KOM3510

MECHATRONICS

Fall : 2023

Lecture 7

12/8/2023 1
 Transducers and Sensors
Mechatronic systems need to sense and react with the real world either by:
Reading (sensing) an input quantity, or:
Activating (actuating) some form of output devices.

Mechatronic
System

A sensor is an element in a mechatronic or measurement system that detects the

magnitude of a physical parameter and converts it into a signal that can be
processed by the system.

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a
transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.

12/8/2023 2
 Transducers and Sensors
Transducer:
It is a collective word used for both sensors and actuators.
It is a device that converts a form of energy into a different form of energy.

A microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals for the
amplifier.

Also, a loudspeaker (output device) converts these electrical signals back into
sound waves.

12/8/2023 3
 Sensors : Classification
Sensors are classified into two categories based on the output signal, power supply,
operating mode and the variables being measured.

12/8/2023 4
 Sensors : Classification
Based on Output Signal Characteristics;

• Analog sensors: Analog is a term used to convey the meaning of a continuous,

uninterrupted, and unbroken series of events. Analog sensors typically have an
output, which is proportional to the variable being measured. The output changes in
a continuous way, and this information is obtained on the basis of amplitude. The
output is normally supplied to the computer using an analog-to-digital converter.

• Digital sensors: Digital refers to a sequence of discrete events. Each event is

separate from the previous and next events. The sensors are digital if their logic-
level outputs are of a digital nature. Digital sensors are known for their accuracy and
precision, and do not require any converters when interfaced with a computer
monitoring system.

12/8/2023 5
 Sensors : Classification
Based on Power Supply Requirement;

• Active sensors: Active sensors require external power for their operation. The
external signal is modified by the sensor to produce the output signal. Typical
examples of devices requiring an auxiliary energy source are strain gauges and
resistance thermometers.

• Passive sensors: In a passive sensor, the output is produced from the input
parameters. The passive sensors (self generating) produce an electrical signal in
response to an external stimulus. Examples of passive types of sensors include
piezoelectric, thermoelectric, and radioactive.

12/8/2023 6
 Sensors : Classification
Based on the operating and display mode of an instrumentation system;

• Deflection sensors: Deflection sensors are used in a physical setup where the
output is proportional to the measured quantity that is displayed. The signal
produces some physical (deflection) effect closely related to the measured quantity
and transduced to be observable.

• Null sensors: In null-type sensing, any deflection due to the measured quantity is
balanced by the opposing calibrated force so that any imbalance is detected. The
signal produced by the sensor is counteracted to minimize the deflection. That
opposing effect necessary to maintain a zero deflection should be proportional to the
signal of the measurand

12/8/2023 7
 Sensors : Terminology
There are a number of parameters that characterize sensors’ performance.

The time-independent characteristics are called the static characteristics,

The static characteristics characterize the sensor output after it has settled due
to changes in the physical quantity being measured.

The time-dependent characteristics are called the dynamic characteristics.

The dynamic characteristics describe the sensor characteristics from the time
the physical quantity has changed to the time before the output has settled.

12/8/2023 8
 Sensors : Terminology
Range: Minimum to maximum value that can be measured is the range. The range
defines the allowable range of the physical quantity that can be detected by the sensor.
Span: The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value. Thus,
for example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range of 0 to 50
kN and a span of 50 kN.
Accuracy:The difference between true and actual measured value is the accuracy.
It is commonly expressed as a percentage of full-scale value. For example, if a
temperature sensor has a range of 0 to 200°C and an accuracy of 0.5% full-scale
value, then the temperature read by the sensor is off from the true actual temperature
by 1°. Note that the accuracy error can be improved by calibration.
Sensitivity:The relationship between the measured input and the output of the
sensor is its sensitivity. If the sensor has a linear input–output relationship, then the
sensitivity is the slope of this curve. Sometimes, this parameter is used to indicate the
sensitivity of the sensor to non-measured input (response due to transverse motion
when the sensor is designed to measure axial motion) or the environment
(temperature).
Resolution:The smallest change in input value that will produce an observable
change in the output is the resolution. The inherent resolution should be distinguished
from the display device resolution.

12/8/2023 9
 Sensors : Terminology

Error is the difference between the

result of the measurement and the
true value of the quantity being
measured:

The terms repeatability and

reproducibility of a transducer are
used to describe its ability to give
the same output for repeated
applications of the same input
value.

12/8/2023 10
 Sensors : Terminology
Non-Linearity Error Most sensors are designed to have a linear output, but their
output is not perfectly linear. The non-linearity error is a measure of the maximum
difference between the sensor actual output and a straight line fit to the sensor input–
output data and is usually specified as a percentage of the full-scale output. There is
no unique way to obtain the straight line fit.

12/8/2023 11
 Sensors : Terminology
Typical non-ideal characteristics of a sensor include ;
1. gain changes,
2. offset (bias or zero-shift) changes,
3. saturation,
4. hysteresis,
5. deadband,
6. drift in time.

12/8/2023 12
 Sensors : Terminology
Dynamic characterisrics;
Rise Time The time it takes the output to change a certain percentage is the rise time.
A common measure is the time for the output to change from 10 to 90% of the final
steady–state value.
Time Constant This is defined as the time it takes the output to reach 63.2% of the
final output. A large time constant implies a sluggish sensor, while one with a small
value indicates a rapidly responding sensor. If the sensor has a first-order response
characteristics, then it takes about four time constants to reach the final value when
subjected to a step input.
Settling Time The time it takes the output to reach within certain percentage of the
final steady–state value is the settling time. A common value is the 2% settling time.

12/8/2023 13
 Sensors : Terminology
Bandwidth The bandwidth defines the frequency range for which the sensor is
designed to operate. At the bandwidth frequency, the sensor output will be 70.7%
of the DC level. The sensor can operate at frequencies higher than the bandwidth,
but the output of the sensor will be significantly diminished. When a sensor is used
to provide feedback information in a closed loop control system, the sensor
bandwidth should be larger than the controller bandwidth.

12/8/2023 14
 Sensors : Terminology

12/8/2023 15
 Sensors : Potentiometers
A potentiometer (pot) can be used to convert rotary or linear displacement to a voltage.
Actually, the pot itself gives resistance, this resistance value can easily be converted to
a voltage. A pot used to measure angular position has linear taper, which means the
resistance changes linearly with shaft rotation.

If the wiper is at the bottom, the output is 0 V corresponding to 0°. When the wiper is
at the top, the output is 10 V corresponding to 350°; in the exact middle, a 5-V output
indicates 175° (350°/2 = 175°). Example 6.1 demonstrates how to calculate the pot
voltage for any particular angle.
12/8/2023 16
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE: A pot is supplied with 10 V and is set at 82° [similar to Figure(b)]. The
range of this single-turn pot is 350°. Calculate the output voltage.

If the pot is supplied 10 V, then the maximum angle of 350° will produce a 10-V
output. Using these values, we can set up a ratio of output to input and use that ratio
to calculate the output for any input

12/8/2023 17
 Sensors : Potentiometers
The potentiometer circuit being discussed here is actually a voltage divider, and to
work properly the same current must flow through the entire pot resistance.

A loading error occurs when the pot wiper is connected to a circuit with an input
resistance that is not considerably higher than the pot’s resistance. When this
happens, current flows out through the wiper arm, robbing current from the lower
portion of the resistor and causing the reading to be low

Loading error = VNL – VL where

VNL = output voltage with no load
VL = output voltage with load applied

12/8/2023 18
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE :A 10-kΩ pot is used as a position sensor. Assume that the wiper is in the
middle of its range. Find the loading error when
a. The interface circuit presents an infinite resistance.
b. The interface circuit presents a resistance of 100 kΩ.

12/8/2023 19
 Sensors : Potentiometers
As in all physical systems, we must be aware of certain errors that creep in. In this
case, carbon pots cannot be made perfectly linear, so we define linearity error as the
difference between what the angle really is and what the pot reports it to be. The graph
of Figure shows the ideal versus actual resistance (R) for a pot position sensor.
The error is the difference in resistance between these two lines. Notice that the error
is not the same everywhere, but the maximum error is designated as ΔR. Linearity
error is defined in percentage, as shown below, and ranges between 1.0 and 0.1% (but
higher precision costs more, of course):

where
ΔR = maximum resistance error
Rtot = total pot resistance

where
Δθ= maximum angle error (in degrees)
θtot= total range of the pot (in degrees)
12/8/2023 20
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE A single-turn pot (350°) has a linearity error of 0.1% and is connected to a
5 Vdc source. Calculate the maximum angle error that could be expected from
this system.

12/8/2023 21
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 22
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE
The robot arm illustrated in the Figure rotates 120° stop-to-stop and uses a pot as the
position sensor. The controller is an 8-bit digital system and needs to know the actual
position of the arm to within 0.5°. Determine if the setup shown in the Figure will do the
job.

12/8/2023 23
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 24
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 25
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 26
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 27
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 28
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 29
 Sensors : Potentiometers
EXAMPLE

12/8/2023 30
12/8/2023 31