Chapter 14

Autonomic
Nervous
System

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Karen Dunbar Kareiva
© Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Ivy Tech Community College
 Autonomic Nervous System

• Automatic nervous system (ANS) consists of

motor neurons that:
– Innervate smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and
glands
– Make adjustments to ensure optimal support for
body activities
• Shunts blood to areas that need it and adjusts heart
rate, blood pressure, digestive processes, etc.
– Operate via subconscious control
• Also called involuntary nervous system or
general visceral motor system
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Figure 14.1 Place of the ANS in the structural organization of the nervous system.

Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Sensory (afferent) Motor (efferent) division

division

Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

system system (ANS)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division division

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 14.1 ANS versus Somatic Nervous System

• Both have motor fibers but differ in:

– Effectors
– Efferent pathways and ganglia
– Target organ responses to neurotransmitters

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 Effectors

• Somatic nervous system innervates skeletal

muscles
• ANS innervates cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle, and glands

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 Efferent Pathways and Ganglia

• SNS: cell body is in CNS, and a single, thick

myelinated group A axon extends in spinal or
cranial nerves directly to skeletal muscle
• ANS: pathway uses a two-neuron chain
1. Preganglionic neuron: cell body in CNS with
thin, lightly myelinated preganglionic axon
extending to ganglion
2. Postganglionic (ganglionic) neuron (outside
CNS): cell body synapses with preganglionic
axon in autonomic ganglion with
nonmyelinated postganglionic axon that
extends to effector organ
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 Neurotransmitter Effects

• Somatic nervous system

– All somatic motor neurons release acetylcholine
(ACh)
– Effect is always stimulatory
• ANS
– Preganglionic fibers release ACh
– Postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine or
ACh at effectors
– Effect is either stimulatory or inhibitory,
depending on type of receptors

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 Overlap of Somatic and Autonomic Function

• Higher brain centers regulate and coordinate

both systems
• Most spinal and four cranial nerves contain both
somatic and autonomic fibers
• Adaptations usually involve both skeletal
muscles and visceral organs
– Example: Active muscles require more oxygen
and glucose, so ANS nerves speed up heart rate
and open airways

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Figure 14.2 Comparison of motor neurons in the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Cell bodies in central Neurotransmitter Effector

nervous system Peripheral nervous system at effector organs Effect

Single neuron from CNS to effector organs

NERVOUS
SOMATIC

SYSTEM

ACh

Heavily myelinated axon Stimulatory

Skeletal muscle

Two-neuron chain from CNS to effector organs

T1-L2 Sympathetic Chain &
Collateral Gangla ACh NE
SYMPATHETIC
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nonmyelinated
postganglionic axon
Lightly myelinated Ganglion
preganglionic axons Epinephrine and
ACh norepinephrine
Stimulatory
or inhibitory,
depending
Adrenal medulla Blood vessel on neuro-
transmitter
PARASYMPATHETIC

and receptors
on effector
ACh ACh organs
Smooth muscle
(e.g., in gut), glands,
Lightly myelinated Nonmyelinated cardiac muscle
preganglionic axon postganglionic
Ganglion axon

Acetylcholine (ACh) Norepinephrine (NE)

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 14.2 Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System

• Two arms of ANS:

– Parasympathetic division: promotes
maintenance functions, conserves energy
– Sympathetic division: mobilizes body during
activity
• Dual innervation: all visceral organs are served
by both divisions, but these divisions cause
opposite effects
– Dynamic antagonism between two divisions
maintains homeostasis

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 Role of the Parasympathetic Division

• Keeps body energy use as low as possible,

even while carrying out maintenance activities
– Directs digestion, diuresis, defecation
• Referred to as “rest-and-digest” system
• Example: person relaxing and reading after a
meal
– Blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates
are low
– Gastrointestinal tract activity is high
– Pupils constricted, lenses accommodated for
close vision
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 Role of the Sympathetic Division

• Mobilizes body during activity

• Referred to as “fight-or-flight” system
• Exercise, excitement, emergency,
embarrassment activate sympathetic system
– Increased heart rate; dry mouth; cold, sweaty
skin; dilated pupils
• During vigorous physical activity:
– Shunts blood to skeletal muscles and heart
– Dilates bronchioles
– Causes liver to release glucose
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 Key Anatomical Differences

• Three main differences between sympathetic

and parasympathetic divisions:
1. Sites or origin
• Parasympathetic fibers are craniosacral; originate in
brain and sacral spinal cord
• Sympathetic fibers are thoracolumbar; originate in
thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord

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 Key Anatomical Differences (cont.)

2. Relative lengths of fibers

• Parasympathetic has long preganglionic and short
postganglionic fibers
• Sympathetic has short preganglionic and long
postganglionic fibers
3. Location of ganglia
• Parasympathetic ganglia are located in or near the
their visceral effector organ
• Sympathetic ganglia lie close to spinal cord

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Figure 14.3 Key anatomical differences between ANS divisions.

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

Eye Eye
Brain stem

Salivary Skin*
glands Cranial
Sympathetic
Salivary
ganglia
glands
Heart
1 Fibers originate 1 Fibers originate
in the brain stem in the thoracic and
Lungs (cranial fibers) or lumbar spinal cord. Lungs
T1
sacral spinal cord.
Heart
2a Preganglionic 2a Preganglionic
fibers are long. fibers are short. Stomach

Stomach 2b Postganglionic 2b Postganglionic Pancreas

fibers are short. fibers are long.
Liver
Pancreas and gall-
3 Ganglia are 3 Ganglia are L1 bladder
within or near close to spinal
visceral effector cord. Adrenal
Liver and
gall- organs. gland
bladder

Bladder Sacral Bladder

Genitals Genitals

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Table 14.1 Anatomical and Physiological Differences between the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions

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 14.3 Parasympathetic Division

• Also called craniosacral division because

fibers originate from brain stem and sacral
regions or cord
• Long preganglionic fibers extend from CNS
almost to target organs
– Synapse with postganglionic neurons in terminal
ganglia that are close to or within target organs
– Short postganglionic fibers synapse with
effectors

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Figure 14.3-1 Key anatomical differences between ANS divisions.

Parasympathetic

Eye
Brain stem

Salivary
glands Cranial

Heart
1 Fibers originate
in the brain stem
Lungs (cranial fibers) or
sacral spinal cord.

2a Preganglionic
fibers are long.

Stomach 2b Postganglionic
fibers are short.

Pancreas
3 Ganglia are
within or near
Liver and visceral effector
gall- organs.
bladder

Bladder Sacral

Genitals

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 Cranial Part of Parasympathetic Division

• Cell bodies are located in brain stem

• Preganglionic fibers run in:
– Oculomotor nerves (III): control smooth muscle
of eye, cause pupils to constrict and lenses to
bulge for focusing
• Postganglion cell bodies located in ciliary ganglia
within eye orbitals

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 Cranial Part of Parasympathetic Division
(cont.)
– Facial nerves (VII): stimulate large glands in
head
• Fibers that activate nasal and lacrimal glands have
synapse in pterygopalatine ganglia
• Fibers that activate submandibular and sublingual
salivary glands synapse in submandibular ganglia
– Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX): stimulate
parotid salivary glands
• Fibers synapse in otic ganglia

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 Cranial Part of Parasympathetic Division
(cont.)
– Vagus nerves (X): account for ~ 90% of all
preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in body
• Serve all thoracic and abdominal viscera
• Preganglionic fibers arise from medulla and synapse
in terminal ganglia (intramural ganglia) in walls of
target organs
• Cardiac plexus: slow heart rate
• Pulmonary plexus: serve lungs and bronchi
• Esophageal plexus: form anterior and posterior
vagal trunks that sends branches to stomach, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, and part of
large intestine

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 Sacral Part of Parasympathetic Division

• Originates from neurons in S2–S4 and serves

pelvic organs and distal half of large intestine
• Axons travel in ventral root of spinal nerves
– Branch off to form pelvic splanchnic nerves
• Synapse with:
– Ganglia in pelvic floor (inferior hypogastric
[pelvic] plexus)
– Intramural ganglia in walls of distal half of large
intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, and
reproductive organs

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Figure 14.4 Parasympathetic division of the ANS.

Ciliary Eye
ganglion
Lacrimal
gland
Pterygopalatine Nasal
ganglion mucosa

Submandibular
ganglion
Submandibular
and sublingual
glands
Otic ganglion

Parotid gland

Heart
Cardiac and
pulmonary
plexuses

Lung

Liver and
gallbladder
Celiac
plexus

Stomach

Pancreas

S2
Large
S4 intestine

Pelvic Small
splanchnic intestine
nerves

Inferior Rectum
hypogastric
plexus

Urinary
bladder Preganglionic
and ureters Postganglionic
Cranial nerve
Genitalia (penis, clitoris, and vagina) Sacral nerve
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 14.4 Sympathetic Division

• Sympathetic is more complex and innervates

more organs than parasympathetic
– Some structures are innervated only by
sympathetic: sweat glands, arrector pili muscle of
hair follicle, smooth muscles of all blood vessels
• Sympathetic also called thoracolumbar
division
– Preganglionic neurons are in spinal cord
segments T1–L2
– Form lateral horns of spinal cord

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Figure 14.3-2 Key anatomical differences between ANS divisions.

Sympathetic

Eye

Skin*

Sympathetic
Salivary
ganglia
glands

1 Fibers originate
in the thoracic and
lumbar spinal cord. Lungs
T1

Heart
2a Preganglionic
fibers are short. Stomach

2b Postganglionic Pancreas
fibers are long.
Liver
and gall-
3 Ganglia are L1 bladder
close to spinal
cord. Adrenal
gland

Bladder

Genitals

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 14.4 Sympathetic Division

• Preganglionic fibers pass through white rami

communicantes and enter sympathetic trunk
(chain or paravertebral) ganglia
• Paravertebral ganglia vary in size, position, and
number

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 14.4 Sympathetic Division

• There are 23 paravertebral ganglia in the

sympathetic trunk (chain)
– 3 cervical
– 11 thoracic
– 4 lumbar
– 4 sacral
– 1 coccygeal

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Figure 14.5 Location of the sympathetic trunk.

Spinal cord

Dorsal root

Ventral root

Rib

Sympathetic
trunk ganglion

Sympathetic
trunk

Ventral ramus
of spinal nerve

Gray ramus
communicans

White ramus
communicans
Thoracic
splanchnic nerves
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 14.4 Sympathetic Division

• Upon entering sympathetic trunk ganglion, short

preganglionic fiber may follow one of three
pathways:
– Synapse in trunk ganglia:
1. Synapse with ganglionic neuron in same trunk
ganglion
2. Ascend or descend sympathetic trunk to synapse in
another trunk ganglion, or
– Synapse in collateral ganglia
3. Pass through trunk ganglion and emerge without
synapsing in trunk (only in abdomen and pelvis)
– Synapse outside of trunk in collateral ganglia
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Table 14.2 Summary of Autonomic Ganglia

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 Sympathetic Pathways with Synapses in
Trunk Ganglia
• Postganglionic axons enter ventral rami via
gray rami communicantes
– Gray rami communicantes: nonmyelinated
postganglionic fibers
– White rami communicantes: myelinated
preganglionic fibers
– White and gray rami communicantes contain
sympathetic system axons only
• These fibers innervate sweat glands, arrector
pili muscles, and vascular smooth muscle via
pathways to the head and thorax
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Figure 14.6-1 Three pathways of sympathetic innervation.
Lateral horn
(visceral motor zone)
Dorsal root

Dorsal root ganglion

Dorsal ramus of
spinal nerve

Ventral ramus of
spinal nerve

Ventral root Gray ramus

Sympathetic communicans
trunk ganglion
White ramus
Sympathetic trunk communicans

1 Synapse in trunk ganglion

at the same level

Skin (arrector
pili muscles
and sweat Effectors
glands)

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Figure 14.6-2 Three pathways of sympathetic innervation.

2 Synapse in trunk ganglion

at a higher or lower level

Skin (arrector
pili muscles
and sweat
glands)
Effectors

Blood vessels

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 Sympathetic Pathways with Synapses in
Trunk Ganglia (cont.)
• Pathways to the head
– Fibers emerge from T1 to T4 and synapse in the
superior cervical ganglion
– These fibers:
• Innervate skin and blood vessels of the head
• Stimulate dilator muscles of the iris
• Inhibit nasal and salivary glands
• Innervate smooth muscle of upper eyelid
• Branch to the heart

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 Sympathetic Pathways with Synapses in
Trunk Ganglia (cont.)
• Pathways to the thorax
– Preganglionic fibers emerge from T1 to T6 and
synapse in cervical trunk ganglia
– Postganglionic fibers emerge from middle and
inferior cervical ganglia and enter nerves C4 to
C8
– These fibers innervate:
• Heart via the cardiac plexus
• Thyroid gland and the skin
• Lungs and esophagus

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Figure 14.7 Sympathetic division of the ANS.
Eye
Lacrimal gland

Pons Nasal mucosa

Sympathetic trunk
(chain) ganglia Blood vessels;
skin (arrector pili
Superior muscles and
cervical sweat glands)
ganglion

Salivary glands
Middle
cervical
ganglion
Heart
Inferior
cervical
ganglion Cardiac and
pulmonary Lung
T1 plexuses

Greater splanchnic nerve

Lesser splanchnic nerve

Celiac ganglion
Liver and
gallbladder

L2
Stomach

White rami Superior

communicantes mesenteric Spleen
ganglion

Inferior Adrenal medulla

mesenteric
ganglion Kidney
Sacral
splanchnic
nerves

Lumbar
splanchnic nerves Small
intestine

Large
intestine
Rectum

Preganglionic
Postganglionic

Genitalia (uterus, vagina, and

penis) and urinary bladder
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 Pathways with Synapses in Collateral Ganglia

• Most fibers from T5 to L2 synapse in collateral

ganglia outside of trunk, forming several
splanchnic nerves
– Greater, lesser, and least (thoracic splanchnic)
splanchnic nerves
– Lumbar splanchnic nerve
– Sacral splanchnic nerves

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Figure 14.6-3 Three pathways of sympathetic innervation.

Splanchnic nerve

Collateral ganglion
(such as the celiac)

Abdominal
Effectors
3 Pass through sympathetic trunk to organs (e.g.,
synapse in a collateral ganglion intestine)
anterior to the vertebral column

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 Pathways with Synapses in Collateral Ganglia
(cont.)
• Splanchnic nerves interweave, forming
abdominal aortic plexuses that contain
several important ganglia
– Celiac and superior and inferior mesenteric
ganglia
– Postganglionic fibers from these ganglia then
travel pathways to abdomen and pelvis

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 Pathways with Synapses in Collateral Ganglia
(cont.)
• Pathways to the abdomen
– Preganglionic fibers from T5 to L2 travel through
thoracic splanchnic nerves
– Synapses occur in celiac and superior
mesenteric ganglia
– Postganglionic fibers serve the stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen, and kidneys

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 Pathways with Synapses in Collateral Ganglia
(cont.)
• Pathways to the pelvis
– Preganglionic fibers originate from T10 to L2 and
travel trunk to lumbar and sacral ganglia
– Some synapse with postganglionic fibers that run
in lumbar and sacral splanchnic nerves
– Others pass directly to plexuses to collateral
ganglia (example: inferior mesenteric)
– Postganglionic fibers serve distal half of large
intestine, urinary bladder, and reproductive
organs
• Primarily inhibit activity of muscles and glands in
abdominopelvic visceral organs
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Figure 14.7 Sympathetic division of the ANS.
Eye
Lacrimal gland

Pons Nasal mucosa

Sympathetic trunk
(chain) ganglia Blood vessels;
skin (arrector pili
Superior muscles and
cervical sweat glands)
ganglion

Salivary glands
Middle
cervical
ganglion
Heart
Inferior
cervical
ganglion Cardiac and
pulmonary Lung
T1 plexuses

Greater splanchnic nerve

Lesser splanchnic nerve

Celiac ganglion
Liver and
gallbladder

L2
Stomach

White rami Superior

communicantes mesenteric Spleen
ganglion

Inferior Adrenal medulla

mesenteric
ganglion Kidney
Sacral
splanchnic
nerves

Lumbar
splanchnic nerves Small
intestine

Large
intestine
Rectum

Preganglionic
Postganglionic

Genitalia (uterus, vagina, and

penis) and urinary bladder
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 Pathways with Synapses in the Adrenal
Medulla
• Some preganglionic fibers pass directly to
adrenal medulla without synapsing
• Upon stimulation, medullary cells secrete
norepinephrine and epinephrine into blood
– Also called noradrenaline and norepinephrine
• Sympathetic ganglia and adrenal medulla arise
from same tissue
– Adrenal medulla can be considered “misplaced”
sympathetic ganglion

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 14.5 Visceral Reflexes

• Visceral reflex arcs have same components as

somatic reflex arcs: receptor, sensory neuron,
integration center, motor neuron, and effector
• Two key differences between visceral and
somatic:
– Visceral reflex arc has two consecutive neurons
in the motor pathway
– Afferents fibers are visceral sensory neurons
• Send info about chemical changes, stretch, or irritation
• Cell bodies are located in cranial nerve sensory
ganglia or dorsal root ganglia of cord
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 14.5 Visceral Reflexes

• Examples of visceral reflex: reflexes that empty

rectum and bladder
• Complete three-neuron reflex arcs exist in walls
of gastrointestinal tract
– Involve enteric nervous system made up of
sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor
neurons
• Visceral sensory fibers involved in phenomenon
of referred pain

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Figure 14.8 Visceral reflexes.
Stimulus

Dorsal root ganglion

1 Receptor in viscera

2 Visceral sensory Spinal cord

neuron

3 Integration center
• May be preganglionic
neuron (as shown)
• May be a dorsal horn
interneuron
• May be within walls
of gastrointestinal
tract Autonomic ganglion

4 Motor neuron
(two-neuron chain)
• Preganglionic neuron
• Postganglionic neuron

5 Visceral effector

Response
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 14.6 Neurotransmitters

• Major neurotransmitters of ANS are acetylcholine

(ACh) and norepinephrine (NE)
– Ach (same as ACh used by somatic motor neuron) is
released by cholinergic fibers at:
• All ANS preganglionic axons and
• All parasympathetic postganglionic axons
– NE is released by adrenergic fibers at:
• Almost all sympathetic postganglionic axons, except
those at sweat glands (release ACh)
• Effects of neurotransmitter depends on the type of
receptor it binds to

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Figure 14.2 Comparison of motor neurons in the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Cell bodies in central Neurotransmitter Effector

nervous system Peripheral nervous system at effector organs Effect

Single neuron from CNS to effector organs

NERVOUS
SOMATIC

SYSTEM

ACh

Heavily myelinated axon Stimulatory

Skeletal muscle

Two-neuron chain from CNS to effector organs

ACh NE
SYMPATHETIC
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nonmyelinated
postganglionic axon
Lightly myelinated Ganglion
preganglionic axons Epinephrine and
ACh norepinephrine
Stimulatory
or inhibitory,
depending
Adrenal medulla Blood vessel on neuro-
transmitter
PARASYMPATHETIC

and receptors
on effector
ACh ACh organs
Smooth muscle
(e.g., in gut), glands,
Lightly myelinated Nonmyelinated cardiac muscle
preganglionic axon postganglionic
Ganglion axon

Acetylcholine (ACh) Norepinephrine (NE)

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 Cholinergic Receptors

• Two types of cholinergic receptors bind ACh

1. Nicotinic receptors
2. Muscarinic receptors
• Named after drugs that also bind to them and
mimic ACh effects: nicotine and muscarine
(mushroom poison)

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 Cholinergic Receptors (cont.)

• Nicotinic receptors
– Found on:
• All postganglionic neurons (sympathetic and
parasympathetic)
• Hormone-producing cells of adrenal medulla
• Sarcolemma of skeletal muscle cells at neuromuscular
junction
– Effect of ACh at nicotinic receptors is always
stimulatory
• Opens ion channels, depolarizing postsynaptic cell

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 Cholinergic Receptors (cont.)

• Muscarinic receptors
– Found on:
• All effector cells stimulated by postganglionic
cholinergic fibers
– Effect of ACh at muscarinic receptors
• Can be either inhibitory or excitatory
• Depends on receptor type of target organ
– Example: Binding of ACh to cardiac muscle cells slows
heart rate (inhibitory effect), whereas binding to
intestinal smooth muscle cells increases motility
(stimulatory effect)

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 Adrenergic Receptors

• Two major classes that respond to NE or

epinephrine
– Alpha ( ) receptors
• Divided into subclasses: 1, 2

– Beta ( ) receptors
• Divided into subclasses: 1, 2, 3

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 Adrenergic Receptors (cont.)

• Effects depend on which subclass of receptor

predominates on target organ
– Example: NE binding to cardiac muscle 1
receptors causes increase in rate, whereas
epinephrine causes bronchial relaxation when
bound to 2 receptors

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Table 14.3 Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors

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Table 14.4 Selected Drug Classes That Influence the Autonomic Nervous System

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 14.7 Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
Interactions
• Most visceral organs have dual innervation
• Action potentials continually fire down axons of
both divisions, producing a dynamic
antagonistic interaction
– Works to precisely control visceral activity
• Both ANS divisions are partially active, resulting
in a basal sympathetic and parasympathetic
tone
• One division usually predominates, but in a few
cases, divisions have a cooperative effect
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 Antagonistic Interactions

• Dynamic antagonism allows for precise control

of visceral activity
– Sympathetic division increases heart and
respiratory rates and inhibits digestion and
elimination
– Parasympathetic division decreases heart and
respiratory rates and allows for digestion and
discarding of wastes

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 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Tone

• Almost all blood vessel smooth muscle is

entirely innervated by sympathetic fibers only,
so this division controls blood pressure, even at
rest

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 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Tone
(cont.)
• Sympathetic tone (vasomotor tone): continual
state of partial constriction of blood vessels
– If blood pressure drops, sympathetic fibers fire
faster than normal to increase constriction of
blood vessels and cause blood pressure to rise
– If blood pressure rises, sympathetic fibers fire
less than normal, causing less constriction
(dilation) of vessels, which leads to decrease in
blood pressure
– Allows sympathetic system to shunt blood where
needed
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 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Tone
(cont.)
• Parasympathetic division normally dominates
heart and smooth muscle of digestive and
urinary tract organs, and it activates most
glands except for adrenal and sweat glands
– Slows the heart and dictates normal activity
levels of digestive and urinary tracts
– These organs also exhibit parasympathetic
tone where they are always slightly activated

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 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Tone
(cont.)
• The sympathetic division can override these
effects during times of stress
• Drugs that block parasympathetic responses
increase heart rate and cause fecal and urinary
retention

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 Cooperative Effects

• Best example of cooperation between two

divisions seen in control of external genitalia
• Parasympathetic fibers cause vasodilation and
are responsible for erection of penis or clitoris
• Sympathetic fibers cause ejaculation of semen
in males and reflex contraction of a female's
vagina

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 Unique Roles of the Sympathetic Division

• Adrenal medulla, sweat glands, arrector pili

muscles, kidneys, and almost all blood vessels
receive only sympathetic fibers
• Other unique functions of sympathetic division
include:
– Thermoregulatory responses to heat
• When body temperatures rise, sympathetic nerves:
1. Dilate skin blood vessels, allowing heat to escape
2. Activate sweat glands
• When body temperatures drop, blood vessels constrict

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 Unique Roles of the Sympathetic Division
(cont.)
– Release of renin from kidneys
• Sympathetic system causes release of renin from
kidneys that in turn activates a system that increases
blood pressure
– Metabolic effects
• Increases metabolic rates of cells
• Raises blood glucose levels
• Mobilizes fats for use as fuels

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 Localized Versus Diffuse Effects

• Parasympathetic division tends to elicit short-

lived and highly localized control over effectors
– ACh is quickly destroyed by acetylcholinesterase
• Sympathetic division tends to be longer-lasting
with body-wide effects
– NE is inactivated more slowly than ACh
– NE and epinephrine hormones from adrenal
medulla have prolonged effects that last even
after sympathetic signals stop

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Table 14.5 -1 Effects of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions on Various Organs

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Table 14.5-2 Effects of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions on Various Organs (continued)

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 Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 14.1

• Autonomic neuropathy: damage to autonomic

nerves that is a common complication of
diabetes mellitus
• Early signs include sexual dysfunction
• Other frequent symptoms include dizziness after
standing suddenly (poor blood pressure control),
urinary incontinence, sluggish eye pupil
reactions, and impaired sweating
• Best way to prevent diabetic neuropathy is to
maintain good blood glucose levels

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 14.8 Control of ANS Function

• ANS is under control of CNS centers in:

– Brain stem and spinal cord, hypothalamus,
and cerebral cortex
– Hypothalamus is generally main integrative
center of ANS activity
• Cerebral input may modify ANS but does so
subconsciously
– Works through limbic system structures on
hypothalamic centers

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 14.8 Control of ANS Function

– Brain stem and spinal cord controls

• Brain stem reticular formation appears to exert most
direct influence over ANS
• Medullary centers regulate heart rate and blood vessel
diameter, as well as gastrointestinal activities
• Midbrain controls muscles of pupil and lens
• Spinal cord controls defecation and micturition but are
subject to conscious override

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 14.8 Control of ANS Function

– Hypothalamic controls
• Anterior regions direct parasympathetic functions;
posterior region directs sympathetic
• Control may be direct or indirect through reticular
system or spinal cord
• Centers of hypothalamus controls:
– Heart activity, blood pressure, temperature of body,
water balance, and endocrine activity
– Emotional responses (rage, fear, pleasure) activated
through limbic system signal hypothalamus to activate
fight-or-flight system

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 14.8 Control of ANS Function

– Cortical controls
• Connections of hypothalamus to limbic lobe allow
cortical influence on ANS
• Voluntary cortical control of some visceral activities is
possible
– Biofeedback
» Awareness of physiological conditions with goal of
consciously influencing them
» Biofeedback training allows some people to control
migraines and manage stress

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Figure 14.9 Levels of ANS control.
Communication at
subconscious level

Cerebral cortex
(frontal lobe)

Limbic system
(emotional input)

Hypothalamus
The “boss”: Overall
integration of ANS

Brain stem
(reticular formation, etc.)
Regulates pupil size, heart,
blood pressure, airflow,
salivation, etc.

Spinal cord
Reflexes for urination,
defecation, erection,
and ejaculation

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 14.9 Disorders of the ANS

• Many ANS disorders involve deficient control of

smooth muscle activity
– Hypertension (high blood pressure)
• Overactive sympathetic vasoconstrictor response to
stress
• Heart must work harder, and artery walls are subject
to increased wear and tear
• Can be treated with adrenergic receptor-blocking
drugs

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 14.9 Disorders of the ANS

– Raynaud’s disease
• Painful, exaggerated vasoconstriction in fingers and
toes
– Digits turn pale, then cyanotic
– Treated with vasodilators
– Autonomic dysreflexia
• Life-threatening, uncontrolled activation of autonomic
neurons in quadriplegics and people with spinal cord
injuries above T6
• Blood pressure skyrockets, posing increased risk for
stroke

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 Developmental Aspects of the Autonomic
Nervous System
• ANS preganglionic neurons derive from neural
tube (as do somatic motor neurons)
• ANS structures in PNS derive from neural crest
– Postganglionic neurons, adrenal medulla, and all
ganglia
• Nerve growth factor and signaling chemicals
aid axons in finding path to target organs
• During youth, ANS impairments are usually due
to injury

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 Developmental Aspects of the Autonomic
Nervous System
• ANS efficiency declines in old age, partially
because of structural changes at preganglionic
axon terminals
• Effects of age on ANS
– Constipation
– Dry eyes and frequent eye infections
– Orthostatic hypotension
• Low blood pressure after position change
• Pressure receptors are less responsive to blood
pressure changes
• Cardiovascular centers fail to maintain healthy blood
pressure
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