to-electricity conversion of the new SAPG system
advantage of the proposed system is observed. Owing to the application is 35.84 %; this is 1.5 times that of the conventional system.
of non-concentrating solar collecting devices to the new system, direct, The annual energy flows in the new and conventional systems are
diffused, and reflected irradiances are efficiently used. The annual gross shown in Fig. 12. First, in the conventional SAPG system, 109.9 GWh of
available solar energy of the new system (220.3 GWh) is 17.5 % higher

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Table 8 input of the steam–water cycle resulting from the considerable amount
Yearly thermal performance levels of the new and conventional SAPG systems. of collected solar heat and lower boiler loss.
Parameters Base Conventional SAPG New SAPG Fig. 13 illustrates the annual exergy flow in the new and conven­
unit system system tional systems. Interestingly, the exergy of raw, preliminary dried, and
Gross available solar energy – 187.4 220.3 dried coal is the same, indicating that lignite drying does not increase
(GWh) fuel exergy. However, lignite drying has a significant influence on the
Annual collected solar thermal – 109.9 133.6 utilisation of exergy in the boiler. In the new system, 2276.0 GWh of
energy (GWh) exergy flows into the steam–water cycle from the boiler. This exergy is
Annual operational hours (h) 2941 2941 2941
Annual furnace input thermal 4024.8 4024.8 4155.7
55.4 GWh greater than that in the conventional system. Overall, the
energy from coal (GWh) efficiency of boiler exergy in the new SAPG system increases from 47.81
Annual thermal loss of exhaust 196.5 196.5 165.1 % to 50.16 % after lignite drying. In the exergy analysis, the increase in
flue gas (GWh) boiler exergy efficiency is the mechanism that improves the perfor­
Annual boiler efficiency (%) 92.68 92.68 93.66
mance of the new SAPG system.
Annual gross generated 1765.2 1809.0 1844.1
electricity (GWh)
Annual solar-generated – 43.8 78.9
electricity (GWh) 5.3. Economic performance
Annual lignite-based thermal 43.86 44.95 45.82
efficiency (%) The costs of devices for the new and conventional systems are listed
Thermal efficiency increase (%) 1.09 1.96
in Table 9. The total area of solar collecting devices in the two systems is
–
Annual efficiency of solar-to- – 23.40 35.84
electricity conversion (%) the same. However, owing to the unique thermodynamic characteristics
of solar-aided lignite drying, numerous low-cost non-concentrating solar
collectors have been employed instead of conventional high-cost
solar heat immediately flows into the steam–water cycle. In the new concentrating solar collecting devices. The gross cost of the solar col­
SAPG system, 133.6 GWh of the total solar heat is introduced to coal lecting devices in the new system (182.84 million CNY) is only 50.1 % of
drying and finally injected into the boiler using dried coal. Second, after that in the conventional system (364.76 million CNY) owing to the
fuel drying, the boiler loss in the new system decreases from 196.5 to application of low-cost flat plate collectors. Overall, the total device cost
165.1 GWh. Third, the energy input of the steam–water cycle in the new in the new SAPG system is 212.14 million CNY, which is only 58.2 % of
SAPG system is 52.4 GWh higher than that in the conventional SAPG that in the conventional SAPG system.
system. Finally, in the new system, the energy in the steam–water cycle Table 10 lists and compares the economic performance levels of the
generates 1844.1 GWh of electricity; this is 35.1 GWh higher than that two systems. The new SAPG system achieves a low COEs of 0.346 CNY/
generated in the conventional system. In the energy analysis, the kWh by efficiently utilising low-cost solar energy. This COEs is only
improved performance of the new SAPG system is due to the high energy approximately one-third of that in the conventional SAPG system. In the

Fig. 12. Energy flow in (a) conventional and (b) new SAPG systems.

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 13. Exergy flows in the (a) conventional and (b) new SAPG systems.

Table 9 Table 11
Device cost of the new and conventional SAPG systems. Environmental performance of the new and conventional SAPG systems.
Parameters Conventional SAPG New SAPG Items Base Conventional SAPG Proposed SAPG
system system unit system system

Area of flat plate/trough solar collecting -/119,000 87,900/ Annual generated 1765.2 1809.0 1844.1
device (m2) 31,100 electricity (GWh)
Cost of flat plate [25]/trough [26] solar -/364.76 73.82/ SOx production (t/GWh) 5.61 5.47 5.37
collecting device (million CNY) 109.02 SOx production decrease – 0.14 0.24
Cost ratio of flat plate collector to trough – 1:1.5 (t/GWh)
solar collector Dust production (t/GWh) 33.65 32.83 32.21
Cost of preliminary/depth dryers [13] − /− 21.19/8.12 Dust production decrease – 0.82 1.44
(million CNY) (t/GWh)
Total cost (million CNY) 364.76 212.14 CO2 production (t/GWh) 835.06 814.82 799.32
CO2 production decrease – 20.24 35.74
(t/GWh)

Table 10
Economic performance of the new and conventional SAPG systems. SAPG system achieves an NAR of 63.45 million CNY, which is 18 times
that of the conventional system. The outstanding economic performance
Parameters Conventional SAPG New SAPG
system system of the new SAPG system results from the use of low-cost solar collecting
devices and efficient utilisation of solar energy.
Total device cost (million CNY) 364.76 212.14
Annual device cost (million CNY) 32.40 18.84
Annual operational cost (million 14.59 8.49
CNY) 5.4. Environmental performance
Amount of solar-generated electricity 43.8 78.9
(GWh) In the new SAPG system, solar energy generates additional elec­
COEs (CNY/kWh) 1.072 0.346
tricity, decreasing the unit production of pollutants and improving
Gross annual revenue (million CNY) 50.43 90.78
NAR 3.44 63.45 environmental performance. The environmental performance levels of
the proposed and conventional SAPG systems are listed and compared in
Table 11. In the new SAPG system, the unit productions of SOx, dust, and
new system, 78.9 GWh of solar-generated electricity results in 90.78 CO2 are reduced by 0.24, 1.44, and 35.74 t/GWh, respectively. The high
million CNY of gross annual revenue; this revenue is considerably environmental performance of the proposed system is attributed to its
greater than that of the conventional SAPG system. Overall, the new outstanding thermal performance.

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 14. Typical amount of stored dried coal daily.

Fig. 16. Major power parameters of new system in a typical day.

daily. During the period of ample solar irradiation (i.e., 9:30–16:00 h),
the new SAPG system produces a considerable amount of dried coal for
storage. During low solar irradiation periods (7:00–9:30 h and
16:00–18:30 h), the stored dried coal can be used to support combus­
tion. Fig. 15 shows the daily amount of produced and combusted dried
coal. Although the amount of dried coal produced fluctuates on a typical
sunny day, the rate of fuel combustion in the boiler remains stable at
80.6 kg/s.
The main power parameters of the proposed system on a typical
sunny day are shown in Fig. 16. The thermal power of the produced
dried coal varies because of solar energy fluctuations. However, with
dried coal storage, the input thermal power of the boiler may remain
stable at 1693.2 MWth on a typical day. Consequently, the generated
electric power is stable at 751.6 MWe. Overall, in the new SAPG system,
the problem of solar energy fluctuations can be solved by dried coal
storage.

6.2. Improved performance during cloudy days

Fig. 15. Produced and combusted dried coal daily.
The performance of a conventional SAPG system is invariably inad­
5.5. Limitations and future research direction equate on cloudy days because of low direct irradiation. However, a
considerable amount of diffused solar irradiation exists and can be
In this study, the improvement in thermal performance resulting efficiently captured by non-concentrating solar collecting device in the
from lignite drying in the new SAPG system is quantitatively investi­ new SAPG system. Thus, different from the conventional SAPG system,
gated using system simulation based on energy balance. However, the new system exhibits extremely high performance on cloudy days.
combustion simulation has not been implemented to reveal the mech­ A typical cloudy day (26 March in Lanzhou) is selected to evaluate
anism involved. Accordingly, the conduct of combustion simulation is a the off-design performance of the two systems. Fig. 17 shows the daily
future research direction for this study. Additionally, the new system is available solar energy for the two systems. During cloudy periods
investigated by simulation and calculation in this work. It has not been (9:00–13:00 h), the amount of solar energy available to the conventional
experimental validated or applied in the engineering. The experimental system is low because of the small amount of direct solar irradiation.
research and engineering application of the proposed new system are However, the solar energy available to the new system during cloudy
also future research directions for this study. periods is considerable owing to the substantial amount of diffused solar
irradiation. Overall, the daily solar energy available to the new system is
6. Off-design performance of the new SAPG system 354.7 GWh, which is 88.2 % higher than that available to the conven­
tional system. Fig. 18 compares the amounts of solar-generated elec­
6.1. New solution to solar fluctuation: dried coal storage tricity produced by the two systems on a typical cloudy day. The daily
amount of electricity generated from solar energy in the new system is
Solar irradiation varies with time, influencing the stability of the new 102.7 GWh; this is 2.3 times the production of the conventional system.
SAPG system. A new solution to the solar fluctuation problem is dried The significantly higher performance of the new system on cloudy days
coal storage; it is based on the utilisation of solar energy for lignite is mainly attributed to the non-concentrating solar collecting devices,
drying. which can efficiently use both direct and diffused irradiances.
The dried coal storage concept was investigated on a typical sunny
day (22 June in Lanzhou). Fig. 14 shows the dried coal samples stored

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

Fig. 17. Solar energy available to the (a) conventional and (b) new systems on a typical cloudy day.

Fig. 18. Amounts of solar-generated electricity produced by the (a) conventional and (b) new systems on a typical cloudy day.

7. Conclusion lignite-based thermal efficiency is also achieved; this is 1.8 times

greater than that of the conventional system. The solar-to-
A new SAPG system using two-stage solar drying of lignite that electricity conversion efficiency of the new SAPG system is
achieves solar energy cascade utilisation is proposed. Thermodynamic 35.83 %, which is significantly higher than that of the conven­
and economic analyses are conducted based on system simulations and tional system (23.41 %). With the efficient utilisation of non-
calculations. The designed, off-design, and annual performance levels of concentrating solar energy, the new SAPG system has an annual
the new SAPG system are investigated. The conclusions drawn are as available solar energy of 220.3 GWh, which is 17.5 % greater
follows. than that of the conventional system. The use of low-cost flat
plate solar collectors enables the new SAPG to maintain a low
(1) The high cost of concentrating solar collectors and inadequate device cost of 212.14 million CNY, which is only 58.2 % of that of
economic performance have long been the core problems limiting the conventional system. Owing to its outstanding thermal per­
the wide application of conventional SAPG. A new SAPG is formance and low cost, the new SAPG system can generate a NAR
developed in this work as a solution of the core problems. In the of 63.45 million CNY, which is 18 times that of the conventional
new SAPG, large amount of low-cost non-concentrating solar system. Additionally, the new system achieves a low COEs of
energy is integrated to replace conventional high-cost concen­ 0.346 CNY/kWh, which is only approximately one-third that of
trating energy. Two-stage lignite drying is applied in the new the conventional SAPG system.
system, achieving solar energy cascade utilisation. (3) Under the off-design condition, the new SAPG system can solve
(2) For a typical 600-MW base unit, the new SAPG system produces the problem of solar energy fluctuation through dried coal stor­
26.8 MWe of solar-generated electric power. A 1.96 % increase in age such that stable thermal and electric power are maintained.

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Y. Han et al. Energy 289 (2024) 129932

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